i^^^^^^^ 


s 


MMM 


^ 


& 


•» 


?  ; 


& 


I 


5    ! 


y- 


-Jn 


ISJ 


»«'9»<9«4»«» 


K<:*^ 


7x 


U-^^      X 


y^TH^      ^S?^//"^      Z*^ 


Mmmu  I 


YOUATT'S 

HISTORY,  TREATMENT,  AND  DISEASES 

OF 

THE  HORSE: 


EMBRACING 

AX   ACCOUNT    OF    HIS    INTRODUCTION  AND    USE    IN    VARIOUS    COUNTRIES;    GENERAL 

MANAGEMENT   UNDER   ALL   PECULIAR   CIRCUMSTANCES;   AN   ABSTRACT   OF 

THE    BEST    VETERINARY   PRACTICE;   USEFUL   MEDICINAL   AND 

OTHER   RECIPES;   ARTICLES  OF   FOOD,  ETC. 


%  ^YtfltBt  m\  Srauiht,  and  a  ^o^mm  ^m\t,t 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY. 

1888. 


CONTENTS. 


InTROI  CCTION, 1 

CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  HISTORY  OF   THE  HORSE, 2 

Earliest  records  of  him :  appears  to  have  been  first  domesticated  in  Egypt,  and 
thence  propagated  toother  countries:  the  horse  not  cultivated  in  Arabia  until  tlie 
eevenlh  century. 

CHAPTER  II. 

DIFFERENT  FOREIGN  BREEDS  OF  HORSES, 5 

The  wild  horses  of  South  America,  method  of  catching  and  breaking  them  by  the 
Ganchos:  the  wild  horses  of  Tartary:  the  Barb:  the  Dongola:  the  Arabian,  hia 
varieties,  beautiful  form,  fleetness,  docility,  affection  of  the  Arab  towards  him, 
anecdotes  of:  the  East  Indian,  his  varieties:  the  Chinese:  Persian,  beauty  and 
value  of:  the  Toorkoman  :  Tartar  and  Calmuc:  Turkish:  German:  Swedish,  Fin- 
land, and  Norwegian:  Iceland:  Flemish  and  Dutch:  French:  Spanish:  Italian: 
American. 

CHAPTER  III. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  HORSE, 22 

Horse  of  the  early  Britons:  crossed  by  the  Romans:  improved  by  Athelstan  and 
Hnvveli  the  Good:  not  used  for  the  plough  until  the  tenth  century:  improved  by 
William  I.  and  Henry  II. :  neglected  by  the  Crusaders:  materially  improved  by  John, 
who  imported  many  Flanders  horses:  by  Edward  II.,  who  purchased  thirty  Lom- 
bardy  horses:  by  Edward  III.,  who  introduced  the  Spanish  horse,  and  had  several 
running  horses:  more  rapidly  improved,  however,  when  cumbrous  armour  was  laid 
asile:  the  improvements  arrested  by  the  tyrannical  and  illiberal  policy  of  Henry 
VIFI.,  and  under  Elizabeth  horses  were  diminished  in  number  and  in  value:  under 
James  I.  the  progress  of  improvement  was  hastened:  Turkish  and  Barbary  horses 
were  introduced, and  the  first  Arabian  horse:  races  were  now  established:  Chailes  I. 
was  fond  of  horses:  even  Cromwell  encouraged  the  improvement  of  the  breed:  al 
the  restoration  a  new  impulse  was  given  under  Anne,  Arabians  were  again  intro 
duced :  and  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  English  horse  had  arrived 
at  its  highest  state  of  perfection. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  ENGLISH  HORSES 29 

The  roadster  or  hackney:  description  of  him:  the  horse  of  all  work,  the  farmer's 
hnive  :  the  coachihorse,  derived  from  the  Cleveland  bays:  principle  of  draught: 
power  of  the  horse:  the  pace  killing:  the  heavy  draught-horse:  the  old  Sufl^blk: 
the  Clydesdale:  the  heavy  black  horse,  too  heavy:  the  dray-horse:  the  cavalry- 
horse:  the  race-horse,  question  of  his  real  origin,  actually  superior  to  the  Arabian, 
the  Darley,  Flying  Childers,  Eclipse,  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  the  emulation  of  the 
race-hnrse,  consequence  of  short  races:  the  hunter,  descriptioi  of  his  proper  breed 
and  form,  anecdotes  of  his  love  of  the  sport,  usage  of  him,  mLinagement  of,  when 
riistressed,  summering  of :  the  Galloway :  the  Welsh  pony:  the  New -Forester:  tb4? 
Exmoorpony:  :he  Dartmoor:  the  Highland:  the  Shetland :  the  Irish  horaf» 


COXTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

ZOOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HORSE,     ....  .  61 

CHAPTER  VI. 

EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HORSE 63 

The  head  :  frontal  bones:  frontal  sinuses,  used  for  the  discovery  of  glanders  :  Ihe 
parietal:  temporal:  arched  form  of  the  skull:  designed  strength  of  the  base  of  lie 
arch:  occipital,  attachment  of  the  strong  ligaments  of  the  neck  to  it:  the  sphenoid 
andiEthmoid:  the  brain:  medullary  and  cineritious  portions:  the  nerves*  spinal  co?d: 
spinal  nerves,  consisting  of  fibres  of  sensation  and  motion,  and  others  devoted  to 
respiration:  the  sympathetic  or  organic  nerve,  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  devoteil  to 
nutrition  and  circulation.  The  ear,  beauty  of,  indicative  of  temper,  folly  of  crop- 
ping or  singeing;  the  internal  ear:  beautiful  mechanism  of,  the  drum,  the  little 
bones,  the  expansion  of  the  nerve.  The  eye :  the  lids,  substitution  for  eye-brows, 
eye-lashes,  tears,  situation  of  the  lachrymalgland  :  the  haw,  beautiful  mechanism  of 
It,  barbarous  practice  of  destroying  it :  the  conjunctiva:  cornea,  importance  of  its 
perfect  transparency,  directions  for  examining  it:  the  sclerotica:  choroid  coat,  its 
black  colour,  the  beautiful  colour  and  use  of  the  lucid  carpet  within  the  eye:  the 
aqueous  humour:  iris:  the  wall-eyed  horse:  the  j)upil,  importance  likewise  of  care- 
fully e.xamining  it:  the  lens:  vitreous  humour:  retina:  theory  of  vision:  shying: 
muscles  of  the  eye  :  the  one  peculiar  to  quadrupeds  to  retract  it  from  danger. 


CHAI>TER  VIL 
DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  EYE 100 

Fracture  of  the  skull:  pressure  on  the  brain:  megrims:  apoplexy:  stomach- 
staggers,  arising  usually  from  mismanagement:  mad  staggers:  locked  jaw  or  teta- 
nus: epilepsy  or  fits:  palsy:  rabies  or  madness :  neurotomy,  method  of  performing 
the  operation,  diseases  of  the  foot  for  which  beneficial.  Diseases  of  the  eye: 
wounds:  warts:  enlargement  of  the  haw  :  inflammation  of  the  eye  :  opacities  of  the 
cornea :  cataract :  gutta  serena,  or  glass  eye. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

NOSE  AND  MOUTH,  AND  THEIR  DISEASES, '.11 

Anatomy  of  the  nose:  Roman  nose:  cartilage  of  the  nose:  turbinated  bores: 
wideness  of  the  nostril,  advantage  of:  importance  of  observing  the  colour  of  the 
membrane  of  the  nose:  discharge  from  the  nose.  Glanders,  symptoms  of,  how  dis- 
tinguished from  strangles  or  cold:  primarily  a  disease  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose: 
connected  with  farcy:  tiiey  are  different  forms  of  the  same  disease;  causes  of  conta- 
gion  :  hot  and  foul  stables:  debilitating  disease:  highly  contagious:  preventior. : 
treatment.  Farcy,  a  disease  of  the  absorbents:  farcy  buds:  syrnjjtoms:  trcament. 
The  lips,  the  organs  of  touch:  lips,  how  formed:  bearing  lein,  necessity  for:  bones 
of  the  mouth:  the  palate,  method  of  bleeding  from:  lampas:  the  lower  jaw,  curi- 
ous mechanism  of  the  joint  of,  contrived  to  grind  the  food.  Teeth,  their  growth  and 
changes  from  birth,  as  indicative  of  the  age:  wolves'  teeth:  diseases  of  the  teeth 
Description  of  the  tongue:  vesicles  under  the  tongue:  the  salivary  glands:  the  par- 
otid: the  submaxillary' and  sublingual:  strangles:  canker  in  the  mouth  :  woun.^s  in 
the  mouth :  description  of  the  pharyn.x. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Page. 

THE  NECK, .    .    1B2 

Description  of  the  neck:  the  po.l-evil :  proper  form  of  the  neck:  the  yplenius 
muscle:  neck  should  be  muscular  at  the  bottom:  the  complexus  major  .  ewe-necked, 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  generally:  arteries  and  veins  of  the  neck  .  inflammation  of 
the  vein  after  bleeding:  the  wind-pipe:  the  larynx:  roaring:  the  oesophagus  or 
gullet. 

CHAPTER  X. 
THE  CHEST— CONTENTS— DISEASES, 163 

The  proper  form  of  the  chest :  form  of  as  much  importance  as  capacity :  deptli  of 
chest,  importance  of:  ribbed  home.  Anatomy  of  the  spine  :  the  bones  of  the  spine 
connected  by  highly  elastic  substance  :  consequent  case  in  riding :  contrivances  for 
strength:  broken-backed:  comparison  between  the  long  and  short-backed  horse: 
saddle-backed:  weak-backed.  The  loins:  should  be  broad  and  muscular.  The 
withers:  advantage  of  high  withers.  The  muscles  of  the  back.  Fistulous  withers: 
warbles:  sitfasts:  saddle-galLs.  The  ribs.  The  breast:  muscles  of  the  breast: 
being  all  abroad.  Cliest-founder :  dropsical  swellings  between  the  fore-legs.  Inside 
of  the  chest,  diaphrngm:  the  pleura:  the  mediastinum.  The  heart  and  its  action  : 
inflammation  of  the  heart.  The  arteries.  The  pulse :  its  standard  numbei  :  when 
quick,  hard,  small,  weak,  or  oppressed :  necessity  of  attending  to  the  pulse.  The 
capillaries.  Inflammation,  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to  and  through  the  part:  local 
and  general:  treatment  of:  cold  or  warm  applications.  Fever,  or  general  increased 
arterial  action:  pure  fever:  symptomatic  fever:  treatment.  The  veins:  bog  and 
blood  spavin.  Bleeding:  directions  for :  the  fleam  and  lancet:  bleeding  places.  The 
lungs:  description  of:  change  of  blood  in  passing  through  them:  capacious  che.st, 
advantage  of.  Infl.ammation  of  the  lungs:  symptoms:  causes:  treatment:  conse- 
quences. Pleurisy.  Catarrh,  or  common  cold.  Bronchitis.  Catarrhal  fever.  The 
malignant  epidemic.  Chronic  cough.  Thick-wind:  broken-wind:  the  piper. 
wheezer:  whistler:  highblower:  grunter. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES— THEIR  DISEASES, 197 

The  diaphragm.  The  stomach :  stomach  staggers  :  inflammation :  poison  :  hots. 
The  intestines:  the  mesentery,  duodenum,  jejunum,  ileum,  copcum,  colon,  rectum* 
spasmodic  colic:  calculi:  intussusception:  entanglement:  inflammation  of  the 
bowels:  over-purging:  washy  horses:  worms:  physicking:  the  best  purgatives* 
rupture.  The  liver:  inflammation  of  the  liver:  jaundice.  The  spleen.  The  j'an 
creas.  The  omentum.  The  kidneys:  diuretic  medicines,  use  and  abuse  of :  inflam 
niation  of  the  kidney;  profuse  staling.  The  bladder:  inflammation  of  the:ladder' 
stone  in  the  bladder. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING, 219 

Form,  constitution,  disease  inherited  :  causes  of  deterioration  of  half-bred  horses: 
the  mare  of  as  much  importance  in  breeding  as  the  horse  :  shape  of  mare  and  horse  : 
breeding  in  and  in:  age  at  which  the  mare  is  capable  of  breeding:  time  of  heat: 
time  of  going  with  foal:  management  of  mare  with  foal:  when  she  has  foaled, 
weaning  foal:  treatment  of  foal:  importance  of  good  feeding:  process  of  breaking 
in  begun  from  the  period  of  weaning:  actual  breaking  in  :  diflerent  steps  of:  iieces- 
si'.y  of  implicit  obedience,  yet  not  enforced  by  cruelty:  breaking  in  for  the  road  oi 
chase:  bitting  the  ( olt:  saddling:  castration. 


w 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE  FORE-LEGS  AND  THEIR  DISEASES 227 

The  shoulder:  sprain  of  the  shoulder:  slanting  direction  of  the  shouhJer,  import- 
ance of:  how  applicable  to  horses  of  heavy  draught:  muscle  of  the  oulside  oi  the 
shoulder:  trapesius ;  levator  humeri:  serralus :  sterno-maxillaris:  spinati :  !*<;• 
torals:  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder:  the  arm:  the  elbow:  principle  of  the  leve 
applied  to  it :  the  extensor  muscles  :  the  flexors :  disalvaiitage  at  which  they  act :  the 
perforated  muscle:  the  perforating:  the  arm  should  be  long:  the  knee:  broken 
knees:  the  leg:  splent;  speedy-cut:  tied  in  below  the  knee:  sprain  of  the  back 
sinews  :  necessity  of  attention  to  any  thickening  on  them  :  windgalls:  the  pasterns 
the  suspensory  ligaments:  obliquity  of  the  pasterns:  rupture  of  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment: the  fetlock  :  grogginess:  cutting:  bones  of  the  pasterns:  sprain  of  the  coffin- 
joint :  ring-bone :  position  of  the  legs. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  HINDER-LIMBS  AND  THEIR  DISEASES, 256 

The  haunch  :  being  ragged-hipped:  width  of  haunch:  the  thigh  :  muscles  of  the 
inside  of  tiie  tnigh  :  the  sartorius  :  gracilis:  muscles  of  the  outside  of  the  thigh:  the 
glutei:  great  trochanter  of  the  thigh,  im.portance  of :  sprain  of  the  round  bone:  the 
etirte  :  the  extensor  pedis  muscle:  the  peronseus :  the  flexor  pedis:  thorough-pin: 
the  hock:  enlargement  of  the  hock:  curb:  bog-spavin:  bone-spavin:  other  lame- 
ness of  the  hock:  the  point  of  the  hock:  capped  hock:  mallenders  and  sallenders: 
cow-hocks :  stringhalt:  swelled  legs;  grease,  cause  and  treatment  of :  washing  the 
heels:  danger  of  cutting  the  hair  from  the  heels. 

CHAPTER  XV. 
ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT, 280 

The  crust  or  wall  of  the  foot :  the  inner  heel  should  not  be  too  much  cut  away: 
the  coronary  ligament:  the  coronary  ring :  the  frog-band  :  the  crust:  colour  of  the 
bars:  folly  of  destroying  them:  the  frogs:  the  sole:  the  cofhn-bone:  the  sensible 
sole:  the  sen.sible  frog:  the  navicular  bone  :  the  cartilages  of  the  foot. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
DISEASES  OF  THE  FOOT 289 

Inflammation  of  the  foot,  or  acute  founder:  pumiced  feet:  chronic  founder :  con- 
traction:  the  navicular  joint-disease:  sand-crack:  tread  or  over-reach  ;  false-quarter: 
quittor:  prick,  or  wound  in  the  foot:  corns:  thrush:  canker:  ossification  of  the 
cartilages:  weakness  of  the  foot. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
ON  SHOEING 311 

The  concave-seated  shoe:  preparation  of  the  foot:  putting  on  of  the  shoe:  cal. 
kins:  clips:  the  hind-shoe:  the  hunting-shoe:  the  bar-shoe:  tips:  the  expanding, 
shoe :  felt  or  leather  soles. 

CHAPTER  XVI II. 
OPERATIONS 320 

The  trevis:  the  side-line:  the  hobbles:  the  twitch:  the  barnacles-  bleeding 
D.'atering:  tiring:  setons:  docking:  nicking. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

Pag* 
VICES  AND  BAD  HABITS 330 

Re?tiveness :  Jumper  the  horse-breaker:  King  Pippin,  anecdote  of:  Sullivan  the 
[rish  whisperer:  backing  or  gibbing:  biting:  getting  the  check  of  the  bit  into  the 
mouth:  kicking:  unsteadiness  while  being  mounted:  rearing:  running  away: 
vicious  to  clean  :  vicious  to  shoe:  swallowing  without  grinding:  crib-biting:  wind- 
sucking:  cutttng:  not  lying  down:  overreach:  pawing:  quidding:  rolling:  shying: 
slipping  the  collar:  tripping:  weaving. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

THE  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HORSE 345 

Air:  litter:  light:  grooming:  exercise:  food:  manger-feeding:  oats:  barley: 
grains:  wheat:  beans  :»peas:  grass:  hay:  tares:  rye-grass:  clover:  lucern :  saint- 
/oin:  Swedish  turnip:  carrots:  potatoes:  furze:  nutritive  matter  in  the  different 
articles  of  food :  the  times  of  feeding  should  be  equally  divided :  water :  manage- 
ment of  the  feet 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
SOUNDNESS, 361 

The  grand  principle  of :  supposed  causes  of  unsoundness :  broken  knees:  capped 
hecks:  contraction:  corns:  cough:  roaring:  wheezing:  whistling:  high-blowing: 
grunting:  broken  wind:  crib-biting:  curb  :  cutting:  enlarged  glands:  enlarged  hock: 
the  eyes:  lameness:  neurotomy:  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages:  pumiced 
foot:  quidding:  quittor :  ring-bone:  sandcrack  s  spavin:  blood  spavin:  splent: 
stringhalt:  thickening  of  the  back  sinews:  thoroughpin:  thrush:  windgalls.  Form 
of  warrantry:  the  horse  must  be  unsound  or  vicious  at  the  time  of  sale:  no  price 
will  imply  a  warranty:  a  warranty  after  the  sale  invalid:  to  complete  the  purchase 
there  must  be  a  transfer,  a  memorandum,  or  partial  payment:  notice  of  unsoundness 
not  legally  required,  yet  advisable:  prudent  to  refrain  from  all  medical  treatment: 
where  no  warranty,  an  action  may  be  brought  on  the  ground  of  fraud :  exchanges 
considered  on  the  same  ground  as  simple  saks:  the  allowance  of  trial:  laws  of  the 
principal  Repositories. 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  SKIN, 369 

Hide  bound:  the  hair:  pores  of  the  skin:  moulting:  clipping:  colour  of  the 
horse;  surfeit:  mange:  warts. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

MEDICINES  USED  IN  VETERINARY  PRACTICE, 381 

Aloes:  alteratives:  alum:  hartshorn:  sal-ammoniac :  anodynes:  black  antimo- 
ny: emetic  tartar:  antimonial  powder :  butyr  of  antimony :  antispasmodics  :  arsenic  : 
astringents:  balls:  blisters:  bole-Armenian:  Burgundy  pitch :  calamine:  calomel; 
camphor:  cantharides :  carraways:  castor  oil:  catechu:  caustics:  chalk:  camo- 
mile: charcoal:  charger:  clysters:  verdegris:  blue  vitriol:  cordials:  corrosive  sub- 
limate: cream  of  tartar:  croton:  diaphoretics:  digestives:  digitalis:  diuretics: 
drinks:  elder :  Kpsom-salts  :  fomentations:  gentian:  ginger:  Goulard's  extract :  hel- 
lebore: hemlock:  infusions:  iodine:  gi'een  vitriol:  oil  of  juniper:  lard:  sugar  of 
lead:  white  lead:  chloride  of  lime:  liniments:  linseed:  lotions:  mashes:  mercurial 
ointment:  iElhiop's  mineral:  mint:  myrrh:  nitre:  spirit  of  nitrous  aether:  oil  ol 
olives:  opium:  palm  oil :  pitch  :  physic':  poultices:  powders  :  raking:  resin  :  rowels  . 
salt:  sedatives:  lunar  caustic:  chloride  of  soda:  soap :  starch :  stoppings:  sulphur. 
tar;  tinctures;  tobacco;  tonics;  turpentine;  vinegar:  wax;  white  vitriol;  zinc. 


,j,i  CONTENTS. 

Page 
ON  DRAUGHT 403 

The  power  of  the  horse,  liow  calculated :  difference  of  opinion  as  to  wheels : 
draught  regarded  as  to  act  of  drawing,  and  the  resistance  to  the  power  employed: 
the  moving  power.  Animal  power  is  the  application  of  the  strength  of  an  animal; 
and  mechanical  power  is  power  employed  through  the  intervention  of  machinery: 
horse  power  and  that  of  the  steam-engine  compared,  as  to  interest  of  first  cost, 
decrease  of  value,  hazard  of  loss  or  accidents,  value  of  food,  or  coals  and  water, 
renewals  and  rej)airs,  harness,  shoeing,  farriery,  stabling  and  expense  of  attendance: 
the  power  of  draught,  or  eflect  produced  by  each  :  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in 
che  use  of  machinery.  The  manner  in  which  the  animal  adapts  himself  to  his  load: 
errors  with  regard  to  this  in  some  ancient  sculptures:  real  action  of  the  horse  in 
walking,  trotting  and  galloping.  The  resistance  to  draught  should  be  rigid,  and 
void  of  elasticity,  but  should  not  be  constant  and  unremitting:  ahorse  pulls  better 
when  close  to  his  work :  the  disadvantage  of  long  teams.  The  effect  of  draught 
depends  on  the  speed,  the  power  of  the  animal,  and  the  time'employed :  calculation 
and  comparison  of  these:  the  hours  of  labour  should  not  e.xceed  six  hours:  the  rapid 
reduction  of  the  power  of  the  horse  when  his  speed  is  increased.  A  flat  piece  of 
road  more  destructive  to  the  horse,  than  one  with  alternate  rises  and  falls.  Best 
direction  of  the  traces:  should  be  nearly  horizontal,  but  varying  with  the  kind  of 
horse  and  nature  of  the  work  and  road:  inclining  the  traces  downward,  the  same  as 
throwing  a  part  of  the  load  on  the  shafts.  Ancient  mode  of  harnessing :  the  collar  in 
the  time  of  Homer:  explanation  of  the  power  of  the  South  American  lasso.  The 
advantage  of  transporting  goods  by  water  consists  in  the  smallness  of  power 
required:  this  rapidly  increasing  with  the  speed:  calculation  of  the  draught  of  a 
canal  boat.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  sledges  and  rollers:  manner  in 
which  the  rock  forming  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Peter  the  great  was  moved  on 
rollers:  the  best  construction  of  the  roller.  Description  of  the  ancient  war-chariots: 
the  mechanical  advantage  of  the  wheel  increase.!  in  proportion  to  its  height:  the 
resistance  depends  on  the  friction  at  the  axle  :  comparative  advantages  of  different 
materials  as  used  for  axles:  axles  working  in  iron  boxes:  calculation  of  the  force  of 
draught  required  for  a  four-wheeled  cart  on  different  roals;  comparison  between  nar- 
row and  broad  wheels:  description  of  dishing  the  wheels,  and  advantage  of:  com- 
parison between  conical  and  cylindrical  wheels:  injury  received  by  the  roads  by 
different  wheels:  the  cylindrical  wheel  a  little  dished,  and  the  edges  rounded  off,  is 
the  best:  ruts  form  a  great  resistance  to  draught :  the  hind  wheels  should  exactly 
follow  the  track  of  the  fore  ones:  descrij)tion  of  Jones'  jiatent  wlieels:  the  expense 
and  weight  must  limit  the  height  of  the  wheels:  the  fore-wheels  usually  too  small: 
the  comparative  advantage  of  two  and  four-wheeled  carriages:  two-wheeled  carts 
with  two  horses  disadvantageous.  Springs  should  never  be  applied  to  give  any  lon- 
gitudinal elasticity  to  the  carriage :  disadvantage  of  C  springs  on  this  account :  advan- 
tage of  springs:  Mr,  D.  Giddy's  theory  of  wheels  and  springs:  springs  particularly 
advantageous  when  much  velocity  is  required  :  loading  high,  although  dangerous, 
makes  the  carriage  run  light :  the  safety  coaches,  by  having  the  load  low,  very 
disadvantageous.  Hardness  the  great  desideratum  in  roads:  great  rounding  of  the 
road  useless  and  injurious:  a  rise  of  six  or  eight  inches  in  a  road  twenty  feet  wide, 
quite  sufficient :  hardness  of  surface,  how  best  secured:  constant  repairs  and  atten- 
tion, on  the  whole,  most  economical.  Grea'.  advantage  of  railways :  the  power  of  the 
horse  increased  tenfold  on  a  railway 


LIBRARY  OF  USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE, 


THE  FARMER'S  SERIES 


INTRODUCTION. 

TiiE  Farmer's  Series  will  consist  of  Treatise  supon  subjects  most  inter- 
esting to  persons  employed  in  the  various  branches  of  agriculture,  and  to 
those,  generally,  who  reside  in  the  country.  It  naturally  begins  with  con- 
sidering the  Animals  which  constitute  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  farmer's 
property; — their  origin; — their  different  breeds; — their  structure; — the 
most  economical,  and  profitable,  and  humane  method  of  treating  them  ; — 
and  the  art  of  rendering  their  services  more  extensive  and  permanent,  and 
their  health  and  comfort  more  secure.  It  is  hoped  that  these  volumes  will 
contribute  to  the  amusement,  the  improvement,  and  the  profit  of  the  farmer 
and  the  cottager ;  and  better  the  condition  both  of  himself  and  of  the 
animals  intrusted  to  his  care.  They  may  afford  him  a  pleasant  companion 
at  his  winter's  fire-side, — a  useful  counsellor  when  employed  in  the  labours 
of  his  station, — and  a  help  to  raise  his  mind  to  a  serious,  but  delightful 
contemplation  of  the  objects  which  Providence  has  spread  around  us  for 
our  admiration  and  our  use. 

Under  this  first  great  division  will  be  considered  those  animals  which 
aid  the  power  of  man — the  horse,  ox,  ass,  mule,  dog — those  which  supply 
food  and  clothing — horned  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  goats,  poultry,  rabbits, 
bees — those  which  are  hurtful — the  fox,  weazel,  rat,  mole,  insects.  In 
treating  the  subject  of  domestic  animals,  their  history,  various  kinds,  struc- 
vUre  and  habits,  feeding  and  treatment  when  young,  management  when 
worked,  and  diseases,  will  be  sucessively  considered. 

The  General  Principles  of  Agriculture  will  form  the  other  great  division 
of  this  series ;  and  under  this  head  will  be  treated  whatever  relates  to  the 
nature  of  soils  and  manures — the  rotation  of  crops — farm-buildings  and 
machinery — sheep-farming  and  dairy- farming,  so  far  as  these  may  not  have 
Deen  considered  under  the  head  of  sheep  and  cattle — potatoes  and  spade 
husbandry — wood  and  timber. 

There  is  a  class  of  subjects  which,  though  not  exclusively  interesting  to 
country  people,  belong  more  to  them  than  to  others;  brewing,  baking, 
washing  and  bleaching,  land-measuring,  road-making,  bridge- building, 
quarrying,  lime-burning,  &c.  These  will  be  discussed  in  treatises  occa- 
sionally introduced  in  the  progress  of  this  series. 

At  the  head  of  those  animals  which  have  been  domesticated  by,  or  ren. 
dered  useful  to,  man, — whether  we  regard  his  noble  form,  his  great  saga- 
.;ity,  or  the  manner  in  which  he  is  connected  with  our  profit  and  3ur  plea- 
sure,— stands  the  Horse. 


THE  HORSE. 

f 
CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE. 


Hackney, 


Into  this  and  the  various  breeds  of  horses,  we  shall  enter  at  some  length, 
and  although  the  more  practical  division  of  the  'I'reatise  will  be  thereby 
necessaiily  postponed  until  the  next  monthly  part,  we  shall  not,  even  at 
present,  forget  the  name  of  the  Library  to  which  it  belongs,  but  endeavour 
to  blend  the  useful  with  the  entertaining. 

The  native  country  of  the  horse  cannot  with  certainty  be  traced.  He 
has  been  found,  varying  materially  in  size,  in  form,  and  in  utility,  in  all 
the  temperate,  in  most  of  the  sultry,  and  in  many  of  the  northern  regions 
of  the  Old  World. 

In  the  Sacred  Volume,  which,  beside  its  higher  claims  to  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  Farmer's  Library,  contains  the  oldest  authentic  record  of  past 
transactions,  we  are  told  that,  so  early  as  1650  years  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  the  horse  had  been  domesticated  by  the  Egyptians.  When  Joseph 
carried  his  father's  remains  from  Egypt  to  Canaan,  "  there  went  up  with 
him  both  chariots  and  horsemen."*  One  hundred  and  fifty  years  after- 
wards, the  horse  constituted  tl)e  principal  strength  of  the  Egyptian  army. 
Pharaoh  pursued  the  Israelites  with  "  six  hundred  chosen"  chariots,  and 
with  all  the  chariots  of  Egy])t."f 

If  we  could  believe  the  accounts  of  the  uninspired  historians,  Sjsostria 
(the  monarch  probably  whom  Joseph  served)  had  twenty-seven  thousand 
chariots  of  war  ;  and  Semiramis,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  had  one  hundred 
tliousand  chariots,  and  a  million  of  horsemen ;  but  this  was  probably  a 
great  exaggeration. 

Fifty  years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  and  1450 
years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  horse  was  so  far  naturaHzed  in  G»-eece 


♦  Gen.  i. 


\  Exod.  xvi.  7. 


ITS  HISTORY.  S 

ihbl  iKe  Olympic  games  were  instituted,  including  chariot  and  horse  races 
VV  e  have,  therefore,  sufficient  evidence  that  the  horse  was,  at  a  very  early 
period,  subjected  to  the  dominion  of  man,  and,  unfortunately,  for  the  worst 
of  purposes, — the  business  of  war. 

From  the  records  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  are  likewise  enabled  to 
ascertain  the  precise  period  of  time,  when  in  Egypt  and  Canaan,  and  the 
neighbouring  countries,  this  animal  began  to  be  domesticated.  1920  years 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  when  Abraham,  having  left  Haran,  in  obedience 
to  the  divine  command,  was  driven  into  Egypt  by  the  famine  which  raged 
in  Canaan,*  Pharaoh  offered  him  sheep  and  oxen,  and  asses  and  camels. 
Horses  would  doubtless  have  been  added,  had  they  then  existed,  or  had 
they  been  subdued  in  Egypt. 

When,  fifty  years  afterwards,  Abraham  journeyed  to  Mount  Moriah,  to 
ot^'er  up  his  only  son,  he  rode  upon  an  ass,  which,  with  all  his  wealth  and 
powei,  he  would  scarcely  have  done,  had  the  horse  been  known. f 

Thirty  years  later,  when  Jacob  returned  to  Isaac  with  Rachel  and 
Leah,  an  account:}:  is  given  of  the  number  of  oxen,  sheep,  camels,  goats, 
and  asses,  which  he  sent  to  appease  the  anger  of  Esau,  but  not  one  horse 
is  mentioned. 

It  is  not  until  twenty-four  years  after  this,  when  the  famine  devastated 
Canaan,  §  and  Jacob  sent  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn,  that  horses  are  first 
heard  of.  "  Waggons,"  probably  carriages  drawn  by  horses,  were  sent 
by  Joseph  into  Canaan  to  bring  his  father  to  Egypt,  it  would  seem,  how. 
ever,  that  horses  had  been  but  lately  introduced,  and  were  not  numerous, 
or  not  used  as  beasts  of  burden ;  for  the  whole  of  the  corn,  which  was  to 
be  conveyed  some  hundred  miles,  and  was  to  afford  subsistence  for  Jacob's 
large  household,  was  carried  on  asses. 

It  appears,  then,  that  about  1740  years  before  Christ,  horses  were  first 
used  in  Egypt;  but  they  soon  afterwards  became  so  numerous  as  to  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  Egyptian  army :  and  when  the  Israelites 
returned  into  Canaan,  the  horse  had  been  introduced  and  naturalized  there  ; 
for  the  Canaanites  "  went  out  to  fight  against  Israel  with  horses  and  chari- 
ots very  many."  |1 

The  sacred  volume,  therefore,  clears  up  a  point  upon  which  no  other 
record  throws  any  light — namely,  the  period  when  the  horse  first  became 
the  servant  of  man,  at  least  in  one  part  of  the  world,  and  that  the  most  ad- 
vanced in  civilization,  and  before  Greece  was  peopled.  A  long  time  must 
have  elapsed  before  man  was  able  to  ascertain  the  value  and  peculiar  use  of 
the  animals  that  surrounded  him.  He  would  begin  with  the  more  subordi- 
nate — those  which  were  most  easily  caught,  and  most  readily  subdued ; 
and  the  benefits  which  he  derived  from  their  labours  would  induce  him  to 
attempt  the  conquest  of  superior  quadrupeds.  In  accordance  with  this 
the  writings  of  Moses  shew  us  that,  after  the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat, 
man  subdued  the  ass,  and  then  the  camel,  and,  last  of  all,  the  horse  became 
his  servant:  and  no  sooner  was  he  subdued,  and  his  strength  and  docility 
aisid  sagacity  appreciated,  than  the  others  were  comparitively  disregarded, 
except  in  Palestine,  where  the  use  of  the  horse  Avas  forbidden  by  divine 
autliority,  and  on  extensive  and  barren  deserts,  where  he  could  not  live.  IF 

From  Egypt  the  use  of  the  horse  was  propagated  to  other  and  distant 
lands  ;   and,  probably,  the  horse  himself  was  first  transmitted   from  Egypt 

♦  don.  xii.  16.  t  Gen.  xxii.  3.  ;  Gen.  xxxii    14. 

§  Gen.  xiv.  19.  11  Jofhua  xi.  4. 

^  VVlien  Sir  Gore  Ouscly  travelled  throu2"li  Persia,  anJ  the  different  countries   cf  the 
Ga3i,  he  examined,  among-  other  relics  of  antiquity,  the  sculptures  on  the  ruins  of  Perae 


4  THE  HORSE. 

to  several  nountnes.  The  Greeks  affinn,  that  Neptune  struck  the  earth 
with  his  trident,  and  a  horse  appeared.  The  truth  is,  that  the  Tliessalians, 
the  first  and  most  expert  of  the  Grecian  horseman,  and  likewise  the  inha- 
bitants of  Argos  and  of  Athens,  were  colonists  from  Egypt. 

The  Bible  likewise  decides  another  point,  that  Arabia,  by  whose  breed 
of  horses  those  of  other  countries  have  been  so  much  improved,  was  not 
the  native  place  of  the  horse.  Six  hundred  years  after  the  time  just  refer- 
red  to,  Arabia  had  no  horses.  Solomon  imported  spices,  gold,  and  silver, 
from  Arabia;*  but  all  the  horses  for  his  own  cavalry  and  chariots,  and 
those  with  which  he  supplied  the  Phoenician  monarchs,  he  procured  frona 
Egypt,  t 

In  the  seventh  century  after  Christ,  when  Mahomet  attacked  the  Koreish 
near  Mecca,  he  had  but  two  horses  in  his  whole  army  ;  and  at  the  close  of 
his  murderous  campaign,  although  he  drove  off  twenty-four  thousand 
camels,  and  forty  thousand  sheep,  and  carried  away  twenty-four  thousand 
ounces  of  silver,  not  one  horse  appears  in  the  list  of  plunder. 

There  is  a  curious  record  of  the  commerce  of  different  countries  at  the 
close  of  the  second  century.  Among  the  articles  exported  from  Egypt  to 
Arabia,  and  particularly  as  presents  to  reigning  monarchs,  were  horses. 

In  the  fourth  century  two  hundred  Cappadocian  horses  were  sent  by  the 
Roman  emperor,  as  the  most  acceptable  present  he  could  offer  a  powerful 
prince  of  Arabia. 

So  late  as  the  seventh  century,  the  Arabs  had  few  horses,  and  those  of 
attle  value.  These  circumstances  sufficiently  prove  that,  however  superior 
may  be  the  present  breed,  it  is  comparitively  lately  that  the  horse  was 
natuaralized  in  Arabia. 

The  horses  of  Arabia  itself,  and  of  the  south-eastern  parts  of  Europe, 
are  clearly  derived  from  Egypt ;  but  whether  they  were  there  bred,  or 
imported  from  the  south-western  regions  of  Asia,  or,  as  is  more  probable, 
brought  from  the  interior,  or  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  cannot  with  car- 
tainty  be  determined. 

polis,  and  he  draws  from  them  a  curious  and  interesting  conclusion  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  horse  was  gradually  subdued.  "There  are  no  figures,"  says  he,  "mounted  on 
horseback,  although  some  travellers  have  mentioned  horsemen  among  those  sculptures. 
One  would  think  that  the  simple  act  of  mounting  on  a  horse's  back  would  naturally  have 
preceded  the  use  of  wheel-carriages  and  their  complicated  harness;  yet  no  horsemen  are 
found  at  Persepf)lis  ;  and  we  know  Homer's  horses  are  represented  in  chariots  from  which 
the  warriors  sometimes  descended  to  combat  on  foot,  but  the  poet  has  not  described  them 
as  fighting  on  horseback.  The  absence  of  mounted  figures  might  authorize  an  opinion 
that  those  sculptures  had  been  executed  before  the  time  of  Cyrus,  whose  precepts  and 
example  first  inspired  the  Persians  with  a  love  of  equestrian  exercijss,  of  which,  before 
his  time  they  were  wholly  ignorant." — vol.  ii.  p.  276. 

♦  2Chron.  ix.  14.  t  2  Ch  on.  i.  17. 

t  The  historian  gives  us  the  price  of  the  horse  and  the  chariot  3t  that  time.  A  horse 
brought  from  Egypt,  including,  probably,  the  expense  of  the  journey,  cost  one  hundred 
and  fifty  shekels  of  silver,  which,  at  two  shillings,  three  pence,  and  one  half  farthing 
each,  amounts  to  about  seventeen  pounds  two  shillings.  A  ch  iriot  cost  six  hundred 
■hekels,  or  sixty-eight  pounds,  eight  shillings  ;  a  most  enormous  sum  at  that  early  period, 
but  little  to  him  who  expended  more  than  thirty-five  millions  of  pounds,  in  gold  alone 
to  ornament  the  Temple  which  he  had  built. 


ITS  HISTORY— BREEDS. 

CHAPTER    II. 
THE  DIFFERENT  FOREIGN  BREED  OF  HORSES 


THE  WILD  HORSE. 

Troops  of  wild  horses  are  found  in  the  plains  of  Great  Tartary,  and  also 
hi  several  parts  of  South  America.  In  neither,  however,  can  we  recognise 
an  original  race.  The  horses  of  the  Ukraine,  and  those  of  South  America, 
are  equally  the  descendants  of  those  who  had  escaped  from  the  slavery  of 
man.  The  Tartar  horses  are  fleet  and  strong,  but  comparatively  of  an 
ordinary  breed.  Those  of  South  America  retain,  almost  unimpaired,  the 
size  and  form  of  the  European  ancestors. 

In  no  part  of  America,  or  of  the  more  newly-discovered  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  was  the  horse  known,  until  he  was  introduced  by  Europeans ;  and 
the  origin  of  the  horses  of  Tartary  has  been  clearly  traced  to  those  who  were 
employed  in  the  siege  of  Azoph,  in  1657,  but  which  were  turned  loose  for 
want  of  forage. 

All  travellers,  who  have  crossed  the  plains  extending  from  the  shores  of 
La  Plata  to  Patagonia,  have  spoken  of  numerous  droves  of  wild  horses. 
Some  affirm  that  they  have  seen  ten  thousand  in  one  troop.  They  appear  to 
be  under  the  command  of  a  leader,  the  strongest  and  boldest  of  the  herd,  and 
whom  they  implicitly  obey.  A  secret  instinct  teaches  them  that  their  safety 
consists  in  their  union,  and  in  a  principle  of  subordination.  The  lion,  the 
tiger,  and  the  leopard,*  are  their  principal  enemies.  At  some  signal,  intel- 
igible  to  them  all,  they  either  close  into  a  dense  mass,  and  trample  their 
enemy  to  death  ;  or,  placing  the  mares  and  foals  in  the  centre,  they  form 
themselves  into  a  circle  and  welcome  him  with  their  heels.  In  the  attack, 
their  leader  is  the  first  to  face  tlie  danger,  and,  when  prudence  demands  a 
retreat,  they  follow  his  rapid  flight. 

In  the  thinly  inhabited  parts  of  South  America  it  is  dangerous  to  fall  in 
with  any  of  these  troops.  The  wild  horses  approach  as  near  as  they  dare  : 
they  call  to  the  loaded  horse  with  the  greatest  eagerness,  and,  if  the  rider 
be  not  on  the  alert,  and  have  not  considerable  strength  of  arm,  and  sharpness 
of  spur,  his  beast  will  divest  himself  of  his  burden,  take  to  his  heels,  and 
be  gone  for  ever. 

Captain  Head  gives  the  following  account  of  a  meeting  with  a  troop  of 
wild  horses,  where  the  country  is  more  thickly  inhabited.  Some  poor  cap. 
lured  animals  are  supposed  to  be  forced  along  hy  their  riders  at  their  ver\ 
utmost  speed  : — "  As  they  are  thus  golloping  ilong,  urged  by  the  spur, 
it  is  interesting  to  see  the  groups  of  wild  horses  one  passes.  The  mares, 
which  are  never  ridden  in  South  America,  seem  not  to  understand  what 
makes  the  poor  horse  carry  his  head  so  low,  and  look  so  weary .■]■  The 
little  innocent  colts  come  running  to  meet  him,  and  then  start  away  fright- 
ened :  while  the  old  horses,  whose  white  )narks  on  the  flanks  and  b<ick3 

•  These  animals  are  of  a  different  race  from  those  which  g-o  under  the  same  na^.ies  in  the 
Old  World,  and  are  very  inferior  in  streng^th. 

t  An  Englishman  once  attempted  to  ride  a  mare,  but  he  was  hooted  and  pelted  by  the 
natives,  and  thoug-ht  himself  fortunate  to  escape  without  serious  injury. 

Sir  John  Carr,  in  his  Northern  Summer,  p.  44,  states  that  it  is  only  a  ihort  time  since 
oiares  began  to  be  ridden  in  Russia. 


f,  THE  HORSE. 

betray  t'  leii  acquaintance  with  the  spur  and  saddle,  walk  slowly  away  for 
some  distance,  then,  breaking  into  a  trot  as  they  seek  their  safety,  snort  and 
look  behind  them,  first  with  one  eye  and  then  with  the  other,  turning  their 
nose  from  right  to  left,  and  carrying  their  long  tail  high  in  the  air."* 

The  same  pleasing  writer  describes  the  system  of  horse-management 
among  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the  plains  of  South  America.  They  have 
nc  stables,  no  fenced  pastures.  One  horse  is  usually  kept  tied  at  tlie  door 
of  the  hut,  fed  scantily  at  night  on  maize  ;  or  at  other  times  several  may  be 
enclosed  in  the  corral,  which  is  a  circular  space  surrounded  by  rough  posts, 
driven  firmly  into  the  ground.  The  mares  are  never  ridden,  or  attempted 
to  be  tamed,  but  wander  with  their  foals  wherever  they  please. 

When  the  Gaucko,  the  natives  inhabitant  of  the  plains,  wants  horses  for 
himself  or  for  tlie  supply  af  the  traveller,  he  either  goes  with  his  /asso  to  tlie 
corral,  and  selects  those,  possibly,  who  on  the  preceeding  day  had  for  the 
first  time  been  backed,  or  he  scampers  across  the  plain,  and  presently 
returns  with  an  unwillingly,  struggling,  or  subdued  captive.  When  the 
services  of  the  animals  have  been  exacted,  he  either  takes  them  to  the 
corral,  and  feeds  them  with  a  small  quantity  of  maize,  if  bethinks  he  shall 
presently  need  them  again,  or  he  once  more  turns  them  loose  on-the  plains. 

Travellers  give  some  amusing  accounts  of  the  manner  in  which  all  this  is 
effected — Miers  f  thus  describes  the  lasso,  simple  in  its  construction,  but 
all-powerful  in  the  hands  of  the  Gaucho. 

"  The  Lasso,  is  a  missile  weapon  used  by  every  native  of  the  United 
Provinces  and  Chile.  It  is  a  very  strong  plaited  thong  of  equal  thickness, 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  forty  feet  long  ;  made  of  many  strips  of  green 
hide,  plaited  like  a  whipthong,  and  rendered  supple  by  grease.  It  has,  at 
one  end,  an  iron  ring  above  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  through  which 
the  thong  is  passed,  and  this  forms  a  running  noose.  The  Gaucho,  or 
native  Peon,  is  generally  mounted  on  horseback  when  he  uses  the  lasso. 
One  end  of  the  thong  is  affixed  to  his  saddle  girth  ;  the  remainder  he  coils 
carefully  in  his  left  hand,  leaving  about  twelve  feet  belonging  to  the  noose- 
end  in  a  coil,  and  a  half  of  which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand.  He  then 
swings  this  long  noose  horizontally  round  his  head,  the  weight  of  the  iron 
ring  at  the  end  of  the  noose  assisting  in  giving  to  it,  by  a  continued  circular 
motion,  a  sufficient  force  to  project  it  the  whole  length  of  the  line." 

When  the  Gauchos  wish  to  have  a  grand  breaking-in,  they  drive  a  whole 
herd  of  wild  horses  into  the  corral. — "The  corral  was  quite  full  of  horses 
most  of  which  were  young  ones  about  two  or  three  years  old.  The  capi- 
iar  (chief  Gaucho,)  mounted  on  a  strong  steady  horse,  rode  into  the  corral 
and  threw  his  lasso  over  the  neck  of  a  young  horse,  and  dragged  him  to 
the  gate.  For  some  time  he  was  very  unwilling  to  leave  his  comrades; 
but  the  moment  he  was  forced  out  of  the  corral,  his  first  idea  was  to  gal- 
lop away :  however  a  timely  jerk  of  the  lasso  checked  him  in  the  most  ef- 
fectual way.  The  peons  now  ran  after  him  on  foot  and  threw  a  lasso  over 
his  fore-legs  just  above  tlie  fetlock,  and  twitching  it,  they  pulled  his  legs 
from  under  him  so  suddenly,  that  I  really  thought  the  fall  he  got  had  killed 
him.  In  an  instant  a  Gaucho  was  seated  on  his  head,  and  with  his  long 
knife,  and  in  a  few  seconds,  cut  otF  tlie  whole  of  the  horse's  mane,  while 
another  cut  the  hair  from  the  end  of  his  tail.  This  they  told  me  was  a 
mark  that  the  horse  had  been  once  mounted.  They  then  put  a  piece  of 
hide  into  his  mouth  to  serve  for  a  bit,  and  a  strong  hide  lialter  on  \\\^  head. 
The  Gaucho  who  was  to  mount,  arranged  his  spurs,  which  were  unusually 

•  Head's  .Tourney  across  the  Pampas,  p.  258- 
t  Miers'  Travels  in  Chile,  vol.  i.  p.  88. 


WILD  BREEDS.  7 

long  and  sharp,*  and  while  two  men  held  the  horse  by  his  ears,  he  pui  on 
the  saddle,  wliich  he  girthed  extremely  tight.  He  then  cauglit  hold  of  the 
horse's  ear,  and  in  an  instant  vaulted  into  the  saddle  ;  upon  whicii  the  man 
who  held  the  horse  by  the  halter  threw  the  end  to  the  rider,  and  from  that 
moment  no  one  seemed  to  take  any  further  notice  of  him. 

"The  horse  instantly  began  to  jump  in  a  manner  which  made  it  veiy 
difficult  for  the  rider  to  keep  his  seat,  and  quite  ditferent  from  the  kick  or 
plunge  of  an  English  horse  :  however,  the  Gaucho's  spurs  soon  set  him 
going,  and  off  he  galloped,  doing  everything  in  his  power  to  throw 
his  rider. 

"Another  horse  was  immediately  brought  from  the  corral,  and  so  quick 
was  the  operation,  that  twelve  Gauchos  were  mounted  in  a  space  whicii  I 
think  hardly  exceeded  an  hour.  It  was  wonderful  to  see  the  ditlerent 
manner  in  which  difFerent  horses  behaved.  Some  would  actually  scream 
while  the  Gauchos  were  girding  the  saddle  upon  their  backs ;  some  would 
instantly  lie  down  and  roll  upon  it ;  while  some  would  stand  without  being 
held — their  legs  stifT,  and  in  unnatural  positions,  their  necks  half  bent 
towards  their  tails,  and  looking  vicious  and  obstinate;  and  I  could  not  help 
thinking  that  I  would  not  have  mounted  one  of  those  for  any  reward  that 
could  be  offered  me,  for  they  were  invariably  the  most  difficult  to  subdue. 

"  It  was  now  curious  to  look  around  and  see  the  Gauchos  on  the  horizon 
in  different  directions,  trying  to  bring  their  horses  back  to  the  corral, 
which  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  their  work ;  for  the  poor  creatures  had 
been  so  scared  there  that  they  were  unwilling  to  return  to  the  place.  It 
was  anuising  to  see  the  antics  of  the  horses — they  were  jumping  and 
dancing  in  different  ways,  while  the  right  arm  of  the  Gauchos  was  seen 
flogging  them.  At  last  they  brought  the  horses  back,  apparently  subdued, 
and  broken  in.  The  saddles  and  bridles  were  taken  off,  and  the  young 
horses  trotted  off  towards  the  corral,  neighing  to  one  another. "f 

When  the  Gaucho  wishes  to  take  a  wild  horse,  he  mounts  one  that  has  been 
used  to  the  sport,  and  gallops  over  the  plain.  As  soon  as  he  comes  suffi- 
ciently near  his  prey,  "the  lasso  is  thrown  round  the  two  hind  legs  and  as 
the  Gaucho  rides  a  little  on  one  side,  the  jerk  pulls  the  entangled  horse's 
feet  laterally,  so  as  to  throw  him  on  his  side,  without  endangering  his  knees 
or  his  face.  Before  the  horse  can  recover  the  shock,  the  rider  dismounts, 
and  snatching  his  poncho  or  cloak  from  his  shoulders,  wraps  it  round  the 
prostrate  animal's  head.  He  then  forces  into  his  mouth  one  of  the  power- 
ful  bridles  of  the  country,  straps  a  saddle  on  his  back,  and  bestriding  him, 
removes  the  poncho  ;  upon  which  the  astonished  horse  springs  on  his  legs, 
and  endeavours  by  a  thousand  vain  efTorts  to  disencumber  himself  of  his 
new  master,  who  sits  quite  composedly  on  his  back,  and,  by  a  discipline 
which  never  fails,  reduces  the  horse  to  such  complete  obedience,  that  he  is 
soon  trained  to  lend  his  whole  speed  and  strength  to  the  capture  of  his 
cnmpanions.":}: 

*  The  manufacture  of  the  Gaucho's  boots  is  somewhat  sing^ular. — "The  bootnofthe 
Gauchos  are  formed  of  the  ham  and  part  of  the  Icar-skin  of  a  colt  taken  reeking  from  the 
mother,  wliich  is  said  to  be  sacrificed  for  the  sole  purpose,  just  at  the  time  of  bearing" 
when  the  hair  has  not  bejj-un  to  grow.  At  this  stage,  tiie  skin  strips  off  easily,  and  is  very 
white  and  beautiful  in  texiure  and  appearance.  Tlie  ham  forms  the  calf  of  tlie  boot;  the 
iiock  easily  adopts  itself  to  the  heel,  and  the  leg  above  the  fetlock  constitutes  the  foot; 
the  whole  making  a  neat  and  elegant  half-bof>t,  with  an  aperture  suffieien'  for  the  great 
toe,  to  project  through."-— Andrews's  Journey  in  South  America,  vol.  i.  p.  26. 

I  Head's  Journey  across  the  Pampas,  p.  258. 

J  Basil  Hall's  Journey  to  Peru  and  MexicO;  vol.  i.  p.  151.  The  Jesuit  Dobrizhoffer, 
in  his  History  of  the  Abipones,  a  nation  of  Paraguay,  and  speaking  of  the  tamed  horse, 
'vol.  ii.  p.  113,)  says,  that  "  stirrups  are  not   in   general   use.     The   men   leap   on   theii 


8  THE  HORSE. 

Tlicse  animals  possess  much  of  tlie  form  of  the  Spanish  horse,  frtjwH 
wliich  they  sprung  ;  tliey  are  tamed,  as  has  been  seen,  with  far  less  difficulty 
than  could  be  thought  possible;  and,  although  theirs  is  the  obedience  of 
fear,  and  enforced  at  first  by  the  whip  and  spur,  there  are  no  horses  who  so 
soon  and  so  perfectly  exert  their  sagacity  and  their  power  in  the  service  of 
man.  Tiiey  are  possessed  of  no  extraordinary  speed,  but  they  are  capable 
of  enduring  immense  fatigue.  They  are  frequently  ridden  60  or  70  miles 
without  drawing  bit,  and  have  been  urged  on  by  the  cruel  spur  of  the 
Gaucho,  more  than  a  hundred  miles,  and  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles 
in  the  hour. 

Like  the  Arab  horses,  they  know  no  intermediate  pace  between  the  walk 
and  tile  gallop.  Although  at  the  end  of  a  day  so  hard,  their  sides  are 
horribly  mangled,  and  they  completely  exhausted,  there  is  this  consalotion 
for  them, — they  are  immediately  turned  loose  on  the  plains,  and  it  will  be 
their  own  fault  if  they  are  speedily  caught  again.  The  mare  is  occa- 
sionally killed  for  food,  and  especially  on  occasions  of  unusual  festivity. 
General  San  Martin,  during  the  war  for  independence,  gave  a  feast  to  the 
Indian  allies  attached  to  his  army ;  and  mares'  flesh,  and  the  blood  mixed 
with  gin,  formed  the  whole  of  the  entertainment. 

On  such  dry  and  sultry  plains  the  supply  of  water  is  often  scanty 
and  then  a  species  of  madness  seizes  on  the  horses,  and  their  genei'ous 
and  docile  qualities  are  no  longer  recognized.  They  rush  violently  into 
every  pond  and  lake,  savagely  mangling  and  trampling  upon  one  another ; 
and  the  carcases  of  many  thousands  of  them,  destroyed  by  their  fellows 
have  occasionally  been  seen  in  and  around  a  considerable  pool.  This  is 
one  of  the  means  by  which  the  too  rapid  increase  of  this  quadruped  is,  by 
the  ordinance  of  Nature,  there  prevented. 

The  wild  horses  of  Tartary,  although  easily  domesticated,  materially 
differ  m  character  from  those  on  the  plains  of  South  America.  They  will 
not  suffer  a  stranger  to  join  them.  If  a  domesticated  horse  comes  in  their 
way,  unprotected  by  his  master,  they  attack  him  with  their  teeth  and  their 
heels,  and  speedily  destroy  him.  They  readily  submit,  however,  to  the  do- 
minion of  man,  and  become  perfectly  docile  and  faithful. 

Among  the  Tartars,  the  flesh  of  the  horse  is  a  frequent  article  of  food ; 
and  although  they  do  not,  like  the  Indians  of  the  Pampas,  eat  it  raw,  theii 
mode  of  cookery  would  not  be  very  inviting  to  the  European  epicure. 
They  cut  the  muscular  parts  into  slices,  and  place  them  under  their  saddles, 
and  after  they  have  galloped  thirty  or  forty  miles,  the  meat  becomes  tender 
^,nd  sodden,  and  fit  for  their  table ;  and,  at  all  their  feasts,  the  first  and 
fast  and  most  favourite  dish,  is  a  horses  head. 

When  water  was  not  at  hand,  the  Scythians  used  to  draw  blood  from 
their  horses,  and  drink  it ;  and  the  dukes  of  Muscovy,  for  nearly  two  hundred 
and  sixty  years,  presented  Tartar  embassadors  with  the  milk  of  mares.  If 
any  of  this  milk  fell  upon  the  mane  of  the  horse,  the  duke,  by  custom,  was 
bound  to  lick  it  off. 

Troops  of  wild  horses  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  central  parts  of 
Africa,  in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  on  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  and  in 
a  few  other  parts  of  the  world ;  but  no  where  do  they  equal  the  domesti- 
cated  horse  in  form,  strength,  or  even  speed. 


(vol.  ii.  p.  113,)  says,  that  "  stirrups  are  not  in  g-eneral  use.  The  men  leap  on  ttiei* 
horse  on  the  riL(ht  side.  In  the  right  hand  they  grasp  the  bridle,  and  in  the  left  a  very 
long-  spear,  leaning  on  which,  they  jump  with  the  impulse  of  both  feet,  and  then  fall  right 
upon  the  horse's  back." 


THE  BARB 


The  Godolphin  Jlmbian. 


Ii  lias  already  been  stated,  that  the  earliest  records  we  have  of  l,h^. 
horse  trace  him  to  Egypt,  whence  he  gradually  found  his  way  to  Ara. 
bia  and  Persia,  and  the  provinces  which  were  colonized  from  Egypt; 
and  thence  to  the  other  parts  of  the  Old  World.  But  Egypt  is  not 
now  a  breeding  country,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  possess  those  requi- 
sites  which  could  ever  have  constituted  it  one.  Without,  however,  enter- 
ing  into  the  question  whether  the  horse  was  primarily  the  inhabitant  of 
some  particular  region,  wnenuc  other  parts  were  gradually  supplied,  or 
whether  it  was  common  to  many  countries,  but  ditTering  in  each ;  we 
have  stated  it  to  be  probable  that  the  horses  of  Egypt,  the  earliest 
on  record,  were  derived  from  the  neighbouring  and  interior  districts  of 
Africa.  Therefore,  in  giving'  a  very  summary  account  of  the  most 
celebrated  and  useful  breeds  of  different  countries,  it  is  natural  to  begin 
with  those  of  Africa. 

At  the  head  of  these  is  the  Barb,  from  Barbary,  and  particularly  from. 
Morocco  and  Fez,  and  the  interior  of  Tripoli  ;  and  remarkable  for  his  fine 
and  graceful  action.  It  is  rather  lower  than  the  Arabian,  seldom  exceed- 
ing foui'teen  hands  and  an  inch.  The  shoulders  are  flat,  the  chest  round,, 
the  joints  inclined  to  be  long,  and  the  Jiead  particularly  beautiful.  The 
Barb  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  Arab  in  form,  but  has  not  his  spirit,  or 
speed,  or  countenance. 

The  Barb  has  chiefly  contributed  to  the  excellence  of  the  Spanish  horse;, 
ond.  when  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of  horses  began  to  be  systemati- 
i.ally  pursued  in  Great  Britain,  the  Barb  was  very  early  introduced.  The 
(Jodolphin  Arabian,  as  he  is  called,  of  whom  we  have  presented  our 
readers  with  a  cut,  and  who  was  the  origin  of  some  of  our  best  racing 
*)lood,  was  a  Barb;  and  others  of  our  most  celebrated  turf-horses  trace 
iheir  descent  from  African  mares. 

More  in  the  centre  of  Africa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bournou,  is  a  breed, 
which  Mr.  Tully,  in  his  almost  romantic  history  of  Tripoli,  reckons  superior 
even  to  those  of  Arabia  or  Barbary  ;   it  possesses  the  best  qualities  of  both 
B 


in  THE  HORSE. 

those  biecfls,  being  as  serviceable  as  that  of  Arabia,  and  as  beautiful    as 
tliat  of  Barbary. 

In  the  more  southern  and  western  districts  of  Africa,  and  particularly  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Guinea  Coast,  the  breed  of  horses  is  very  in- 
ferior. They  are  small,  weak,  unsafe,  and  untractable.  But  neither 
liorses,  nor  any  other  produce  of  value,  can  be  looked  for  in  those 
unliappy  countries,  so  long  as  they  are  desolated  by  the  infernal  slave- 
trade  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  most  civilized,  but  truly  unchi'istian, 
nations  of  Europe. 


THE  DONGOLA  HORSE. 

The  kingdom  of  Dongola,  and  the  neighbouring  districts  lying  between 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  contain  a  horse  not  at  all  like  any  other  oriental. 

The  "Dongola  horses  stand  full  sixteen  hands  high,  but  the  length  of  the 
body,  from  the  shoulders  to  the  quartar,  is  considerably  less.  Their  form, 
therefore,  is  opposite  to  that  of  the  Arabian,  or  English  thorough-bred,  which 
are  longer  by  some  inches  than  they  are  high.  The  neck  is  long  and 
slender,  the  crest  fine,  and  the  withers  sharp  and  high,  giving  a  beautiful 
forehead ;  but  the  breast  is  to  narrow,  the  quarters  and  flanks  too  flat,  and 
the  back  carped.  They  constitute  excellant  war-horses,  from  their  speed 
durability,  and  size.  Several  of  them  have  lately  been  imported  into  Eu- 
rope, but  they  are  liitle  valued.  Possibly,  with  three-part-bred  mares,  they 
might  improve  our  cavalry  horses." 

Bosman,  whose  descriptions  prove  him  to  be  no  bad  horseman,  thus 
speaks  of  them,  but  in  somewhat  to  flattering  a  manner.  "  The  Dongola 
horses  are  the  most  perfect  in  the  world,  being  beautiful,  symmetrical  in  their 
parts,  nervous  and  elastic  in  their  movements,  and  docile  and  afft>ctionate  in 
their  manners.  One  of  these  horses  was  sold  in  1816,  at  Grand  Cairo,  for 
a  sum  equivalent  to  1000/." 

Mr.  Bruce  tells  us,  that  the  best  African  horses  are  said  to  be  descended 
from  one  of  the  five  on  which  Mahomet  and  his  four  immediate  succes- 
sors fled  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  on  the  night  of  the  Hegira.  He  thus 
accounts  for  very  singular  and  opposite  customs  among  the  Arabs  and 
Africans. 

"No  Arab  ever  mounts  a  stallion  :  on  the  contrary,  in  Africa  they  never 
ride  mares.  The  reason  is  plain. — The  Arabs  are  constantly  at  war  with 
their  neighbours,  and  always  endeavour  to  take  their  enemies  by  surprise 
in  the  grey  of  the  evening,  or  the  dawn  of  day.  A  stallion  no  sooner 
smells  the  stale  of  the  mai-e  in  the  enemy's  quarters,  than  he  begins  to 
neigh,  and  that  would  give  the  alarm  to  the  party  intended  to  be  surprised. 
No  such  thing  can  ever  happen  when  they  ride  mares  only.  On  the  con- 
trary,  the  Funge  trust  only  to  superior  force.  They  are  in  an  open,  plaii 
country — must  be  discovered  at  many  miles  distance — and  all  such  sur- 
Drises  and  stratagems  are  useless  to  them." 


THE  ARABIAN. 

Gomg  further  eastward  we  arrive  at  Arabia,  whose  hones  deservedly 
occupy  the  very  highest  rank. 


THE  ARABIAN.  1 1 


Tlit  M'elUs.y  Jlralnun. 


A  ffe'rt-  wild  horses  are  yet  seen  on  some  of  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  They 
are  hunted  by  the  Bedouins  for  their  flesh,  which  is  considered  a  delicacy, 
if  the  animal  be  young  ;  and  also  to  increase  their  stock  of  inferior  horses, 
which  they  often  palm  on  the  merchant  as  descended  from  the  sacred 
Dreed.  They  are  said  to  be  even  swifter  than  the  domesticated  horse,  and 
are  usually  taken  by  traps  hidden  in  the  sand.  Mr  Bruce,  however,  doubts 
whether  any  wild  horses  are  now  found  in  Arabia  Deserta.* 

Although  in  the  seventh  century  the  Arabs  had  no  horses  of  value, 
yet  the  Cappadocian  and  other  horses  which  they  had  derived  from 
their  neighbours,  were  preserved  with  so  much  care,  and  pronagated 
so  uniformly  and  strictly  from  the  finest  of  the  breed,  that  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  Arabian  horse  began  to  assume  a  just  ana  unrivalled 
celebrity. 

There  are  said  to  be  three  breeds  or  varieties  of  the  Arabian  horses  :  the 
Atteclii,  or  inferior  breed,  on  which  they  set  'Utle  value,  and  which  are 
found  wild  on  some  parts  of  the  deserts ;  thi.  KadiscJd,  literally  horses  of 
an  unknown  race,  answering  to  our  half-bred  horses — a  mixed  breed  ;  and 
the  Kochlani,  horses  whose  genealogy,  according  to  the  Arab  account,  is 
known  for  two  thousand  years.  Many  of  them  have  written  and  attested 
pedigrees  extending  more  than  four  hundred  years,  and,  with  true  Eastern 
exaggeration,  traced  by  oral  tradition  from  the  stud  of  Solomon.  A 
more  careful  account  is  kept  of  these  genealogies  than  belongs  to  the 
most  ancient  family  of  tiie  proudest  Arab  chief,  and  very  singular  pre- 
cautions  are  taken  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  fraud,  so  far  as  the  written 
pedigree  extends. 

The  Kochlani  are  principally  reared  by  the  Bedouin  Arabs,  in  the 
remoter  deserts.  A  stallion  may  be  procured  without  much  difficulty, 
although  at  a  great  price.  A  mare  is  rarely  to  be  obtained,  except  by 
fraud  and  excessive  bribery.  The  Arabs  have  found  out  that  which  the 
Knglish  breeder  should  never  forget,  that  the  female  is  more  concerned 
*han  the  male  in  the  excellence  and  value  of  the  produce  ;  and  the  geneal- 
ogies of  their  horses  are  always  reckoned  from  the  mothers. 

The  Arabian  horse  would  not  be  acknowledged  by  every  judge  to  pos 

*  Bruce's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  p.  430 


i>2  ■    THE  HORSE. 

Kcss  a  [erfcct  form:  his  head,  'lowevcr,  is  inimitaU.c.  The  broadne* 
and  s(iuarf-ness  of  the  forehead,  the  shortness  and  fineness  of  the  muzzle, 
the  prominence  and  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  the  smallness  of  the  ears,  anc 
the  beautiful  course  of  the  veins,  will  always  characterise  the  head  of  the 
Arabian  norse. 

His  body  may  be  considered  as  too  light,  and  his  chest  as  too  narrow 
but  beiiind  the  arms  the  barrel  generally  swells  out  and  leaves  sufficien 
room  for  the  play  of  the  lungs. 

In  the  formation  of  the  shoulder,  next  to  that  of  the  head,  the  Arab  is 
superior  to  any  other  breed.  The  withers  are  high,  and  the  shoulder-hlade 
inclined  backward,  and  so  nicely  adjusted,  that  in  descending  a  hill  the 
point  or  edge  of  the  ham  never  rutiles  the  skin.  He  may  not  be  thought 
sufficiently  high;   he  seldom  stands  more  than  fourteen  hands  two  inches. 

The  fineness  of  his  legs,  and  the  oblique  position  of  his  pasterns,  may 
be  supposed,  to  lessen  his  apparent  strength  ;  but  the  leg,  although  small, 
is  flat  and  wiry;-  anatomists  know  that  the  bone  has  no  common  density,  and 
the  starting  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  and  the  thigh  indicate  that  he  is  fully 
capable  of  accomplishing  many  of  the  feats  which  are  recorded  of  him. 

The  Barb  alone  excels  him  in  noble  and  spirited  action  ;  and  if  there  be 
defects  about  him,  he  is  perfect  for  that  for  which  he  was  designed.  He 
presents  the  true  combination  of  speed  and  bottom — strength  enough  to 
carry  more  than  a  light  weight,  and  courage  that  would  cause  him  to  die 
rather  than  to  give  up. 

We  may  not,  perhaps,  believe  all  that  is  told  us  of  the  Araoian.  It 
has  been  remarked,  that  there  are  on  the  deserts  which  this  horse  traverses 
no  mile-stones  to  mark  the  distance,  or  watches  to  calculate  the  time  ; 
and  the  Bedouin  is  naturally  given  to  exaggeration,  and,  most  of  nil,  when 
relating  the  prowess  of  the  animal,  which  he  loves  as  dearly  as  his  chil- 
dren:  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  at  the  introduction  of  the  Arabian  into 
the  European  stables,  there  was  no  other  horse  comparable  to  him. 

The  Arab  horse  is  as  celebrated  for  his  docility  and  good  temper  as 
lor  his  speed  and  courage.  In  that  delightful  book,  'Bishop  Heber's  Nar- 
rative of  a  Journey  through  the  Upper  Provinces  of  India,'  the  following 
interesting  character  is  given  of  him.  "  My  morning  rides  are  very  pleasant. 
My  horse  is  a  nice,  quiet,  good-tempered  little  Arab,  who  is  so  fearless,  that 
he  goes  without  starting  close  to  an  elephant,  and  so  gentle  and  docile  that 
he  eats  bread  out  of  my  hand,  and  lias  almost  as  much  attachment  and 
coaxing  ways  as  a  dog.  This  seems  the  general  character  of  the  Arab 
tiorses,  to  judge  from  what  I  have  seen  in  this  country.  It  is  not  the 
fiery  dashing  animal  I  had  supposed,  but  with  more  rationality  about  him, 
and  more  apparent  confidence  in  his  rider,  than  the  majority  of  English 
horses." 

The  kindness  with  which  he  is  treated  from  a  foal,  gives  him  an  aflection 
foi  his  master,  a  wisl)  to  please,  a  pride  in  exerting  e»ery  energy  in  obedience 
to  his  commands,  and,  consequently,  an  apparent  sagacity  which  is  seldom 
seen  in  other  breeds.  The  mare  and  her  foal  inhabit  the  same  tent  with 
the  Bedouin  and  his  children.  The  neck  of  the  mare  is  often  the  pillow 
of  the  rider,  and  more  frequently,  of  the  children,  who  are  rolling  about 
upon  her  and  the  foal  :  yet  no  accident  ever  occurs,  and  the  animal  ac- 
duires  that  friendship  and  love  for  man  which  occasional  ill-treatment  will 
n^*  cause  him  for  a  moment  to  forget. 

When  the  Arab  falls  from  his  mare,  and  is  unable  to  rise,  she  will 
immediately  stand  still,  and  neigh  until  assistance  arnves.  If  he  lies 
lown  to  sleep^  as  fatigues  sometimes  compels  him,  in   iie  midst  of  the 


THE  ARABIAN.  13 

desert,  she  stands  watchful  over  him,  and  neighs  and  rouses  him  if  either 
man  or  beast  ap|)roaches.  An  old  Arab  had  a  valuable  mare  that  had 
carried  hnn  for  fifteen  years  in  many  a  hard-fought  battle,  and  many  a 
rapid  weary  march  ;  at  length,  eighty  years  old,  and  unable  longer  to  ride 
lier,  he  gave  her,  and  a  scimitar  tliat  had  been  his  father's,  to  his  eldesj 
son,  and  told  him  to  appreciate  tiieir  value,  and  never  lie  down  to  rest  until 
he  had  rubbed  tiiem  both  as  bright  as  a  looking-glass.  In  the  first  skir. 
mish  in  which  the  young  man  was  engaged  he  was  killed,  and  the  mare 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  When  the  news  reached  the  old  man,  lie 
exclaimed  that  "  life  was  no  longer  worth  preserving,  for  he  had  lost  both 
his  son  and  his  mare,  and  he  grieved  for  one  as  much  as  the  other;"  and 
lie  immediately  sickened  and  died.* 

Man,  however,  is  an  inconsistent  being.  The  Arab  who  thus  lives  with 
and  loves  his  horses,  regarding  them  as  his  most  valuable  treasure,  some- 
times treats  them  with  a  cruelty  scarcely  to  be  believed,  and  not  at  all  to 
be  justified.  The  severest  treatment  which  the  English  race-horse  endures 
is  gentleness  compared  with  the  trial  of  the  young  Arabian.  Probably 
the  filly  has  never  before  been  mounted;  she  is  led  out;  her  owner 
springs  on  her  back,  and  goads  her  over  the  sand  and  rocks  of  the  desert 
at  full  speed  for  fifty  or  sixty  miles  without  one  moments  respite.  She  is 
then  forced,  steaming  and  panting,  into  water  deep  enough  for  her  to  swim. 
If,  immediately  after  this,  she  will  eat  as  if  nothing  had  occurred,  her 
character  is  established,  and  she  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  genuine  descen- 
dant of  the  Kochlani.  breed.  The  Arab  is  not  conscious  of  the  cruelty 
which  he  thus  inflicts.  It  is  an  invariable  custom,  and  custom  will  induce 
us  to  inflict  many  a  pang  on  those  wiiom,  after  all,  we  love. 

ARABIAN    ANECDOTES. 

The  following  anecdote  of  the  attachment  of  an  Arab  to  his  mare  has 
v)ften  been  told,  but  it  comes  home  to  the  bosom  of  every  one  possessed  of 
common  feelings.  "  The  whole  stock  of  an  Arab  of  the  desert  consisted 
of  a  mare.  The  French  consul  olTered  to  purchase  her  in  order  to  send 
her  to  his  sovereign,  Louis  XIV.  The  Arab  v/ould  have  rejected  the  pro- 
posal  at  once  with  indignation  and  scorn ;  but  he  was  miserably  poor.  He 
had  no  means  of  supplying  his  most  urgent  wants,  or  procuring  the  barest 
necessaries  of  life.  Still  he  hesitated  ; — he  had  scarcely  a  rag  to  cover 
iiim — and  his  wife  and  children  were  starving.  The  sum  ottered  was 
great — it  would  provide  him  and  his  family  with  food  for  life.  At  length, 
and  reluctantly,  he  consented.  He  brought  the  mare  to  the  dwelling  of 
the  consul — he  dismounted, — he  stood  leaning  upon  her  ; — he  looked  now 
at  the  gold,  and  then  at  his  favourite  ;  he  sighed — he  wept.  '  To  whom  is 
it,'  said  he,  'I  am  going  to  yield  thee  up?  To  Europeans,  who  will  tie 
thee  close, — who  will  beat  thee, — who  will  render  thee  miserable.  Re- 
turn with  me,  my  beauty,  my  jewel,  and  rejoice  the  hearts  of  my  children.' 
As  he  pronounced  the  last  words,  he  sprung  upon  her  back,  and  was  out 
of  sight  in  a  moment." 

The  next  anecdote  is  scarcely  less  touching,  and  not  so  well  known, 
Ibrahim,  a  poor  but  worthy  Arab,  unable  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  which 
he  owed,  was  compelled  to  allow  a  merchant  of  Rama  to  become  partner 
A^ith  him  in  a  valuable  mare.  When  the  time  came,  he  could  not  redeem 
Ills  pledge  to  this  man,  and  the  mare  was  sold.  Her  pedigree  could  be 
traced  on  the  side  of  sire  and  dam  for  full  five  hundred  years.     The  price 

•  Sniilh  on  Breeding,  p.  80. 


14  THE  HORSE, 

was  three  hundred  pounds;  an  enormous  sum  in  that  country.  Ibrahim 
went  feeqjently  to  Rama  to  inquire  after  the  mare:  he  would  embrace 
her, — wipe  her  eyes  with  his  handiverchief, — rub  her  witli  his  shirt 
sleeves, — and  give  her  a  thousand  benedictions  during  whole  hours  that 
ho  remained  talking  to  her.  '  My  eyes  !'  would  he  say  to  her,  '  my  soul  ! 
my  heart!  must  I  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  thee  sold  to  so  many  mas- 
ers  and  not  keep  thee  myself?  I  am  poor,  my  antelope  !  I  brought  thee  up 
in  my  dwelling  as  my  ciiild.  I  did  never  beat  nor  chide  thee  ;  I  caressed 
thee  in  tiie  proudest  manner.  God  preserve  thee,  my  beloved !  thou  art 
beautiful,  thou  art  sweet,  thou  art  lovely!  God  defend  thee  from  en- 
vious eyes  !'' 

Sir  John  Malcolm  gives  two  anecdotes  to  the  same  purpose,  but  of  a 
more  amusing  nature. 

"  When  the  envoy,  returning  from  his  former  mission,  was  encamped 
near  Bagdad,  an  Arab  rode  a  bright  bay  mare  of  extraordinary  shape  and 
beauty  before  his  tent,  until  he  attracted  his  attention.  On  being  asked  if 
he  would  sell  her ; — '  What  will  you  give  me  ?'  was  the  reply  :  '  That 
depends  upon  her  age ;  1  suppose  she  is  past  five  V — Guess  again,'  said 
he.  'Four?'  'Look  at  her  mouth,'  said  the  Arab  with  a  smile.  On 
examination  she  was  found  to  be  rising  three.  This,  from  her  size  and 
symmetry,  greatly  enhanced  her  value.  The  envoy  said,  'I  will  give  you 
fifty  tomans'  (a  coin  nearly  of  the  value  of  a  pound  sterling.)  'A  little 
more  if  you  please,'  said  the  fellow  apparently  entertained.  'Eighty. 
A  hundred.'  He  shook  his  head  and  smiled.  The  offer  at  last  came  tc 
two  hundred  tomans.  'Well,'  said  the  Arab,  'you  need  not  tempt  me 
further  ; — it  is  of  no  use. — You  are  a  rich  elchee  (nobleman.)  You  have 
fine  horses,  camels,  and  mules,  and,  I  am  told,  vou  have  loads  of  silver 
and  gold.  Now,'  added  he,  'you  want  my  mare,  but  you  shall  not  have 
her  for  all  you  have  got."* 

"An  Arab  sheick  or  chief,  who  lived  within  fifty  miles  of  Bussorah,  had 
a  favourite  breed  of  horses.  He  lost  one  of  his  best  mares,  and  could  not 
for  a  long  while  discover  whether  she  was  stolen  or  had  strayed.  Some 
time  after,  a  young  man  of  a  diffe-rent  tribe,  who  had  long  wisiied  to  marry 
his  daughter,  but  had  always  been  rejected  by  the  sheick,  obtained  the 
lady's  consent  and  eloped  with  her.  The  sheick  and  his  followers  pursued, 
but  the  lover  and  his  mistress,  mounted  on  one  horse,  made  a  wonderful 
march,  and  escaped.  The  old  chief  swore  that  the  fellow  was  either 
mounted  upon  the  devil,  or  the  favourite  mare  he  had  lost.  After  his 
return,  he  found  the  latter  was  the  case ;  that  the  lover  was  the  thief  of 
his  mare  as  well  as  his  daughter ;  and  that  he  had  stole  the  one  to  carry 
off  the  other.  The  chief  was  quite  gratified  to  think  he  had  not  been 
beaten  by  a  mare  of  another  breed  ;  and  was  easily  reconciled  to  the  young 
man,  in  order  that  he  might  recover  the  mare,  which  appeared  an  object 
about  which  he  was  more  solicitous  than  about  his  daughter."  f 

One  of  our  own  countrymen,  the  enterprising  traveller,  Major  Denham, 
affords  us  a  pleasing  instance  of  the  attachment  with  which  the  docility 
and  sagacity  of  the  horse  may  inspire  the  owner. — He  thus  relates  the 
death  of  his  favourite  Arabian,  in  one  of  the  most  desert  spots  of  Central 
Africa.  His  feelings  needed  no  apology.  We  naturally  honour  the  man 
m  whom  true  sensibility  and  undaunted  courage,  exerted  for  useful  pur- 
poses,  were  thus  united. 

"  There  are  a  few   situations   in   a    man's   life    in   which   losses   of  iIah 

•  Malcolm's  Sketches  of  Persia,  vol.  i.  p.  41.  t  Ibia.  p.  45. 


THE  ARABIAN— THE  EAST  INDIAN.  Ift 

nature  arc  fe.t  most  keenly  ;  and  this  was  one  of  them.  It  was  not  griet 
but  it  was  something  very  nearly  approaching  to  it ;  and  though  I  feii 
ashamed  of  the  degree  of  derangement  I  sutfered  from  it,  yet  it  was  several 
days  before  I  could  get  over  the  loss.  Let  it,  however,  be  remembered 
that  the  poor  animal  had  been  my  support  and  comfort, — nay,  I  may  say, 
companion,  through  many  a  dreary  day  and  night ; — had  endured  both 
hunger  and  thirst  in  my  service ;  and  was  so  docile,  that  he  would  stand 
still  for  hours  in  the  desert  while  I  slept  between  his  legs,  his  body  atibrdi.iir 
me  the  only  shelter  that  could  be  obtained  from  the  powerful  influence  of 
a  noon-day  sun : — he  was  yet  the  fleetest  of  the  fleet,  and  ever  foremost  in 
the  chaso." 

Our  horses  would  fare  badly  on  the  scanty  nourishment  afforded  the 
Arabian.  The  mare  usually  has  but  one  or  two  meals  in  twenty-four  hours. 
During  the  day  she  is  tied  to  the  door  of  the  tent,  ready  for  the  Bedouin 
to  spring,  at  a  moment's  warning,  into  the  saddle ;  or  she  is  turned  out  be- 
fore the  tent  ready  saddled,  the  bridle  merely  taken  off,  and  so  trained  that 
she  gallops  up  immediately  at  her  master's  call.  At  night  she  receives  a 
little  vvater  ;  and  with  her  scanty  provender  of  five  or  six  pounds  of  barley 
or  beans,  and  sometimes  a  little  straw,  she  lies  down  content,  in  the  midst 
of  her  masters  family.  She  can,  however,  endure  great  fatigue  ;  she  will 
travel  fifty  miles  without  stopping  ;  she  has  been  pushed,  on  emergency, 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles,  and,  occasionally  neither  she  nor  her  rider 
has  tasted  food  for  three  whole  days. 

To  tht  Arabian,  principally,  England  is  indebted  for  her  improved  and 
now  unrivalled  breed  of  horses  for  the  turf,  the  field,  and  the  road,  as  will 
be  shown  when  we  presently  treat  of  the  English  horse. 


THE  EAST  INDIAN  HORSE. 


We  will  now  travel  further  eastward,  and  look  at  the  breeds  of  horses  in 
our  Indian  possessions.  First,  we  have  the  Toorky,  originally  from  a  Toor. 
koman  and  a  Persian,  beautiful  in  his  form,  graceful  in  his  action,  and  do- 
cile in  his  temper.  It  is  said  that,  when  skilfully  managed,  the  grandeur 
and  stateliness  of  his  carriage  are  equal  to  what  the  warmest  imagination 
can  conceive  of  the  horse  :  his  spirit  rising  as  his  exertions  are  required,  he 
exhibits  to  his  beholders  an  appearance  of  fury  in  the  performance  of  his 
task,  yet  preserving  to  his  rider  the  utmost  playfulness  and  gentleness. 

Next  comes  the  Iranee,  well  limbed,  and  his  joints  closely  knit,  and  par. 
ticularly  powerful  in  the  quarters,  but  with  scarcely  sufficient  spirit,  and 
his  ears  large  and  loose. 

The  patient  and  docile  Cozakee  is  deep  in  the  girth,  powerful  in  the  fore- 
arm,  but  with  large  head,  and  sadly  cat-hantimed  ;  hardy,  and  calculated 
for  long  journeys  and  severe  service. 

The  Mojhimss  have  spirit,  beauty,  speed,  and  perseverance. 

The  Tazsee  is  slight,  hollow-backed,  and,  for  that  reason  perhaps,  although 
deficient  in  strength,  and  leaving  as  it  were  his  hind  legs  behind  him,  and 
likewise  irritable  in  temper,  yet  he  is  sought  after  on  account  of  the  pecu- 
liar easiness  of  his  pace. 

A  sale  of  horses  near  the  Company's  stud,  at  Hissar,  is  thus  described 
by  an  excellent  judge.  "Not  less  than  one  thousand  horses  were  shewn. 
They  were  all  above  fourteen  hands  and  a  half  in  height,  high-crested,  and 
shewy-lookina  horses.     The  great  defect  seemed  a  want  of  bone  below 


16  THE  HORSE. 

the  kri'ie,  which  is  indeed  general  to  all  the  native  horses  throughout  India  ; 
and  also  so  great  a  tendency  to  fulness  in  the  hocks,  that,  in  England,  il 
would  be  thought  half  of  them  had  blood  spavins." 


THE  CHINESE  HORSE. 

This  breed  is  small,  weak,  ill-formed,  without  spirit,  and  altogether  un- 
ripservinji  of  notice. 


THE  PERSIAN  HORSE 

Returning  westward  we  find  the  Persian  next  m  estimation,  and  deser- 
vedly  so,  to  the  Arabian.  The  head  is  almost  equally  beautiful,  the  crup- 
per  superior ;  he  is  equal  in  speed,  but  far  inferior  in  endurance.  The 
whole  frame  is  more  developed  than  in  the  Arabian. 

The  Persian  horses  were  celebrated  for  many  a  century  before  the  Ara- 
bians  were  known,  or  even  existed.  They  constituted,  in  ancient  times 
the  best  cavalry  of  the  East.  The  native  Persian  was  so  highly  prized 
that  Alexander  considered  one  of  them  the  noblest  gift  he  could  bestow, 
and  when  the  kings  of  Parthia  would  propitiate  their  divinities  by  the  most 
costly  sacrifice,  a  Persian  horse  was  otfered  on  the  altar.  An  enterlaining 
traveller  (Sir  R.  Ker  Porter)  bears  testimony  that  they  have  not  now  de- 
generated.    He  gives  the  following  account  of  this  breed. 

"  Tlie  Persian  liorses  never  exceed  fourteen  or  fourteen  and  a  half  hands 
high,  yet  certainly,  in  the  whole  are  taller  than  the  Arabs.  Those  of  the 
desert  and  country  about  Hillah  run  very  small,  but  are  full  of  bone  and 
of  good  speed.  General  custom  feeds  and  waters  them  only  at  sun-rise 
and  sun-set,  when  they  are  cleaned.  Their  usual  provender  is  barley  and 
chopped  straw,  which,  if  the  animals  are  piqueted,  is  put  into  a  nose-bag 
and  hung  from  their  heads;  but  if  stabled,  it  is  thrown  into  a  small 
lozenge-shaped  hole  left  in  the  thickness  of  the  mud-wall  for  that  purpose, 
but  much  higher  up  than  the  line  of  our  mangers,  and  there  the  animal 
eats  at  his  leisure.  Hay  is  a  kind  of  food  not  known  here.  The  bedding 
of  the  horse  consists  of  his  dung.  After  being  exposed  to  the  drying  in- 
fluence of  the  sun  during  the  day,  it  becomes  pulverized,  and,  in  that  state 
IS  nightly  spread  under  him.*  Little  of  it  touches  his  body,  that  being 
covered  by  his  clothing,  a  large  nummud  from  the  ears  to  the  tail,  and 
bound  firmly  round  his  body  by  a  very  long  surcingle.  But  this  apparel 
is  only  for  cold  weather;  in  the  warmer  season  the  night-clothes  are  of  a 
lighter  substance,  and  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  animal  is  kept  en- 
tirely under  shade. 

"At  night  he  is  tied  in  the  court  yard.  Tlie  horses'  heads  are  attached 
to  the  place  of  security,  by  double  ropes  from  their  halters,  and  the  heels 
of  their  hinder  legs  are  confined  by  cords  of  twisted  hair,  fastened  to  iron 
rings,  and  pegs  driven  into  the  earth.  The  same  custom  prevailed  in  the 
time  of  Xenophon,  and  for  the  same  reason,  to  secure  them  from  being 
able  to  attack  and  maim  each  other,  the  whole  stud  generally  consisting  of 
stallions.     Their  keepers,  however,  always  sleep  on  their  rugs  amongst 

♦  It  is  the  usual  flooring  of  the  stable  and  the  tent.  The  united  influence  f  f  the  sun 
«nd  air  deprive  it  of  all  unpleasant  odour,  and  when  from  use  it  becomes  a  second  tim< 
oileiisive,  i    is  agaio  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  all  unpleasant  smell  once  more  tal^en  away. 


THE  PERSIAN— TOORKOM AN.  17 

tiiern  to  prevent  accident;  and  sometimes,  notwithstanding  all  .his  care, 
they  manage  to  break  loose,  and  then  the  combat  ensues.  A  genera) 
neighing,  screaming,  kicking,  and  snorting,  soon  rouses  the  grooms,  and 
the  scene  for  awhile  is  terrible.  Indeed  no  one  can  conceive  the  sudden 
uproar  of  such  a  moment  who  has  not  been  in  Eastern  countries  to  hear  it. 
and  then  all  who  have,  must  bear  me  witness  tliat  the  noise  is  tremendous 
They  seize,  bite,  and  kic-k  each  other  with  the  most  determined  fury,  and 
frequently  cannot  be  separated  before  their  heads  and  haunches  stream  with 
blood.  Even  in  skirmishes  with  the  natives,  their  horses  take  part  in  the 
fray,  tearing  each  other  with  their  teeth,  while  their  masters  are  in  similar 
close  quarters  on  their  backs." 

His  description  of  a  Persian  race  does  not  altogether  remind  us  of 
Newmarket  or  Doncaster. 

"  My  curiosity  was  fully  on  the  spur  to  see  the  racers,  which  1  could  not 
doubt  must  have  been  chosen  from  the  best  in  the  nation  to  exhibit  the  perfec- 
tion of  its  breed  before  the  sovereign.  The  rival  horses  were  divided  into 
three  sets,  in  order  to  lengthed  the  amusement.  They  had  been  in  training 
for  several  weeks,  going  over  the  ground  very  often  during  that  time  ;  and 
when  I  did  see  them,  I  found  so  much  pains  had  been  taken  to  sweat  and 
redjje  their  weight,  that  their  bones  were  nearly  cutting  the  skin.  The 
distance  marked  for  the  race  was  a  stretch  of  four-and-twenty  miles,  and, 
that  his  majesty  might  not  have  to  wait  when  he  had  reached  the  field,  the 
horses  had  set  forward  long  before,  by  three  divisions,  from  the  starting 
point,  (a  short  interval  of  time  passing  between  each  set,)  so  that  they 
might  begin  to  come  in,  a  few  minutes  after  the  king  had  taken  his  seat.  The 
different  divisions  arrived  in  regular  order  at  the  goal,  but  all  so  fatigued 
and  exhausted,  that  their  former  boasted  fleetness  hardly  exceeded  a 
moderate  canter  when  they  passed  before  the  royal  eyes." 

In  Circassia  almost  every  family  of  distinction,  whether  of  princes  or 
nobles,  boasts  of  possessing  a  peculiar  race  of  horses,  which,  when  young, 
are  burned  on  ihe  buttock  with  a  particular  mark.  On  this  occasion,  they 
act  with  the  most  scrupulous  adherence  to  custom,  so  that  a  person  who 
should  attempt  to  burn  a  character  expressing  noble  descent,  on  a  filly  of 
a  common  race,  would,  for  such  forgery,  forfeit  his  life.  The  most  cele- 
brated race  of  Circassian  horses  has  received  the  name  of  Shalokh,  and  is 
in  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  Tau  Sultan  family.  This  race  is  valu- 
able for  its  strength  and  swiftness,  more  than  its  peculiar  beauty.  Its  dis- 
tiuffuishinji  mark  is  a  full  horse-shoe   without  an  arrow. 


THE  TOORKOMAN  HORSE. 

Turkistan  is  that  part  of  South  Tartary,  north-east  of  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  has  been  celebrated  from  very  early  times,  for  producing  a  pure  and 
valuable  breed  of  horses.  Tliey  are  called  Toorkomans.  They  are  said  to 
be  preferable  even  to  the  pure  Persians,  for  service.  They  are  large, 
standing  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high ;  swift,  and  inexhaustible 
under  fatigue.  Some  of  them  have  travelled  nine  hundred  miles  in  eleven 
successive  days.  They,  however,  are  somewhat  too  small  in  the  barrel- 
too  long  on  the  legs — occasionally  ewe-necked,  and  always  have  a  head 
out  ol  proportion  large :  yet,  such  are  the  good  qualities  of  the  horse,  that 
one.  of  tiie  pure  blood  is  worth  two  or  three  hundred  pounds,  even  in  that 
•country. 

Captain  Prase r,  who  is  evidently  a  good  judge  of  the  horse,  (in    his 


|g  THE  HORSE 

Journev  to  Kliorasan)  thus  relates  the  impression  which  they  made  on  mm. 
"They  are  deficient  in  compactness.  Their  bodies  are  long  in  proportion 
to  their  bulk.  They  are  not  well  ribbed  up.  They  are  long  on  the  legs, 
— deficient  in  muscle — falling  off  below  the  knee  ; — narrow  chested — long 
necked, — head  large,  uncouth,  and  seldom  well  put  on.  Such  was  the 
impression  1  received  from  the  first  sight  of  them,  and  it  was  not  for  some 
time  that  tlieir  suoerior  valuable  qualities  were  apparent  to  me." 


THE  TARTAR  AND  CALMUCK  HORSE. 

The  horses  of  the  other  parts  of  Tartary,  comprehending  the  imm^'nse 
plains  of  Central  Asia,  and  a  considerable  part  of  European  Russia,  are 
little  removed  from  a  wild  state  :  they  are  small  and  badly  made  ;  but 
capable  of  supporting  the  longest  and  most  rapid  journey,  on  the  scantiest 
fare.  The  foals,  from  the  earliest  period,  are  exposed  to  the  inclemency 
of  the  weather,  have  little  to  eat,  and  follow  their  dams  in  the  longest 
excursions,  and  therefore,  soon  acquire  a  very  great  power  of  sustaining 
fatigue.  They  must  be  hardy  for  another  reason.  The  Tartars  live  much 
on  the  flesh  of  horses,  and,  consequently,  those  animals  that  are  unable  to 
support  the  labour  of  their  frequent  rapid  emigrations  are  soon  destroyed, 
and  only  the  more  vigorous  preserved. 

The  horses,  which  range  at  large  over  the  plains,  are  divided  into  herds 
at  the  head  of  which  are  placed  two  stallions,  who  carefully  prevent  then 
from  intermingling  with  each  other,  and  it  is  rarely  that  a  foal  is  lost.  On 
the  approach  of  a  strange  herd,  the  stallions  drive  their  own  into  a  close 
body,  place  themselves  in  front,  and,  if  necessary,  attack  and  drive  ofi'the 
others.  As  the  stallion-foals  grow  up,  they  are  driven  away  from  the  herds, 
and  are  seen  straggling  about  at  a  distance,  until  they  are  strong  enough 
to  form  herds  of  wild  mares  for  themselves. 

These  horses,  or  those  of  a  similar  breed  and  habiis,  were  beaten  by  not 
the  first-rate  English  blood-horses,  in  a  race  which  fairly  put  to  the  test 
both  their  speed  and  stoutness.  On  the  4th  of  August,  1825,  a  race  of 
the  cruel  distance  of  more  than  forty-seven  miles  was  run  between  two 
Cossack  and  two  thorough-bred  English  horses — Sharper  and  Mina.  The 
most  celebrated  Cossack  horses  from  the  Don,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
Ural,  were  sent;  and,  after  numerous  trials,  the  best  were  selected.  On 
starting,  the  Cossacks  took  the  lead  at  a  moderate  pace,  the  English  fol- 
lowing at  about  three  or  four  lengths,  but  before  they  had  gone  half  a 
mile,  the  stirrup-leather  of  Sharper  broke,  and  he  ran  away  with  his  rider, 
followed  by  Mina,  and  they  went  more  than  a  mile,  and  up  a  steep  hill, 
before  they  could  be  held  in. 

Half  the  distance  was  run  in  an  hour  and  four  minutes.  Both  the 
English  horses  were  then  fresh,  and  one  of  the  Cossacks.  On  their  return, 
Mina  fell  lame,  and  was  taken  away.  The  Cossack  horse,  likewise  began 
to  flag,  when  the  accompan)nng  Russians  began  to  drag  him  on  by  the 
bridle,  throwing  away  the  saddle,  and  putting  a  mere  child  on  his  back. 
Sharper,  likewise,  evidently  shewed  the  effects  of  the  pace  at  which  he 
had  gone  when  running  away,  and  was  much  distressed.  The  Cossacks 
then  hud  recourse  to  foul  play,  and  actually  carried  on  their  horse  ;  some 
dragging  him  on  by  a  rope,  and  the  bridle  at  his  head  ;  and  others  puliing 
him  on  by  the  tail,  and  riding  alongside  of  his  quarters  to  support  him  and 
relieving  each  other  at  this  fatiguing  work.  Sharper  did  the  whole  dis. 
'ance  in  two  hours  and   fort}-eight  minutes,   and   the  Cossack   horse    v\  as 


THE  TURKISH— GERMAN.  \f\ 

warped  :n,  eight  minutes  after  him.  At  starting,  the  English  horses  car- 
ried full  three  stone  more  than  the  Cossacks;  and  during  the  latter  halfo* 
the  race,  a  mere  child  had  ridden  the  Cossack. 

THE  TURKISH  HORSE. 

The  Turkish  horses  are  descended  principally  from  the  Arab,  crossed  by 
the  Persian  and  certain  other  bloods.  The  body,  however,  is  even  longer 
than  tiie  Arabian's,  and  the  crupper  more  elevated.  They  have  contribu- 
ted  materially  to  the  improvement  of  the  English  breed.  The  Byerley  and 
the  Helmsley  Turk  are  names  familiar  to  every  one  conversant  with  horses, 
and  connected  with  our  best  blood. 

The  learned  and  benevolent  Busbequius,  who  was  amb.issador  at  Con- 
stantinople in  the  seventetnth  century,  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
Turkish  horses.  Our  gro^ims,  and  their  masters  too,  may  learn  a  lesson 
of  wisdom  and  humanity  fiom  his  words. 

"  There  is  no  creature  so  gentle  as  a  Turkish  horse,  nor  more  respectful 
to  his  master,  or  the  groom  that  dresses  him.  The  reason  is,  because  they 
treat  their  horses  with  great  lenity.  I  myself  saw,  when  I  was  in  Pontus, 
passing  through  a  part  of  Bithinia  called  Axilos,  towards  Cappadocia,  how 
indulgent  the  countrymen  were  to  young  colts,  and  how  kindly  they  used 
them  soon  after  they  were  foaled.  They  would  stroke  them,  bring  them 
into  their  houses,  and  almost  to  their  tables,  and  use  them  even  like  chil- 
dren.  They  hung  something  like  a  jewel  about  their  necks,  and  a  garter, 
which  was  full  of  amulets  against  poison,  which  they  are  most  afi'aid  of. 
The  grooms  that  dress  them  are  as  indulgent  as  their  masters;  they  fre- 
quently sleek  them  down  with  their  hands,  and  never  use  a  cudgel  to  bang 
their  sides,  but  in  cases  of  neces'sity.  This  makes  their  horses  great 
lovers  of  mankind,  and  they  are  so  far  from  kicking,  wincing,  or  growing 
untractable  by  this  gentle  usage,  that  you  will  hardly  find  a  masterless 
horse  amongst  them. 

"  But  alas  !  our  Christian  grooms'  horses  go  on  at  another  rate.  They 
never  think  them  rightly  curried  till  they  thunder  at  them  with  their 
voices,  and  let  their  clubs  or  horse-whips,  as  it  were,  dwell  on  their  sides. 
This  makes  some  horses  even  tremble  when  their  keepers  come  into  their 
stable  ;  so  that  they  hate  and  fear  them  too.  But  the  Turks  love  to  have 
their  horses  so  gentle,  that  at  the  word  of  command  they  may  fall  on  their 
knees,  and  in  this  position  receive  their  riders. 

"  They  will  take  up  a  staff'  or  club  upon  the  road  with  their  teeth, 
which  their  rider  has  let  fall,  and  hold  it  up  to  him  again  ;  and  when 
they  a  "e  perfect  in  this  lesson,  then,  for  credit,  they  have  rings  of  silver 
hung  on  their  nostrils  as  a  badge  of  honour  and  good  discipline.  I  saw 
so-^e  horses  when  their  master  was  fallen  from  the  saddle  stand  stock 
still  wiiliout  wagging  a  foot  till  he  got  up  again.  Another  time  I  saw  a 
groom  standing  at  a  distance  in  the  midst  of  a  whole  ring  of  horses,  and, 
at  the  word  of  command,  they  would  either  go  round  or  stand  still.  Once 
I  saw  some  horses  when  their  master  was  at  dinner  with  me  in  an  upper 
room  prick  up  their  ears  to  hear  his  voice,  and  when  they  did  so  they 
Deighed  for  joy." 

THE  GERMAN  HORSE. 

Tne  German  horses  are  generally  large,  heavy,  and  slow.  The  Flun- 
garian  may  be  an  exception,  being  lighter,  speedier,  and  giving  greater 


20  THE  HORSE 

proof  of  Eastnrn  blood.*  Every  part  of  the  continent,  however,  follouing 
ihe  »;xaniple  of  England,  has  been  diligently  engaged  in  the  improvement 
of  iis  breed,  and  the  German  and  Prussian  horses  are  now  better  propor- 
tionecl,  and  have  considerable  endurance,  but  are  still  deficient  in  speed. 
The  Prussian,  German,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  French  cavalry  are 
procured  from  Holstein.  They  are  of  a  dark,  glossy,  bay-colour,  with 
small  heads,  large  nostrils,  and  full  dark  eyes,  the  fire  and  clearness  of 
wliich  seem  to  denote  the  inward  spirit  of  the  animal.  They  are  beautiful 
active  and  strong. 

THE  SWEDISH,  FINLAND,  AND  NORWEGIAN   HORSE 

Of  tlie  Swedish  horses,  Clarke,  in  his  "  Scandinavia,"  says,  that  they 
are  small  but  beautiful,  and  remarkable  for  their  speed  and  spirit.  Those 
of  Finland  he  describes  as  yet  smaller,  not  more  than  twelve  hands  high, 
beautifully  formed,  and  very  fleet.  The  peasants  take  them  from  the  forests 
when  they  are  wanted  for  travellers.  Although  apparently  wild,  they  are 
under  perfect  control,  and  they  trot  along  with  ease  at  the  rate  of  twelve 
mile  an  hour. 

The  following  story  is  told  of  one  of  the  Norwegian  horses.  His  master 
had  been  dining  at  a  neighbouring  town,  and,  when  it  was  time  to  return, 
had  exceeded  so  much,  that  he  could  not  keep  a  firm  seat  in  his  saddle. 
The  horse  regulated  himself,  as  well  as  he  could,  according  to  the  un- 
settled motion  of  his  rider,  but,  happening  to  make  a  fiilse  step,  the  peasant 
was  thrown,  and  hung  with  one  foot  entangled  in  the  stirrup.  The  horse 
immediately  stopped,  and  twisting  his  body  in  various  directions,  en- 
deavoured to  extricate  his  master  but  in  vain.  The  man  was  severely 
hurt,  and  almost  helpless  ;  but  the  shock  had  brought  him  to  his  senses. 
The  horse  looked  at  him  as  he  lay  on  the  ground,  and,  stooping,  laid  hold 
of  the  brim  of  his  hat,  and  raised  his  head  a  little  ;  but  the  hat 
coming  off",  he  fell  again.  The  animal  then  laid  hold  of  the  collar  of  his 
coat,  and  raised  him  by  it  so  far  from  the  ground,  that  he  was  enabled  to 
draw  his  foot  out  of  the  stirrup.  After  resting  awhile  he  regained  the 
saddle,  and  reached  his  home.  Grateful  to  iiis  preserver,  the  man  did, 
what  every  good  feeling  bid  him, — he  cherished  the  animal  until  it  died  of 
old  age. 

Many  an  English  farmer  owes  a  considerable  debt  of  gratitude  to  his 
intelligent  and  faithful  servant,  who  has  taken  care  of  him  when  he  was 
unable  to  take  care  of  himself,  and,  possibly,  has  preserved  his  life.  Let 
liiin  repay  the  debt  by  kinder  usage. 

THE  ICELAND  HORSE. 

There  are  numerous  troops  of  horses  in  this  cold  and  inhospitable  conn- 
try,  descended,  according  to  Mr.  Anderson,  from  the  Norwegian  horse,  but, 
according  to  Mr.  Horrebow,  being  of  Scottish  origin.  They  are  very 
small,  strong,  and  swift.  There  are  thousands  of  them  in  the  mountains 
which  never  enter  a  stable,  but  instinct  or  habit  has  taught  them  to  scrape 
away  the  snow,  or  break  the  ice,  in  search  of  their  scanty  food.  A  few 
are  usually  kept  in  the  stable,  but  when  the  peasant  wants  more  he  catches 

♦  M.  de  Biiffon  strang-ely  afBrins  that  the  Hussars  and  Hungarians  slit  'he  noslrils  of 
their  hurses  with  a  view  to  increase  their  wind,  and  to  prevent  their  neighing  ;  and  that 
Hungarian,  Croatian,  and  Polish  horses  continue  to  old  ag-e  to  have  the  mark  in  all  their 
foreteeth. 


FLEMISH— FRENCH— SPANISH,  &c.  2\ 

AS  many  as  he  needs,  and  shoes  tlicm  himself,  and  that  sometimes  witli  a 
sheep's  horn.* 

THE  FLEMISH  AND  DUTCH  HORSE. 

The  Flemish  and  Dutch  horses  are  large,  and  strongly  and  beautifully 
formed.  We  are  indebted  to  them  for  some  of  the  best  blood  of  ou* 
draught-horses,  and  we  still  have  frequent  recourse  to  tliem  for  keeping  up 
and  impi'oving  the  breed.  They  will  be  more  particularly  described  when 
the  cart-horse  is  spoken  of. 

THE  FRENCH  HORSE. 

France  contains,  like  England,  numerous  breeds  of  horses,  and  consid- 
erable attention  has  lately  been  paid  to  their  improvement ;  but  they  are 
far  inferior  to  ours  in  beauty,  fleetness,  and  strength.  The  provinces  of 
Auvergne  and  Poitou  produce  good  ponies  and  galloways ;  but  the  best 
F.  inch  horses  are  bred  in  Limousin  and  Normandy.  From  the  former 
district  come  excellent  saddle-horses  and  hunters;  and  from  the  latter  a 
stronger  species  for  the  road,  tlie  cavalry,  or  the  carriage.  The  Norman 
horses  are  now  much  crossed  by  our  hunters,  and  occasionally  by  tlie 
thorough-bred  ;  and  the  English  roadster  and  light-draught  horse  has  not 
suffered  by  a  mixture  with  the  Norman. 

THE  SPANISH  HORSE. 

Spain  was  early  celebrated  for  her  breed  of  horses.  The  Andalusian 
charger  and  the  Spanish  jennet  are  familiar  to  all  readers  of  romance. 
The  subjugation  of  so  great  a  portion  of  the  peninsula  to  the  Moorish 
sway,  by  introducing  so  much  of  the  Barbary  blood,  mainly  contributed  to 
the  undisputed  excellence  of  the  Spanish  horse.  One  breed,  long  in  the 
limbs,  and  graceful  in  all  its  motions,  was  the  favourite  war-horse  of  the 
knights  ;  while  another  race,  carrying  the  esquire,  although  inferior  in 
elegance,  possessed  far  more  strength  and  endurance.  The  Spanish  horse 
of  the  present  day  is  not  much  unlike  the  Yorkshire  half-bred  ;  perhaps 
with  flatter  legs  and  better  feet,  but  far  inferior  figure. 

THE  ITALIAN  HORSE. 

The  Italian  horses  were  once  in  hign  repute,  particularly  the  Neapoli 
tans ;  but  like  every  thing  else  in  those  mismanaged  countries,  they  have 
sadly  degenerated.  One  circumstance  has  mainly  contributed  to  this 
faV.ins  off  in  reputation  and  value,  viz.  that  the  breed  has  been  kept  up  by 
occasional  intermixture,  not  of  Eastern,  but  of  European  blood.  A  few 
cf  the  Neapolitan  horses,  from  their  superior  size  and  stateliness,  are  well 
adapted  for  the  carriage. 

THE  AMERICAN  HORSE. 

In  the  extensive  territory  and  varied  climate  of  the  United  States,  several 
breeds  of  horses  are  found. 

The  Canadian  is  found  principally  in  Canada,  and  the  Northern  States. 
Me  is  supposed  to  be  of  French  d-  scent,  and  many  of  the  celebrated  Ameri. 
can  trotters  are  of  this  breed.  We  will  speak  of  some  of  them  when  we 
describe  the  paces  of  the  horse. 

♦  Kerguelen'a  Voyag-e  to  the  North. 


22  THE  HORSE. 

The  Conestoga  horse  is  found  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  middle  States  — 
If.ng  111  the  leg  and  light  in  the  carcase — sometimes  rising  seventeen  hands  : 
UJicd  principally  for  the  cairiage  ;  but  when  not  too  high,  and  witi  suffi- 
cient substance,  useful  for  hunting  and  the  saddle. 

The  Ejiglish  horse,  with  a  good  deal  of  blood,  prevails  in  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  ;  and  is  found,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  all  the  States.  The 
Americans  have,  at  different  times,  imported  some  of  the  best  Englisii  blood. 
It  has  been  most  diligently  and  purely  preserved  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  celebrated  Shark,  the  best  horse  of  his  day,  and  equalled  by  {ew  at 
any  time,  was  the  sire  of  the  best  Virginian  horses;  and  Tally-ho,  a  son 
of  Highflyer,  peopled  the  Jerseys. 

In  the  back-settlements,  and  in  the  south-western  States,  is  a  horse  re- 
sembling the  wild  horse  of  the  Pampas,  already  described,  and  evidently 
of  the  same  oricrin. 


CHAPTER    III. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  HORSE. 

The  earliest  record  of  the  horse  in  Great  Britain  is  contained  in  the  his- 
tory given  by  Julius  Ca'sar  of  his  invasion  of  our  island.  The  British 
army  was  accompanied  by  numerous  war-chariots,  drawn  by  horses.  Short 
scythes  were  fastened  to  the  ends  of  the  axlctrees,  sweeping  down  every 
thing  before  them,  and  carrying  terror  and  devastation  into  the  ranks  of 
their  enemies.  The  conqueror  gives  a  most  animated  description  of  the 
dexterity  with  which  the  horses  were  managed. 

What  kind  of  horse  the  Britons  then  possessed,  it  would  be  useless  to 
inquire  ;  but  from  the  cumbrous  structure  of  the  car,  and  the  fury  with 
\s  Inch  it  was  driven,  and  from  the  badness  or  nonexistence  of  the  roads, 
they  must  have  been  both  active  and  powerful  in  an  extraordinary  degree. 
Caesar  deemed  them  so  valuable,  that  he  carried  many  of  them  to  Rome  ; 
and  the  British  horses  were,  for  a  considerable  period  afterwards,  in  great 
request  in  various  parts  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Horses  must  at  that  time  have  been  exceedingly  numerous  in  Britain, 
for  we  are  told  that  when  the  British  king,  Cassibellaunus,  dismissed  the 
main  body  of  his  army,  he  retained  four  thousand  of  his  war-chariots  for 
the  purpose  of  harassing  the  Romans,  when  they  attempted  to  forage. 

The  British  horse  now  received  its  first  cross;  but  whether  the  breed 
was  thereby  improved  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  Romans  having  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Britain,  found  it  necessary  to  send  over  a  numerous 
body  of  cavalry  to  maintain  a  chain  of  posts  and  check  the  frequent  insur- 
rections of  the  natives.  The  Roman  horses  would  breed  with  those  of  the 
country,  and,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  change  their  character  ;  and  from 
this  lime,  the  English  horse  would  consist  of  a  compound  of  the  native  and 
those  from  Gaul,  Italy,  Spain,  and  every  province  from  which  tlie  Roman 
cavalry  was  supplied.  Many  centuries  afterwards  passed  by,  and  we  have 
no  record  of  the  character  or  value,  improvement  or  deterioration,  of  the 
animal. 

It  would  appear  probable,  however,  that  Athelstan,  the  natural  son  of 
Alfred  the  Great,  and  the  second  in  succession  to  him,  paid  seme  atten- 
lion  to  the  improvement  of  the  horse  ;  for  having  subdued  all4he  rebellious 
portions  of  the  Heptarchy,  he  was  congratulated  on  his  success  by  som(  of 


THE  ENGLISH.  2S 

the  continen  al  princes,  and  received  from  Hugh  Capet  of  France,  wiio 
solicited  his  sister  in  marriage,  various  presents,  doubtless  of  a  nature 
that  would  be  thought  most  acceptable  to  him;  and  among  them  several 
German  running  horses.  Hence  our  breed  received  another  cross,  and 
probably  an  improvement. 

Athelstan  seems  to  have  seriously  devoted  himself  to  this  important 
object,  for  lie  soon  afterwards  decreed  (a.  d.  930)  that  no  horses  should  be 
sent  abroad  for  sale,  or  on  any  account,  except  as  royal  presents.  This 
proves  his  anxiety  to  preserve  the  breed,  and  likewise  renders  it  probable 
that  that  breed  was  beginning  to  be  esteemed  by  our  neighbours.  In  a 
document  bearing  date  A.  d.  1000  we  have  an  interesting  account  of  the 
relative  value  of  the  horse.  If  a  horse  was  destroyed,  or  negligently  lost, 
the  compensation  to  be  demanded  was  thirty  shillings ;  a  mare  or  colt, 
twenty  shillings ;  a  mule  or  young  ass,  twelve  shillings;  an  ox,  thirty 
pence ;  a  cow,  twenty-four  pence ;  a  pig,  eightpence ;  and,  it  strangely 
follows,  a  man,  one  pound.* 

In  the  laws  of  Howell  the  Good,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  passed  a  little 
before  this  time,  there  are  some  curious  particulars  respecting  the  value 
and  sale  of  horses.  The  value  of  a  foal  not  fourteen  days  old  is  fixed  at 
fourpence;  at  one  year  and  a  day  it  is  estimated  at  forty-eight  pence;  and 
at  three  years  sixty  pence.  It  was  then  to  be  tamed  with  the  bridle,  and 
brought  up  either  as  a  pa/frey  or  a  serving  horse  ;  when  its  value  became 
one  hundred  and  twenty  pence ;  and  that  of  a  wild  or  unbroken  mare 
sixty  pence. 

Even  in  those  early  days,  the  frauds  of  dealers  were  too  notorious,  and 
the  following  singular  regulations  were  established.  The  buyer  was 
allowed  time  to  ascertain  whether  the  horse  were  free  from  three  diseases. 
He  had  three  nights  to  prove  him  for  the  staggers;  three  months  to  prove 
ihe  soundness  of  his  lungs ;  and  one  year  to  ascertain  whether  he  was 
infected  with  glanders.  For  every  blemish  discovered  after  the  purchase, 
one-third  of  the  money  was  to  be  returned,  except  it  should  be  a  blemish 
of  the  ears  or  tail. 

The  practice  of  letting  horses  for  hire  was  then  known,  and  then,  as 
now,  the  services  of  the  poor  hack  were  too  brutally  exacted.  The  be- 
nevolent Howell  disdains  not  to  legislate  for  the  protection  of  this  abused 
and  valuable  servant.  "  Whoever  shall  borrow  ahorse,  and  rub  the  hair 
Bo  as  to  gall  the  back,  shall  pay  fourpence  ;  if  the  skin  is  forced  into  the 
flesh,  eightpence ;   if  the  flesli  be  forced  to  the  bone,  sixteen  pence." 

One  circumstance  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  in  none  of  the  earliest 
historical  records  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  or  the  Welsh,  is  there  any  allu- 
sion to  the  use  of  the  horse  for  the  plough.  Until  a  comparitively  re- 
cent period,  oxen  alone  were  used  in  England,  as  in  other  countries,  for 
this  purpose ;  but  about  this  time  (the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century) 
some  innovation  on  this  point  was  creeping  in,  and,  therefore,  a  Welsh  law 
forbids  the  farmer  to  plough  with  horses,  mares,  or  cows,  but  with  oxen 
alone.  On  one  of  the  pieces  of  tapestry  woven  at  Bayonne  in  the  time  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  (a.  d.  1086)  there  is  the  figure  of  a  man  driving 
a  horse  attached  to  a  harrow.  This  is  the  earliest  notice  we  have  of  the 
use  of  the  horse  in  field-labour. 

With   William   the   Conqueror   came   a   marked    improvement    in    the 


•  According'  to  the  Ang-lo-Saxon  computation,  forty-eig-ht  shilling-s  made  a  pound. 
ecu-«I  in  silver  to  about  tlirec  pounds  of  our  present  money,  in  value  to  fiifteen  or  sixteen 
pcandi.  and  five  pcn'ic  made  one  sliilling. 


24  THE  HORSE. 

British  horse.  To  his  superiority  in  cavalry  this  prince  was  chiefly 
indebted  for  the  victory  of  Hastings.  The  favourite  charger  of  William 
was  a  Spaniard.  His  followers,  both  the  barons  and  the  common  soldiers, 
carne  principally  from  a  country  in  which  agriculture  had  made  more 
rapid  progress  than  in  England.  A  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
kingdom  was  divided  among  these  men  ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that, 
however  unjust  was  the  usurpation  of  the  Norman,  England  benefited 
in  its  husbandry,  and  particularly  in  its  horses,  by  the  dhange  of  mas- 
ters. Some  of  the  barons,  and  particularly  Roger  de  Boulogne,  earl 
of  Shrewsbury,  introduced  the  Spanish  horse,  on  their  newly  ac- 
quired estates.  The  historians  of  these  times,  however,  principally 
monks,  knowing  nothing  about  horses,  give  us  very  little  information  on 
the  subject. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (a.  d.  1121)  the  first  Arabian  hcse,  or,  at 
least,  the  first  on  record,  was  introduced.  Alexander  I.  king  of  Scotland, 
presented  to  the  church  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  Arabian  horse,  with  costly 
furniture,  Turkish  armour,  many  valuable  trinkets,  and  a  considerable 
estate. 

Forty  years  afterwards,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  Smithfield  was  cele- 
brated as  a  horse-market.  Fitz-Stephen  who  lived  at  that  time,  gives 
the  following  animated  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  hackneys 
and  charging  steeds  were  tried  there,  by  racing  against  one  another. 
"  When  a  race  is  to  be  run  by  this  sort  of  horses,  and  perhaps  by  others, 
which  also  in  their  kind  are  strong  and  fleet,  a  shout  is  immediately 
raised,  and  the  common  horses  are  ordei'ed  to  withdraw  out  of  the 
way.  Three  jockeys,  or  sometimes  only  two,  as  the  match  is  made, 
prepare  themselves  for  the  contest.  The  horses  on  their  part  are  not 
without  emulation  ;  they  tremble  and  are  impatient,  and  are  continually 
in  motion.  At  last,  the  signal  once  given,  they  start,  devour  the  course, 
and  hurry  along  with  unremitting  swiftness.  The  jockeys  inspired  with 
the  thoughts  of  applause,  and  the  hope  of  victory,  clap  spurs  to  their 
w  illing  horses,  brandish  their  whips,  and  cheer  them  with  their  cries." 
This  description  reminds  us  of  the  more  lengthened  races  of  the  present 
day,  and  proves  the  blood  of  the  English  horse,  even  before  the  Eastern 
breed  was  tried. 

Close  on  this  followed  the  Crusades.  The  champions  of  the  Cross  cer- 
tainly had  it  in  their  power  to  enrich  their  native  country  with  some  of 
the  choicest  specimens  of  Eastern  horses,  but  they  were  completely  under 
the  influence  of  superstition  and  fanaticism,  and  common  sense  and  use- 
fulness were  forgotten. 

An  old  metrical  romance,  however,  records  the  excellence  of  two  horses 
belonging  to  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  which  he  purchased  at  Cyprus,  and 
were  therefore,  probably  of  Eastern  origin. 

Yn  this  worlcle  thoy  hadde  no  pere 
Dromedary  nor  destrerc, 
Stede,  Rabyte,  ne  Camnielc, 
Goeth  none  so  swifto,  without  fayle : 
For  a  thousand  pownd  of  golde, 
Ne  should  the  one  be  solde. 

The  war-steed  was  defended  by  mail  or  plate,  much  on  the  plan  of  the 
harness  of  the  knight  himself.  His  head  was  ornamented  with  a  crest 
The  head,  chest,  and  flanks,  were  wholly  or  partially  protected  ;  and  some- 
times, he  was  clad  in  complete  steel,  with  the  arms  of  his  master  engraved 
or  embossed  on  his  bardings.     The  bridle  of  the  horse  was  always  as  splen- 


THE  ENGLISH.  25 

i\(\  as  the  circumstances  of  the  knight  allowed,  and  thus  a  horse  was  often 
called  Brijrliadore,  from  hrigUa  d'oro,  a  bridle  of  gold.  Bells  were  a  ver^ 
favourite  addition  to  the  equipment  of  the  horse.  The  old  Troubadour, 
Arnold  of  Marson,  says,  that  "  nothing  is  so  proper  to  inspire  confidence  in 
a  knigiit,  and  terror  in  an  enemy." 

The  price  of  horses  at  this  period  was  singularly  uncertain.  In  1185, 
fifteen  breeding  mares  sold  for  two  pounds  twelve  shillings  and  sixpence. 
They  were  purchased  by  the  monarch,  and  distributed  among  his  tenants, 
and,  in  order  to  get  something  by  the  bargain,  he  charged  them  the  great 
sum  of  four  shillings  each.  Twanty  years  afterwards,  ten  capital  horses 
brought  no  less  than  twenty  pounds  each  ;  and,  twelve  years  later,  a  pair 
of  horses  were  imported  from  Lombardy,  for  which  the  extravagant  price 
of  thirty-eight  pounds  thirteen  shillings  and  fourpence  was  given.  The 
usual  price  of  good  handsome  horses  was  ten  pounds,  and  the  hire  of  a 
car  or  cart,  with  two  horses,  was  tenpence  a-day. 

To  King  John,  hateful  as  he  was  in  all  other  respects,  we  are  yet  much 
indebted  for  the  attention  which  he  paid  to  agriculture  generally,  and 
particularly  to  improving  the  breed  of  horses.  He  imported  one  hundred 
chosen  stallions  of  the  Flanders  kind,  and  thus  mainly  contributed  to 
prepare  our  noble  species  of  draught-horses,  as  unrivalled  as  the  horses  of 
the  tarf. 

John  accumulated  a  very  numerous  and  valuable  stud.  He  was  eager 
to  possess  himself  of  every  horse  of  more  than  usual  power ;  and,  at  all 
times,  gladly  received  from  the  tenants  of  the  crown,  horses  of  a  superior 
quality,  instead  of  money,  for  the  renewal  of  grants,  or  the  payment  of 
forfeitures  belonging  to  the  crown.  It  was  his  pride  to  render  his  cavalry, 
and  the  horses  for  the  tournament  and  for  pleasure,  as  perfect  as  possible. 
It  could  not  be  expected  that  so  haughty  a  tyrant  would  concern  himself 
much  with  the  inferior  kinds ;  yet  while  the  superior  was  becoming 
rapidly  more  valuable,  the  others  would,  in  an  indirect  manner,  partake 
the  improvement. 

One  hundred  years  afterwards,  Edward  II.  purchased  thirty  Lombardy 
war-horses,  and  twelve  heavy  draught-horses.  Lombardy,  Italy,  and 
Spain  were  the  countries  whence  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  then' 
supplied  with  the  most  valuable  cavalry  or  parade  horse.  Horses  foi 
agricultural  purposes  were  chiefly  procured  from  Flanders. 

Edward  III.  devoted  one  thousand  marks  to  the  purchase  of  fifty  Spanish, 
horses ;  and  of  such  importance  did  he  conceive  this  addition  to  the 
English,  or  rather  mingled  blood,  then  existing,  that  formal  application 
was  made  to  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain  to  grant  safe  conduct  to  the 
troop.  When  they  had  safely  arrived  at  the  royal  stud,  it  was  computed' 
that  they  had  cost  the  monarch  no  less  than  thirteen  pounds  six  shillings 
and  eightpence  per  horse,  equal  in  value  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds- 
of  our  present  money. 

This  monarch  had  many  running-horses.  The  precise  meaning  of  the 
term  is  not,  however,  clear.  It  might  be  light  and  speedy  horses  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  war-horse,  or  those  that  were  literally  used  for  the  purpose  of 
racing.  The  average  price  of  these  running-horses  was  twenty  marks,  or 
three  pounds  six  shillings  and  eightpence.  Edward  was  devoted  to  the 
sports  of  the  turf  or  the  field,  or  he  began  to  see  the  propriety  of  crossing' 
our  stately  and  heavy  breed  with  those  of  a  lighter  structure  and  greater 
ypeed. 

There  was,  however,  one  impediment  to  this,  which  was  not  for  a  very- 
C 


26  THE  HORSE. 

long  period  n:  moved  The  soldier  was  cased  in  heav}'  armour.  The 
knigiit  with  all  his  accoutrements,  often  rode  more  than  twenty-five  stone. 
No  Utile  bulk  and  strength  were  required  in  the  animal  destined  to  carry 
this  back-breaking  weight.  When  the  musket  was  substituted  for  the 
cross-bow  and  battie-axe,  and  this  iron  defence,  cumbrous  to  the  wearei 
and  destructive  to  the  horse,  was  useless,  and  laid  aside,  the  improvement 
of  the  British  horse  in  reality  commenced. 

While  Edward  was  thus  eager  to  avail  himself  of  foreign  blood,  with 
the  too  frequent  selfishness  of  the  sportsman,  he  would  let  no  neighbour 
share  in  the  advantage.  The  exportation  of  horses  was  forbidden  under 
very  heavy  penalties.  One  case  in  which  he  relaxed  from  his  severity  is 
mentioned,  when  he  permitted  a  German  merchant  to  re-export  some 
Flanders  horses  which  he  had  brought  on  speculation  ;  but  he  was  strictly 
forbidden  to  send  them  to  Scoland.  Nay,  so  jealous  were  these  sister- 
KUigdoms  of  each  other's  prosperity,  that  so  late  as  the  time  of  Elizabeth, 
It  was  felony  to  export  horses  from  England  to  Scotland. 

The  English  horse  was  advancing,  although  slowly,  to  an  equality 
with,  or  even  superiority  over  those  of  neighbouring  countries.  His  value 
began  to  be  more  generally  and  highly  estimated,  and  his  price  rapidly 
increased — so  much  so,  that  breeders  and  the  dealers,  then,  as  now,  skilful 
in  imposing  on  the  inexperienced,  obtained  from  many  of  our  young  gran- 
dees enormous  prices  for  them.  This  evil  magnified  to  such  an  extent, 
that  Richard  II  (1386)  interfered  to  regulate  and  determine  the  price. 
The  proclamation  wliich  he  issued  is  interesting  not  only  as  proving  the 
increased  value  of  the  horse,  but  shewing  what  were,  four  hundred  and 
fifty  years  ago,  and  what  are,  still,  the  chief  breeding  disti'icts.  It  was 
ordered  to  be  published  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  Cambridge,  and 
the  East  and  North  Ridings  of  Yorkshire  ;  and  the  price  of  the  horse  was 
restricted  to  that  which  had  been  determined  by  former  sovereigns.  A 
more  enlightened  policy  has  at  length  banished  all  such  absurd  interfer- 
ences with  agriculture  and  commerce. 

We  can  now  collect  but  little  of  the  history  of  the  horse  until  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.,  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  continued  to  pro- 
hibit the  exportation  of  stallions,  but  allowed  that  of  mares  when  more  than 
two  years  old,  and  under  the  value  of  six  shillings  and  eightpence.  This 
regulation  w^as,  however,  easily  evaded,  for  if  a  mare  could  be  found  worth 
more  than  six  shillings  and  eightpence,  she  might  be  freely  exported  on  the 
payment  of  that  sum. 

Henry  VIII.,  a  tyrannical  and  cruel  prince,  but  fond  of  show  and  splen- 
dour, was  very  anxious  to  produce  a  valuable  breed  of  horses ;  and  the 
means  which  he  adopted  were  both  perfectly  in  unison  with  his  arbitrary 
disposition,  and  very  little  calculated  to  elfect  his  object.  He  affixed  a  cer- 
tain standard,  below  which  no  horse  should  be  kept.  The  lowest  height 
for  the  stallion  was  fifteen  hands,  and  for  the  mare  thirteen  hands;  and 
even  before  they  had  arrived  at  their  full  growth,  no  stallion  above  two 
years  old,  and  under  fourteen  hands  and  a  half,  were  permitted  to  run  on 
any  forest,  moor,  or  common,  where  there  were  mares.  At  "  Michaelmas- 
tide"  the  neighbouring  magistrates  were  ordered  to  "drive"  all  forests  and 
commons,  and  not  only  destroy  such  stallions,  but  all  "  unlikely  tits,'" 
whether  mares  or  geldings,  or  foals,  which  they  might  deem  not  calculated 
to  produce  a  valuable  breed.  He  likewise  ordained,  that  in  every  deer- 
park  a  certain  number  of  mares,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  and  each  at  least 
thirteen  hands  high  should  be  kept,  and  that  all  his  prelates  and  iiobles, 


THE  ENGLISH  27 

ard  "all  those  whose  wives  wore  velvet  bonnets,"  should  keep  stallions 
for  the  saddle  at  least  fifteen  hands  high.  These  ordinances  perished  with 
the  tyrant  by  whom  they  were  promulgated. 

The  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ,  produced  the  earliest  English  treatise  ott 
agriculture,  aM  the  management  of  horses  and  cattle.  It  was  written  by 
Sir  A.  Fitzherbert,  Judge  of  the  Common  Pleas,  and  contains  much  useful 
information.  It  is  entitled,  "  Roke  of  Husbandry  ;"  and,  being  now  ex- 
ceedingly rare,  an  extract  from  it  may  not  be  unacceptable.  It  would 
seem  that  tiie  mare  had  been  but  lately  employed  in  husbandry,  for  he 
says,  "A  husbande  may  not  be  without  horses  and  mares,  and  specially  if 
he  goe  with  a  horse-ploughe  he  must  have  both,  his  horses  to  draive  ;  his 
mares  to  brynge  colts  to  upiiolde  his  stocke,  and  yet  at  many  times  they 
may  draive  well  if  they  be  well  handled."  The  learned  judge  shared  the 
common  fate  of  those  who  have  to  do  with  the  horse.  "  Thou  grasyer, 
that  mayst  fortune  to  be  of  myne  opinion  or  condytion  to  love  horses,  and 
young  coltes  and  foles  to  go  among  thy  cattle,  take  hede  that  thou  be  not 
beguiled  as  I  have  been  a  hundred  tymes  and  more.  And  first  thou  shalt 
knowe  that  a  good  horse  has  54  properties,  that  is  to  say,  2  of  a  man,  *2  of 
a  badger,  4  of  a  lion,  9  of  an  oxe,  9  of  a  hare,  9  of  a  foxe,  9  of  an  asse, 
and  10  of  a  woman."* 

The  tyrannical  edicts  of  Henry  VIII.  had  the  effect  which  common 
sense  would  have  anticipated, — the  breed  of  horses  was  not  materially  im- 
proved, and  their  numbers  were  sadly  diminished.  When  the  bigot,  Philip 
of  Spain,  tlireatened  England,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  with  his  Invin- 
cible Armada,  that  princess  could  muster  in  her  whole  kingdom  only  three 
thousand  cavalry  to  oppose  him;  and  Blundeville,  wlio  wrote  at  this  time 
a  very  pleasant  and  excellent  book  on  the  art  of  riding,  speaks  contemp- 
tuously of  the  qualities  of  these  horses.  The  secret  of  improving  the 
breed  had  not  been  then  discovered  ;  it  had  been  attempted  by  arbitrary 
power ;  and  it  had  extended  only  to  those  crosses  from  which  little  good 
could  have  been  expected  :  or,  rather,  it  had  more  reference  to  the  actual 
situation  of  the  country,  and  the  heavy  carriages,  and  tiie  bad  roads,  and 
the  tedious  travelling  which  then  prevailed,  than  to  the  wonderful  change 
in  these  which  a  few  centuries  were  destined  to  effect. 

Blundeville  describes  the  majority  of  our  horses  as  consisting  of  strong, 
sturdy  beasts,  fit  only  for  slow  draught,  and  the  few  of  a  lighter  structure 
being  weak  and  without  bottom.  There  were,  however,  some  exceptions  ; 
for  he  relates  a  case  of  one  of  these  lighter  horses  travelling  eighty  miles 
in  a  day — a  task  which  in  later  times  has  been  too  often  and  cruelly  ex- 
acted from  our  half-bred  nags. 

An  account  has  been  given  of  the  racing  trial  of  the  horses  in  Smithfield 
market.  Regular  races  were  now  established  in  various  parts  of  England. 
Meetings  of  this  kind  were  first  held  at  Chester  and  Stamford  ;  but  there 
was  no  acknowledged  system  as  now  ;  and  no  breed  of  racing  horses. 
Flunters  and  hackneys  mingled  together,  and  no  description  of  horse  was 
excluded. 


*  Later  writers  have  pirated  from  Sir  A.,  but  have  not  improved  upon  him.  The  fol- 
lowing' description  of  the  horse  is  well  known.  "A  good  horse  should  have  three  quali- 
ties of  a  woman, — a  broad  breast,  round  hips,  and  a  long  mane; — three  of  a  lion, — coun- 
tenance, courage,  and  fire;  three  of  a  bullock, — the  eye,  the  nostril,  and  joints, — three 
of  a  sheep, — the  nose,  gentleness,  and  patience; — three  of  a  mule, — strength,  constancy, 
and  foot; — three  of  a  clcer,  —head,  legs,  and  short  hair; — three  of  a  wolf; — throat;  neck, 
and  hearing; — three  of  a  fox, — ear,  tail,  and  trot; — three  of  a  serpent, — memory,  sigh'- 
and  turning; — and  three  of  a  hare  or  cat, — running-,  walking,  and  suppleness." 


28  THE  HORSE. 

The  ,-e  was  at  first  no  course  marked  out  for  the  race,  but  the  contest  gen- 
e rally  consisted  in  the  running  of  train-scent  across  the  country,  and  sr  me- 
times  the  m:)st  diflcult  and  dangerous  part  of  the  country  was  selected  for 
the  exhibition.  Occasionally  our  present  steeple  chase  was  adopted  with 
all  its  dangers,  and  more  than  its  present  barbarity ;  for  persons  were 
appointed  cruelly  to  flog  along  the  jaded  and  exhausted  horses. 

It  should,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  the  races  of  that  period  were 
not  disgraced  by  the  system  of  gambling  and  fraud  which  seems  to  have 
become  almost  inseparable  from  the  amusements  of  the  turf.  The  prize 
was  usually  a  wooden  bell  adorned  with  flowers.  This  was  afterwards 
exchanged  for  a  silver  bell,  and  "  given  to  him  who  should  run  the  best 
and  farthest  on  horseback  on  Shrove  Tuesday."  Hence  the  common  phrase 
of  "  bearing  away  the  bell." 

Horse-racing  became  gradually  more  cultivated;  but  it  was  not  until 
the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  that  rules  were  promulgated  and 
generally  subscribed  to  for  their  regulation.  That  prince  was  fond  of  field 
sports.  He  had  encouraged,  if  he  did  not  establish,  horse-racing  in  Scot- 
land, and  he  brought  with  him  to  England  his  predilection  for  it;  but  his 
races  were  more  often  matches  against  time,  or  trials  of  speed  and  bottom, 
for  absurdly  and  cruelly  long  distances.  His  favourite  courses  were  at 
Croydon  and  on  Enfield  Chase. 

Although  the  Turkish  and  Barbary  horses  had  been  freely  used  to  pro 
duce  with  the  English  mare  the  breed  which  was  best  suited  to  this  exer- 
cise,  little  improvement  had  been  etlected.  James,  with  great  judgment, 
determined  to  try  the  Arab  breed.  Probably,  he  had  not  forgotten  the  story 
of  the  Arabian,  wiiich  had  been  presented  to  one  of  his  Scottish  churches, 
five  centuries  before.  He  purchased,  from  a  merchant  named  Markham, 
a  celebrated  Arabian  horse,  for  which  he  gave  the  extravagant  sum  of  five 
hundred  pounds.  Kings,  however,  like  their  subjects,  are  often  thwarted 
and  governed  by  their  servants,  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  took  a  dislike 
to  tliis  foreign  animal.  He  wrote  a  book,  and  a  very  good  one,  on  horse- 
manship, and  described  this  .\rabian  as  a  little  bony  horse,  of  ordinary 
shape,  setting  him  down  as  good  for  nothing,  because,  after  being  regularly 
trained,  he  could  not  race.  The  opinion  of  the  Duke,  probably  altogether 
erroneous,  had,  for  nearly  a  century,  great  weight;  and  the  Arabian  horse 
lost  its  reputation  among  the  English  turf- breeders. 

A  South- Eastern  horse  was  afterwards  brought  into  England,  and  pur- 
chased by  James,  of  Mr.  Place,  who  was  afterwards  stud-master,  or  groom 
to  Oliver  Cromwell.  This  beautiful  animal  was  called  the  White  Turk, 
and  his  name  and  that  of  his  keeper  will  long  be  remembered.  Sliortly 
afterwards  appeared  the  llt'lmsley  Turk,  introduced  by  Villiers,  the  first 
duke  of  Buckingham  He  was  followed  by  Fairfax's  Morocco  Barb. 
These  horses  speedily  effected  a  considerable  change  in  the  character  of 
our  breed,  so  that  Lord  Harleigh,  one  of  the  old  school,  complained  that 
the  great  horse  was  fast  disappearing,  and  that  horses  were  now  bred  light 
and  fine  for  the  sake  of  speed  only. 

Charles  I.  ardently  pursued  this  favourite  object  of  English  gentlemen, 
and,  a  little  before  his  rupture  with  the  parliament,  established  races  in 
Hyde  Park,  and  at  Newmarket.  The  civil  wars  somewhat  suspended  thg 
improvement  of  the  breed  ;  yet  the  advantage  which  was  derived  by  both 
parties  from  a  light  and  active  cavalry,  sufficiently  proved  the  importance 
of  the  change  which  had  been  effected;  and  Cromwell  perceiving,  with 
his  wonted  sagacity,  how  much  these  pursuits  were  connected  with  the 
prosperity  of  the  country,  had  his  stud  of  race-horses. 


THE  ROAD  AND  FARMER'S  2JP 

At  tho  Restoration  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  cultivation  of  ^he 
norse  by  the  inclination  of  the  court  to  patronize  gaiety  and  dissipation 
The  races  at  Newmarket  were  restored,  and  as  an  additional  spur  to 
emulation,  royal  plates  were  now  given  at  ieach  of  the  principal  courses 
Charles  II.  sent  his  master  of  the  horse  to  the  Levant,  to  purchase  brooa 
mares  and  stallions.      These  were  principally  Barbs  and  Turks. 

From  that  period  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  system  of  im- 
provement was  zealously  pursued :  every  variety  of  Eastern  blood  was 
occasionally  engrafted  on  ours,  and  the  superiority  of  the  engrafted,  above 
the  very  best  of  the  original  stock,  began  to  be  evident. 

Man  is  rarely  satisfied  with  any  degree  of  perfection  in  the  object  on 
which  he  has  set  his  heart.  The  sportsman  has  now  beauty  of  form,  and 
speed  and  stoutness,  scarcely  an  approach  to  which  had  been  observed  in 
the  original  breed.  Still  some  imagined  that  this  speed  and  stoutness 
might  possibly  be  increased  ;  and  Mr.  Darley,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne,  had  recourse  to  the  discarded  and  despised  Arabian. 
He  had  much  prejudice  to  contend  with,  and  it  was  sometime  before  the 
Darley  Arabian  attracted  notice.  At  length  the  value  of  his  produce 
began  to  be  recognised,  and  to  him  we  are  greatly  indebted  for  a  breed  of 
horses  of  unequalled  beauty,  speed,  and  strength. 

This  last  improvement  now  furnishes  all  that  can  be  desired :  nor  is  this 
true  only  of  the  thorough-bred  or  turf-horse ;  it  is,  to  a  very  material  de- 
gree,  the  case  with  every  description  of  horse.  By  a  judicious  admixture 
and  proportion  of  blood,  we  have  rendered  our  hunters,  our  hackneys,  our 
coach,  nay  even  our  cart  horses,  much  stronger,  more  active,  and  more 
en-luring,  than  they  were  before  the  introduction  of  the  race-horse. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  ENGLISH  HORSES. 


The  reader  is  now  prepared  for  the  history  and  distinguishing  character 
of  the  various  breeds  of  English  horses.  If  we  were  composing  a  treatise 
on  the  horse  adapted  for  general  readers,  we  should  commence  with  the 
racer  or  thorough-bred  horse,  which,  if  it  be  not  considered  as  the  parent 
of  every  other  breed,  yet  enters  into,  and  adds,  or  often  gives  the  only 
value  to  it.  Remembering,  however,  the  title  of  our  work,  we  will  begin 
with  those  whi^h  are  occasionally  or  chiefly  employed  for  agricultural 
purposes.  Firs,  stands  the  Roadster,  or  Hackney,  whether  used  by  the 
farmer  to  ride  ov«;r  his  grounds,  or  for  the  longer  journeys  of  business  or 
pleasure. 

The  roadster  varies  much  in  different  districts,  and  according  to  the 
whim  or  caprice  of  the  rider.  We  have  (p.  2)  presented  our  readers  with 
a  portrait  of  the  old  English  hackney,  now,  fortunately,  little  known,  yet 
'Jie  origin  of  our  best  saddle-horses,  whether  for  the  road  or  the  field.  The 
modern  horseman  will  find  some  fault  with  him.  We  give  him  as  he  was, 
»«?■■!  .shall  proceed  to  describe  a  much  superior  animal. 


THE  HORSE. 


THE  ROAD  HORSE. 


The  Road  Horse  !  more  difficult  to  meet  with  in  perfection  than  even  tho 
'  'jnter  or  the  courser.  There  are  many  reasons  for  this.  The  price  of 
t\e  hackney,  or  the  horse  of  all-work,  is  so  low,  that  he  who  has  a  good  one 
will  not  part  with  him  ;  and  it  is  by  mere  accident  that  he  can  be  obtained. 
There  are  also  several  faults  that  can  be  overlooked  in  the  hunter,  bul 
which  the  road-horse  must  not  have.  The  hunter  may  start,  may  be  awk- 
ward in  his  walk,  or  even  his  trot ;  he  may  have  thrushes  or  corns ;  but 
if  lie  can  go  a  good  slapping  pace,  and  has  wind  and  bottom,  we  can  put 
up  with  him,  or  prize  him :  but  the  hackney,  if  he  be  worth  having,  must 
have  good  fore-legs,  and  good  hinder  ones  too ;  he  must  be  sound  on  hi« 
feet;  even-tempered;  no  starter ;  quiet  in  whatever  situation  he  may  be 
placed  ;   not  heavy  in  hand  ;   and  never  disposed  to  say  his  prayers. 

If  there  be  one  thing  more  than  any  other,  in  which  the  possessor,  and, 
in  his  own  estimation  at  least,  the  tolerable  judge  of  the  horse,  is  in  error, 
it  is  the  action  of  the  road-horse :  "  Let  him  lift  his  legs  well,"  it  is  said, 
"and  he  will  never  come  down." 

In  proportion,  however,  as  he  lifts  his  legs  well,  will  be  the  force  with 
which  he  puts  them  down  again  ;  the  jar  and  concussion  to  the  rider ;  and 
the  battering  and  wear  and  tear  of  the  feet.  A  horse  with  too  great 
"  knee  action"  will  not  always  be  speedy  ;  he  will  rarely  be  pleasant  to 
ride,  and  he  will  not,  in  the  long  run,  be  safer  than  others.  The  careless 
daisy-cutter,  however  pleasant  on  the  turf,  should  indeed  be  avoided,  unless 
the  neck  of  the  rider  be  previously  insured  ;  yet  it  is  a  rule,  not  often 
understood,  and  sometimes  disputed,  but  which  experience  will  fully 
confirm, — that  the  safety  of  the  horse  depends  a  great  deal  more  on  the 
manner  in  which  he  puts  his  feet  down,  than  on  that  in  which  he  lifts 
them  up  : — more  on  the  foot  being  placed  at  once  flat  on  the  ground,  or 
perhaps  the  heel  coming  first  in  contact  with  it,  than  on  the  highest  and 
most  splendid  action. 

When  the  toe  first  touches  the  ground,  it  may  be  easily  supposed  thai 
the  horse  will  occasionally  topple  over.  An  unexpected  obstacle  will 
throw  the  centre  of  gravity  forward,  and  down  he  will  come.  If  the  to*- 
dig  into  the  ground  before  the  foot  is  firmly  placed,  a  little  thnig  will  caus* 
a  trip  and  a  fall. 


THE  ROAD  3 J 

Let  the  farmer  who  has  a  stumbler  look  at  ine  shoes  of  his  horse.  In 
wliat  part  is  the  wear  and  tear  ? — The  toe  of  the  shoe  will  become  round, 
or  even  be  altogether  gone,  when  the  heel  is  scarcely  touched. 

For  pleasant  riding,  and  for  safety  also,  a  hackney  should  not  carry  liu 
legs  too  high.  His  going  a  little  too  near  to  the  ground  is  not  always  to 
be  considered  as  an  insuperable  objection.  The  question  is,  does  he  dig 
his  toe  into  the  ground  ? 

Mount  him  and  put  him  to  the  test.  Take  up  his  feet  and  examine 
them.  If  tlie  shoe,  after  having  been  on  a  week,  or  a  fortnight,  is  not 
unnecessarily  worn  at  the  toe,  and  you  feel  him  put  his  foot  flat  on  the 
ground,  do  not  scruple  to  buy  him,  nay,  esteem  him  a  "choice-gifted 
hackney,"  although  he  may  not  have  the  lofty  action  which  some  have 
erroneously  thought  so  necessary. 

Every  horse,  however,  is  liable  to  fall,  and  hence  comes  the  golden  rule 
of  riding  "■never  trust  to  your  Jiorse,'^ — always  feel  his  mouth  lightly. 
He  does  wrong  who  constantly  pulls  might  and  main;  he  will  soon  spoil 
his  horse's  mouth,  and  render  his  own  work  always  necessary.  He  does 
worse  who  carelessly  throws  the  reins  on  the  neck  of  the  horse.  Alwvy» 
feel  the  inoitth  lightly  ;  you  will  thus  be  able  to  give  the  animal  assistance 
imniediat.ely,  before  he  is  too  niucli  otl*  his  centre,  and  when  a  little  check 
will  save  him.  By  this  constant  gentle  feeling  you  will  likewise  induce 
him  to  carry  his  head  well,  than  which  k\v  things  are  more  conducive  to 
the  beautiful,  safe,  and  easy  going  of  the  horse. 

The  road-horse  may,  and  should,  like  the  hunter,  possess  different 
degrees  of  blood,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  and  the  work  re- 
quired of  him.  When  approaching  to  thorough-bred,  he  may  be  a  splendid 
animal,  but  he  will  be  scarcely  fitted  tor  his  duty.  His  legs  will  be  too 
slender  ;  his  feet  too  small  ;  his  stride  too  long ;  and  he  will  rarely  be  able 
to  trot.  Three  parts,  or  half,  and  for  the  horse  of  all-work,  even  less  than 
that,  will  make  a  good  and  useful  animal. 

The  hackney  should  be  a  hunter  in  miniature,  with  these  exceptions. 
Elis  height  should  rarely  exceed  fifteen  hands  and  an  inch.  He  will  be 
sufficiently  strong  and  more  pleasant  for  general  work  below  that  standard. 
He  should  be  of  a  more  compact  form  than  the  hunter,  and  have  more  bulk 
according  to  his  height ;  for  he  has  not  merely  to  stand  an  occasional 
although  severe  burst,  but  a  great  deal  of  every-day  work. 

It  is  of  essential  conse(juence  that  the  bones  beneath  the  knee  should  be 
deep  and  flat,  and  the  tendon  not  tied  in. 

The  pastern  should  be  short,  and  although  oblique  or  slanting,  yet  far 
less  so  than  that  of  the  race-horse,  and  considerably  less  than  tliat  of  the 
hunter.  There  should  be  obliquity  enough  to  give  pleasant  action,  but  not 
enough  to  render  the  horse  incapable  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  constant,  and 
sometimes  hard  work. 

The  foot  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  consequence  in  a  hackney.  It 
should  be  of  a  size  corresponding  with  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  neitiier  too 
hollow,  nor  too  flat;  open  at  the  heels;  and  free  from  corns  and  thrushes. 

The  fore  legs  should  be  perfectly  straight.  There  needs  not  a  moment's 
consideration  to  satisfy  us  that  a  horse  with  his  knees  bent  will,  from  a 
slight  cause   and  especially  if  he  be  overweighted,  come  down. 

The  back  should  be  straight  and  short,  yet  sufficiently  long  to  leave 
comfortable  room  for  the  saddle  between  the  shoulders  and  the  huck  with- 
out, pressing  on  either.  Some  persons  prefer  a  hollow-backed  horse.  It 
is  generally  an  easy  one  to  go.  It  will  canter  well  with  a  lady  ;  but  it 
will  not  cany  a  heavy  weight,  nor  stand  much  hard  work. 


38  THE  HORSE. 

Tlie  road-Iiorse  should  be  high  iti  llie  forehan ' ;  round  in  the 
barrel ;  and  deep  in  llie  chest :  the  saddle  will  not  then  press  too  far 
forward.,  but  the  girths  will  remain  wilhoul  crupper,  firmly  fixed  in  their 
proper  place. 

A  iiackney  is  far  more  valuable  for  the  pleasantness  of  his  paces,  and 
his  safety,  good  temper,  and  endurance,  tiian  for  iiis  sj)eed.  \Ve  rarely 
want  to  go  more  than  eight  or  ten  miles  in  an  hour;  and,  on  a  journey, 
not  more  than  six  or  seven.  The  fast  horses,  and  especially  tiie  fast 
trotters,  are  not  often  easy  in  their  paces,  and  although  tiiey  may  pcform 
very  extraordinary  feats,  are  disabled  and  worthless  when  tiie  slower  horse 
is  in  his  prime. 

Most  of  our  readers  probably  are  horsemen.  Their  memories  will 
supply  ilieni  with  many  an  instance  of  intelligence  and  fidelity  in  the 
horse,  and  particularly  in  the  hackney — the  every. day  companion  of 
man.  A  friend  of  ours  rode  thirty  miles  from  home  on  a  young  horse 
wiiicii  lie  had  bred,  and  which  had  never  before  been  in  that  part  of 
tiie  country.  The  road  was  difficult  to  find,  but  by  dint  of  inquiry  he 
at  length  reached  the  place  he  sought.  Two  years  passed  over,  and 
he  had  again  occasion  to  take  the  same  journey.  No  one  rode  this 
horse  but  himself,  and  he  was  perfectly  assured  that  the  animal  had  not 
since  been  in  tliat  direction.  Three  or  four  miles  before  he  reached  his 
journey's  end  he  was  benighted.  He  had  to  traverse  moor  and  com- 
mon, and  he  could  scarcely  see  his  horse's  head.  The  rain  began  to 
pelt.  "Well,"  thought  he,  "here  I  am,  far  from  any  house,  and  know 
not,  nor  can  I  see  an  inch  of  my  road.  I  have  heard  much  of  the 
memory  of  the  horse, — it  is  my  only  hope  now, — so  there,"  throwing 
the  reins  on  his  horse's  neck,  "go  on."  In  haF  an  hour  he  was  safe  at 
his  friend's  gate. 

The  following  anecdote,  given  on  the  authority  of  Professor  Kruger  of 
Halle,  proves  both  the  sagacity  and  fidelity  of  the  horse. — A  friend  of  his, 
riding  home  through  a  wood  in  a  dark  night,  struck  his  head  against  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  and  fell  from  his  horse  stunned.  The  steed  immediately 
returned  to  the  house  which  they  had  lately  left,  and  which  was  now  closed, 
and  the  family  in  bed,  and  pawed  at  the  door  until  some  one  rose  and 
opened  it.  He  turned  about,  and  the  man  wondering  at  the  affair,  followed 
him :  the  faithful  and  intelligent  animal  led  him  to  the  place  where  his 
master  lay  senseless  on  the  ground. 

Cunningham,  in  his  valuable  account  of  New  South  Wales,  vol.  i. 
p.  298,  says,  "A  friend  of  mine  in  the  habit  of  riding  a  good  deal,  found 
that  whenever  he  approached  a  gully,  his  sagacious  horse  invariably 
opposed  his  wishes  to  cross  at  the  particular  spot  he  had  been  accus- 
tomed to,  always  endeavouring  to  lead  off  to  another  part  of  the  gully, 
where  no  passage  was  known  to  exist  by  his  rider.  Resolving  to  see 
whither  the  cunning  rogue  would  go,  he  gave  him  the  rein,  and  soon 
found  himself  carried  over  the  gully  by  a  route  he  had  never  before 
followed.  Still,  however,  thinking  that  the  former  way  w-as  the  nearest, 
he  was  curious  enough  to  have  both  measured,  when  he  found  the 
horse's  judgment  correct;  that  way  being  the  nearest  by  several  hundred 
'yards." 

Of  the  paces  of  the  hackney,  and  of  horses  generally,  and  the  principle 
of  the  walk,  me  trot,  the  canter,  and  the  gallop,  we  shall  be  better  able  to 
speak,  when  tne  structure  of  the  horse,  varying  in  diflerent  breeds,  has 
been  explainea. 


THE  FARMER'S  33 

The  points  of  shape  most  essential  to  be  attended  to  in  the  clioice  of  a 
lackney,  arc — the  shoulders  and  tiie  fore  legs  and  feet:  because  a  hoiae 
wiiose  slioulders  are  properly  formed  and  placed  is  not  liable  to  fall  down; 
and  because  !iis  soundness  depends  chiefly  upon  his  legs  and  feet.  The 
shoulders  siiould  not  be  too  upright,  but  should  slope  backwards  from 
the  shoulder  point  to  the  withers.  It  is  desirable,  if  the  horse  is  intended 
to  carry  a  man  of  mucli  weight,  that  tiie  shoulders  sliould  be  rather  thick 
than  tiiin  ;  but  it  is  essential  that  they  should  not  be  too  large  at  the  points. 
A  horse  whose  shoulders  are  good,  stands,  wiien  in  a  natural  position,  with 
his  fore  legs  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  ground ;  it  is  therefore  very 
desirable  that  the  purchaser  should  see  him  in  the  stable,  and  before  he 
has  been  moved,  for  he  will  then  find  him  in  his  natural  position,  in  which 
it  may  be  difficult  to  place  him  after  he  has  been  once  disturbed.  Another 
mode  of  ascertaining  whether  the  shoulders  are  properly  placed  is,  by 
allowing  the  horse  to  walk  past  you,  and  to  observe  whether  he  places  his 
fore  foot  more  forward  than  the  shoulder  point  when  he  puts  it  on  the 
ground.  A  horse  whose  shoulders  are  properly  formed  will  always  do 
so;  one  whose  shoulders  are  upright,  cannot.  The  fore  quarters  of  a 
horse  intended  to  be  used  as  a  hackney  constitute  an  essential  point :  his 
carcase  should  be  round,  and  his  ribs  deep.  A  horse's  fore  leg,  of  the 
proper  form,  should  be  flat,  and  as  large  under  the  knee  as  it  is  just  above 
the  fetlock.  The  pastern  should  be  so  joined  to  the  leg  at  the  fetlock, 
that  the  horse  should  neither  turn  his  feet  out  or  in;  but  it  is  less  objec- 
tionable that  a  horse  should  turn  his  feet  a  little  outwards,  provided  it  is 
not  so  much  as  to  make  him  hit  his  fetlocks,  than  that  he  should  turn 
them  inward. 


THE  FARMER'S  HORSE. 


The  Farmer's  Horse  is  an  animal  of  all -work  ;  to  be  ridden  occasion- 
hlly  to  market  or  for  pleasure,  but  to  be  principally  employed  for  draught. 
lie  should  be  higher  than  the  road-horse  :  about  fifteen  hands  and  two 
inches  may  be  taken  as  the  best  standard.  A  horse  with  a  shoulder  thicker, 
lower,  and  less  slanting  than  would  be  chosen  in  a  hackney,  will  better 
suit  the  collar;  and  collar-work  will  be  chiefly  required  of  him.  A  stout 
compact  horse  should  be  selected,  yet  not  a  heavy  cloddy  one.  Some 
blood  will  be  desirable,  but  the  half-bred  horse  will  generally  best  suit  the 
farmer's  purpose.  He  should  have  weight  enough  to  throw  into  the  collar, 
and  sufficient  activity  to  get  over  the  ground. 

Farmers  are  now  beginning  to  be  aware  of  the  superiority  of  the  mod- 
erate-sized, strong,  active  horse  over  the  bulkier,  but  slower  animal  of  for- 
mer days.  It  is  not  only  in  harvest,  and  when  a  frosty  morning  must  be 
seized  to  cart  manure,  that  this  is  perceived,  but,  in  the  every-day  work  of 
the  farm,  the  saving  of  time,  and  the  saving  of  provender  too,  will  be  very 
considerable  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

It  has  often  been  said,  that  a  horse  used  much  for  draught  is  neitfier 
pleasant  nor  safe  for  the  saddle.  The  little  farmer  does  not  want  a  showy, 
complete  hackney.  He  will  be  content  if  he  is  tolerably  well  carried  ; 
and  (if  he  has  taken  a  little  care  in  the  choice  of  his  horse  ;  has  selected 
one  with  sound  feet,  shoulders  not  too  thick,  and  legs  not  too  much  under 
him  ;  and,  if  he  keeps  him  in  good  condition,  and  does  not  scandalously 
ov'='"weight  him,)  the  five  days  carting  or  harrow-work,  will  not,  to  an\ 
material  degree,  unfit  him  for  the  saddle :  especially  if  the  lider  bear   in 


•34  THE  HOllSE. 

mind  what  we  have  termed  the  golden  rule  of  horsemanship,  always  a  lillh 
to  fed  the  mouth  of  the  animal  he  is  upon. 

A  farmer  and  more  particularly  a  small  farmer,  will  prefer  a  mare  to  a 
gelding,  both  for  riding  and  driving.  She  will  not  cost  him  so  much  at 
first;  and  he  will  get  a  great  deal  more  work  out  of  her.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that,  taking  bulk  for  bulk,  a  mare  is  stronger  and  more  lasting 
than  a  gelding;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  farmer  has  her  to  breed  from. 
This  and  the  profit  which  is  attached  to  it  is  well  known  in  the  breeding 
counties ;  but  why  the  breeding  of  horses  for  sale  should  be  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  a  {e\v  northern  districts  it  is  not  easy  to  explain. 
Wherever  there  are  good  horses,  with  convenience  for  rearing  the  colts, 
the  farmer  may  start  as  a  breeder  with  a  good  chance  of  succes. 

If  he  has  a  few  useful  cart-mares,  and  crosses  thein-  with  a  well-knit, 
half-bred  horse,  he  will  certainly  have  colts  useful  for  every  purpose  of 
agriculture,  and  some  of  them  suffiiciently  light  for  the  van,  post-chaise,  or 
coach.  If  he  has  a  superior  mare,  one  of  the  old  Cleveland  breed,  and 
puts  her  to  a  bony,  three-fourths-bred  horse,  or,  if  he  can  find  one  stout 
and  compact  enough,  a  seven-eighths,  or  a  thorough-bred  one,  he  will 
have  a  fair  chance  to  rear  a  colt  that  will  amply  repay  him  as  a  hunter  or 
carriage-horse. 

The  mare  need  not  be  idle  while  she  is  breeding.  She  may  be  worked 
moderately  almost  to  the  period  of  her  foaling,  and  with  benefit  rather 
than  otherwise :  nor  is  there  occasion  that  much  of  her  time  should  be 
lost  even  while  she  is  suckling.  If  she  is  put  to  horse  in  June,  the  foaling 
time  will  fall,  and  the  loss  of  labour  will  occur,  in  the  most  leisure  time 
of  the  year. 

There  are  two  rocks  on  which  the  farmer  often  strikes :  he  pays  little 
attention  to  the  kind  of  mare,  and  less  to  the  proper  nourishment  of  the 
foal.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim  in  breeding,  however  general  may 
be  the  predjudice  against  it,  that  the  value  of  the  foal  depends  a  great  deal 
more  on  the  dam  than  on  the  sire.  The  Arabs  are  convinced  of  this, 
for  no  price  will  buy  from  them  a  likely  mare  of  the  highest  blood  ;  and 
they  trace  back  the  pedigree  of  their  horses,  not  through  the  sire,  but  the 
dam.  The  Greek  sporting-men  held  the  same  opinion,  long  before  the 
Arab  horse  was  known.  "  What  chance  of  winning  have  I  ?"  inquired  a 
youth  whose  horse  was  about  to  start  on  the  Olympic  course  "  Ask  the 
dam  of  your  horse"  was  the  reply,  founded  on  experience.* 

Thr>  farmer,  however,  too  frequently  thinks  that  any  mare  will  do  to 
breed  from  ;  and,  if  he  can  find  a  great  prancing  stallion,  with  a  high- 
sounding  name,  and  loaded  with  fat,  he  reckons  on  having  a  valuable 
colt :  and  should  he  fail,  he  attributes  the  fault  to  the  horse,  and  not  to  his 
own  want  of  judgment.  Far  more  depends  on  the  mare  than  is  dreamt  of 
in  his  philosophy. 

If  he  has  an  undersized,  or  a  blemished,  or  unsound  mare,  let  him 
continue  to  use  her  on  his  farm :  she  probably  did  not  cost  him  much 
and  she  will  beat  any  gelding ;   but  let  him  not  think  of  breeding  fronr 

*  Bishop  Hall,  who  wrote  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  intimates  that  such  was  the  opinioi 
of  horsemen  at  that  period.     He  asks,  in  one  of  his  satires  (Lib.  iv.) 


-dost  thou 


prize 


Thy  brute  beasts'  worth  by  their  dams'  qualities? 
Say'st  thou  this  colt  shall  prove  a  swift-pac'd  steed 
Only  because  a  Jennet  did  him  breed  ? 
Or  say'st  thou  tiiis  same  horse  shall  win  the  pr</e 
Because  his  dam  was  swiftest  Tranchefice?" 


THE  COACH-HORSE,  .'^_^ 

imr.  A  roomy  mare,  with  some  blood  in  her,  and  with  most  of  ii»5  good 
points,  will  alone  answer  his  purpose.  She  may  bear  about  her  the  marks 
of  honest  work  (the  fewer  of  these,  however,  the  better,)  but  she  must 
not  have  any  disease.  There  is  scarcely  a  malady  to  which  the  horse 
is  subject  that  is  not  hereditary.  Contracted  feet,  curb,  spavin,  roaring, 
thick  wind,  blindness,  notoriously  descend  from  the  sire  or  dam  to  the 
foal.  Mr.  Roberts,  in  that  useful  publication,  "The  Veterinarian," 
says,  "  Last  summer  I  was  asked  my  opinion  of  a  horse.  I  approved  of 
his  formation  with  the  exception  of  the  hocks,  where  there  happened  to  be 
two  curbs.  I  was  then  told  his  sister  was  in  the  same  stable :  she  also 
had  two  curbs.  Knowing  the  sire  to  be  free  from  these  defects,  I  inquired 
about  the  dam  :  she  also  had  two  confirmed  curbs.  She  was  at  this  time 
running  with  a  foal  of  hers,  two  years  old,  by  another  horse,  and  he  also 
had  two  curbs." 

The  foal  should  be  well  taken  care  of  for  the  first  two  years.  It  is  bad 
policy  to  stint,  or  half-starve,  the  growing  colt. 

The  colt,  whether  intended  for  a  hunter  or  carriage-horse,  may  be  earlier 
handled,  but  should  not  be  broken-in  until  three  years  old  ;  and  then  thw 
very  best  breaking-in  for  the  carriage-horse  is  to  make  him  earn  a  little 
of  his  living.  Let  him  be  put  to  harrow  or  light  plough.  Going  over  the 
rough  ground  will  teach  him  to  lift  his  feet  well,  and  give  him  that  high 
and  showy  action,  excusable  in  a  carriage-horse,  but  excusable  in  no 
other.  In  the  succeeding  winter  he  will  be  perfectly  ready  for  the  town 
or  country  market. 


THE  COACH-HORSE.* 

This  animal  has  fully  shared  in  the  progress  of  improvement,  and  is  as 
different  from  what  he  was  fifty  years  ago  as  it  is  possible  to  conceive. 

*  Wheel  carriages,  bearing-  any  resemblance  to  chariots,  first  came  into  use  in  the 
reign  of  Richard  H.  about  the  year  1331;  they  were  called  uhirlicutes,  and  were  little 
better  than  litters  or  cotes  (cots)  placed  on  wheels.  We  are  told  by  Master  John  Stowe, 
that  "Richard  H.,  being  threatened  by  the  rebels  of  Kent,  rode  from  the  Tower  of 
London  to  the  Miles  End,  and  with  him  his  mother,  because  she  was  sick  and  weak,  in  a 
whirlicote ;"  and  this  is  described  as  an  ugly  vehicle  of  four  boards  put  together  in  a 
clumsy  manner. 

In  the  following  year  he  married  Anne  of  Luxembourg,  who  introduced  the  riding 
upon  side-saddles;  and  so  "was  the  riding  in  those  whirlicotes  forsaken,  except  at  coro- 
nations and  such  like  spectacles." 

Coaches  were  not  used  until  tiie  time  of  Elizabeth,  when  we  are  told  (Stowe's  Survey 
of  London  and  Westminster,  book  i.)  "divers  great  ladies  made  tliem  coaches,  and  rode 
in  them  up  and  down  the  countries  to  the  great  admiration  of  all  the  beholders."  The 
fashion  soon  spread,  and  he  adds,  what  is  often  too  true  in  the  present  day,  "the  world 
runs  on  wheels  with  many  whose  parents  were  glad  to  go  on  foot." 

These  coaches  were  heavy  and  unwieldy,  and  probably  bore  some  rough  resemblance 
to  the  state  coaches  now  used  occasionally  in  court  processions. 

The  rate  of  travelling  was  as  slow  as  the  clumsiness  of  the  horses  and  vehicle  would 
naturally  indicate.  King  George  H.  died  early  on  Saturday  morning,  Oct.  21,  1760:  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  who  was  lord  chamberlin,  arrived  in  town  from  Chatsworth  in  three 
days;  but  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  day  passing  over,  and  the  lord  steward,  the  Duke  of 
Rutland,  not  making  his  appearance,  altiiough  he  had  not  so  far  to  travel  by  more  than 
thirty  miles,  Mr.  Speaker  Onslow  made  this  apology  for  him,  that  "the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire iravelled  at  a  prodigious  rate,  not  less  than  Jifti/  miles  a  day!" 

To  '.ravel  in  the  stage-coach  from  London  to  Epsom,  sixteen  miles,  then  took  nearly 
the  whole  day,  and  the  passengers  dined  on  the  road.  The  coach  from  Edingburgh  to 
London  started  once  a  month,  and  occupied  sixteen  or  eighteen  days  on  tlie  journey.  A 
percon  may  now  start  from  Edinburgh  on  Saturday  evening,  have  two  spare  -iayg  in  Lon- 
don, anJ  be  back  again  at  the  Scotch  metropolis  to  breakfast  on  the  next  Saturday.     In- 


JiO  THE  HORSE. 

Tlie  clumsy-barrelled,  cloddy-shouldered,  round-legged,  black,  family 
liorse,  neither  a  coach  nor  a  dray-horse,  but  something  between  both,  as 
fat  as  an  ox,  and,  with  all  his  pride  and  prancing  at  first  starling,  not 
equal  to  more  than  six  miles  an  hour,  and  knocking-up  with  one  hard  day's 
work,  is  no  more  seen  ;  and  we  have,  instead  of  liim,  an  animal  of  tall, 
deep-chested,  rising  in  the  withers,  slanting  in  the  shoulders,  flat  in  the 
legs,  with  even  more  strength,  and  with  treble  the  speed. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  deception,  however,  even  in  the  best  of  these 
improved  coach-horses.  They  prance  it  nobly  througli  the  streets;  and 
they  have  more  work  in  them  than  the  old  clumsy,  sluggish  breed  :  but 
they  have  not  the  endurance  that  could  be  wisiied, — and  a  pair  of  poor 
post-horses  would,  at  the  end  of  the  second  day,  beat  them  hollow. 

The  knee-action,  and  higii  lifting  of  tlie  feet  in  tiie  carriage-horse  is 
deemed  an  excellence,  because  it  adds  to  the  grandeur  of  his  appearance ; 
but,  as  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  much 
wear  and  tear  of  the  legs  and  feet,  and  this  is  very  soon  apparent. 

The  principal  points  in  the  coach-horse  are,  substance  well  placed,  a 
deep  and  well  prorportioned  body,  bone  under  the  knee,  and  sound,  open, 
tough  feet. 

The  origin  of  the  better  kind  of  coach-horse  is  the  Cleveland  Bay,  con- 
fined principally  to  Yorkshire  and  Durham,  with  perhaps,  Lincolnshire  on 
one  side,  and  Northumberland  on  the  other,  but  difficult  to  meet  with  pure 
in  either  county.  The  Cleveland  mare  is  crossed  by  a  three-fourth,  or 
thorough-bred  horse  of  sufficient  substance  and  height,  and  the  produce  is 
the  coa'  M  orse  .most  in  repute,  with  his  arched  crest  and  high  action. 
From  lid  .iiorough-bred  of  sufficient  height,  but  not  of  so  much  substance, 
we  obtain  the  four-in-hand,  and  superior  curricle-horse. 

From  less  height  and  more  substance  we  have  the  hunter  and  better 
sort  of  hackney ;  and,  from  the  half-bred,  we  derive  the  machineer,  the 
poster,  and  the  common  carriage-horse:  indeed,  Cleveland,  and  the  Vale 
of  Pickering,  in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  decided  breeding  country  in  England  for  coach-horses,  hunters, 
and  hacknies.  The  coach-horse  is  nothing  more  than  a  tall,  strong,  over- 
sized hunter.  The  hackney  has  many  of  the  qualities  of  the  hunter  on  a 
small  scale. 

How  far  we  are  carrying  supposed  improvement  too  far,  and  sacrificing 
strength  and  usefulness  to  speed,  is  a  question  not  difficult  to  resolve.  The 
rage  for  rapid  travelling  is  the  bane  of  the  post-master,  the  destruction  of 
the  horse,  and  a  disgrace  to  the  English  character. 


eluding  short  staares,  one  thousand  four  hundred  coaches  now  set  out  from  London  every 
day;  the  expense  of  each  of  which,  with  four  horses,  cannot  be  less  than  two  shillings 
and  sixpence  per  mile. 

Hackney  coaches  first  appeared  in  London  in  1625,  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
L  :  sedan-chairs  had  been  introduced  by  tlie  Duke  of  Buckingham  six  years  before. 

Among  the  numerous  benefits  arising  fronj  the  services  of  the  horse,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  public  roads  and  carriaG^es,  is  the  speedy  and  recrular  correspondence  by  post. 
The  invention  of  this  useful  establishment  is  ascribed  to  Cyrus  the  Great.  It  was 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was  introduced  into  France  by  Louis  XL  in 
i462,  and  we  first  read  of  it  in  English  history  about  the  year  1550,  under  Edward  VI., 
when  post-houses  were  established,  and  horses  provided  at  the  rate  of  one  penny  per 
mile.  Under  Elizabeth  a  post-master  was  nominated  by  govtrnment,  and  under  Charlei 
I.,  in  1634,  the  system  assumed  its  present  form.  The  charge  of  postage  was  then  fixed 
at  two  pence,  if  under  eighty  miles;  four  pence  between  eighty  and  one  hundred  and 
forty;  and  six  pence  if  under  two  hundred  and  forty  miles;  but  this  charge  rapidly 
increased  with  the  increasing  price  of  horses,  and  the  other  expenses  of  conveyance,  and 
aftewards  it  was  further  raised  by  taxation,  like  almost  everything  else. 


THE  COACH-HORSK.  37 

There  is  no  truth  so  easily  proved,  or  so  painfully  Felt  by  the  post- 
master, at  least  in  his  pocket,  as  that  it  is  the  pace  thai  kills.  A  horse  at  a 
dead  pull,  or  at  the  beginning  of  his  pull,  is  enabled,  by  the  force  of  his 
muscles,  to  throw  a  certain  weight  into  the  collar.  If  he  walks  four  miles 
in  the  hour,  some  part  of  that  muscular  energy  must  be  expended  in  the 
act  of  walking  ;  and,  consequently,  the  power  of  drawing  must  be  propor- 
tionably  diminished.  If  he  trot  eight  mile  in  the  hour,  more  animal  power 
is  expended  in  the  trot,  and  less  remains  for  the  draught ;  but  the  draught 
continues  the  same,  and,  to  enable  him  to  accomplish  his  work,  he  must 
tax  his  energies  to  a  degree  that  is  cruel  i^i  itself,  and  that  must  speedily 
wear  him  out. 

Let  it  be  supposed — what  every  horse  cannot  accomplish — that  he  shall 
be  able,  by  fair  exertion  and  without  distress,  to  throw,  at  a  dead  pull,  a 
weight  into  his  collar,  or  exert  a  force  equal  to  two  hundred  and  sixteen 
pounds;  or,  in  other  words,  let  him  be  able  to  draw  a  load  which  requires 
a  force  of  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds  to  move.  Let  him  next  walk  at 
the  rate  of  four  mile  in  an  hour  :  what  force  will  he  then  be  able  to  employ  ? 
We  have  taken  away  some  to  assist  him  in  walking,  and  we  have  left  him 
only  ninety-six  pounds,  being  not  half  of  that  which  he  could  exert  when 
he  began  his  pull.  He  shall  quicken  his  pace  to  six  miles  an  hour — more 
energy  must  be  exerted  to  carry  him  over  this  additional  ground.  How 
much  has  he  remaining  to  apply  to  the  weight  behind  him  ?  Fifty.four 
pounds  only.  We  will  make  the  six  miles  an  hour  ten;  for  it  seems  now 
to  be  the  fashion  for  the  fast  coach,  and  for  almost  every  coach,  and  every 
vehicle  to  attempt  this  pace.  How  stands  the  account  with  the  poor  beast  ? 
We  have  left  him  a  power  equal  to  thirty-two  pounds  only  to  be  employei 
for  the  purpose  of  draught. 

The  load  which  a  horse  can  draw  is  about  fifteen  times  greater  than  the 
power  exerted,  supposing  the  road  to  be  hard  and  level,  and  the  carriage  to 
run  with  little  friction  ;  and  the  horse  which  at  starting  can  throw  into  the 
collar  a  weight  or  force  equal  to  two  hundred  and  sixteen  pounds,  will  draw 
a  load  of  three  thousand  two  hundred.  Let  him,  however,  be  urged  on  at 
the  rate  of  ten  miles  in  the  hour — deduct  the  power  used  in  swiftness  of 
pace  from  the  sum  total  of  that  which  he  possesses,  and  what  remains  ? — 
not  a  sixth  part — not  that  which  is  equal  to  a  quarter  of  a  ton — or,  if  it  be 
a  stage-coach,  the  energy  exerted  in  a  draught  by  the  four  horses  will  not 
be  equal  to  a  ton. 

The  coach,  and  its  passengers  and  its  luggage,  weighs  more  than  this, 
and  the  whole  is  still  drawn  on,  and  must  be  so.  Whence  comes  the  power  ? 
From  the  over-strained  exertion,  the  injury,  the  torture,  the  destruction  of 
the  horse.  That  which  is  true  of  the  coach-horse,  is  equally  true  of  every 
other.  Let  each  reader  apply  it  to  his  own  animal,  and  act  as  humanity 
and  interest  dictate. 

Many  a  horse  used  on  our  public  roads  is  unable  to  throw  all  his  natural 
power  or  weight  into  the  collar.  He  is  tender-footed — lame ;  but  he  is^ 
bought  at  little  price,  and  he  is  worked  on  the  brutal  and  abominable 
nrinciple,  that  he  may  be  '■'■whipped  sound."  And  so  apparently  he  is. 
At  first  he  sadly  halts ;  but,  urged  by  the  torture  of  the  lash,  he  acquires 
a  peculiar  habit  of  going.  The  faulty  limb  appears  to  keep  pace  with  the 
others,  but  no  stress  or  labour  is  thrown  upon  it,  and  he  gradually  con- 
trives to  make  the  sound  limbs  perform  among  them  all  the  duties  of  the 
unsound  one  ;  and  thus  he  is  barbarously  "  whipped  sound,"  and  cruelty  is 
undeservedly  rewarded.  After  all,  however,  what  has  been  done  ?  Three 
'egs  are  made  to  do  that  which  was  almost  too  hard  a  task  i'or  lour.  Then 
tbpv   must   be   most   injuriously   strained,    and    soon    worn    out,    and    the 


35(  THE   HORSE. 

general  power  of  the  animal  must  be  rapidly  exhausted,  ana,  at  no  great 
distance  of  time,  exhaustion  and  death  release  him  from  his  merciless 
persecutors. 

It  is  said  that  between  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  a  carrier  in  a  single 
horse  cart,  weigliing  about  seven  liundred  weight,  will  take  a  load  of  a  ton, 
and  at  tiie  rate  of  twenty-two  miles  in  a  day.  The  Normandy  carriers 
travel  with  a  team  of  four  horses,  and  from  fourteen  to  twenty-two  miles 
in  a  day,  with  a  load  of  ninety  hundred  weight. 

An  unparalleled  instance  of  the  power  of  a  horse  when  assisted  by 
art  was  shown  near  Croydon.  The  Surrey  iron  railway  being  completed, 
wager  was  laid  by  two  gentlemen,  that  a  common  horse  could  draw  thirty- 
six  tons  for  six  miles  along  the  road,  and  that  he  should  draw  his  weight 
from  a  dead  pull,  as  well  as  turn  it  round  the  occasional  windings  of  the 
road.  A  numerous  party  of  gentlemen  assembled  near  Merstham  to  see 
this  extraordinary  triumph  of  art.  Twelve  waggons,  loaded  with  stone,  each 
waggon  weighing  above  three  Ions,  were  chained  together,  and  a  horse, 
taken  promiscuously  from  the  timber  cart  of  Mr.  Harwood,  was  yoked  to 
the  train.  He  started  from  the  Fox  public-house  near  Merstham,  and 
drew  the  immense  chain  of  waggons,  with  apparent  ease,  almost  to  the 
turnpike  at  Croydon,  a  distance  of  six  miles,  in  one  hour,  and  forty-one 
minutes,  which  is  nearly  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour.  In  the  course 
of  the  journey  he  stopped  four  times,  to  show  that  it  was  not  by  any  ad- 
vantage of  descent  tliat  this  power  was  acquired  ;  and  after  each  stoppage 
he  again  drew  off  the  chain  of  waggons  with  great  ease.  Mr.  Banks, 
who  had  wagered  on  the  power  of  the  horse,  then  desired  that  four  more 
loaded  waggons  should  be  added  to  the  cavalcade,  with  which  the  same 
horse  set  off  again  with  undiminished  pace.  Still  further  to  show  the 
effect  of  the  railway  in  facilitating  motion,  he  directed  the  attending  work- 
men,  to  the  number  of  fifty,  to  mount  on  the  waggons,  and  the  horse  pro- 
ceeded without  the  least  distress ;  and,  in  truth,  there  appeared  to  be 
scarcely  any  limitation  to  the  power  of  his  draught.  After  this  trial  the 
waggons  were  taken  to  the  weighing  machine,  and  it  appeared  that  the 
whole  weight  was  as  follows : 

Ton.  Cwt.  Qr. 
12  Wagg-ons  first  linked  tog-ether        -        33      4      2 
4  Ditto,  afterwards  attached  -         -    13       2       0 

Supposed  weight  of  fifty  labourers     -  4      0      0 

55      6      2 


HEAVY  DRAUGHT  HORSES. 

The  Cleveland  horses  have  been  known  to  carry  more  than  seven  hun- 
dred  pounds  sixty  miles  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  to  perform  this  journey 
four  times  in  a  week;  and  mill-horses  have  carried  nine  hundred  and  ten 
pounds  two  or  three  miles. 

Horses  for  slower  draught,  and  sometimes  even  for  the  carriage,  are 
produced  from  the  Suffolk  Punch,  so  called  from  his  round  punchy 
make,  and  descended  from  the  Norman  stallion  and  the  Suffolk  cart  mare. 
The  true  Sutfolk,  like  the  Cleveland  is  now  nearly  extinct.  It  stood  from 
fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  of  a  sorrel  colour  ;  was  large  headed  ;  low 
shouldered,  and  thick  on  the  top  ;  deep  and  round  chested  ;  long  backed  ; 
high  in  the  croup;  large  and  strong  in  the  quarters;  full  in  tlie  flanks, 
round  in  the  lees,  and  short  in  thp  nasterns.     It  was  the  very  horse  to  throw 


HE.'iVY  DRAUGHT 


{IS 


NorlUampto 


Clydesdale^ 


Suffolk. 


Cleveland. 


his  whole  weight  into  the  collar,  with  sufficient  activity  to  do  it  effectually, 
and  hardihood  to  stand  a  long  day's  work. 

The  present  breed  possesses  many  of  the  peculiarities  and  good  qualities 
of  its  ancestors.  It  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  a  sorrel  colour;  it  is  a 
taller  horse  ;  higher  and  finer  in  the  shoulders ;  and  is  a  cross  with  the 
Yorkshire  half  or  three- fourths  bred. 

The  excellence,  and  a  rare  one,  of  the  old  Suffolk  (the  new  breed  has 
not  quite  lost  it)  consisted  in  nimbleness  of  action,  and  the  honesty  and 
continuance  with  which  he  would  exert  himself  at  a  dead  pull.  Many  a 
good  draught  horse  knows  well  what  he  can  effect;  and,  after  he  has  at- 
tempted it  and  failed,  no  torture  of  the  whip  will  induce  him  to  strain  his 
powers  beyond  their  natural  extent.  The  Suffolk,  however,  would  tug  at  a 
dead  pull  until  he  dropped.  It  was  beautiful  to  see  a  team  of  true  Suffolks, 
ut  a  signal  from  the  driver,  and  without  the  whip,  down  on  their  knees  in  a 
inoment,  and  drag  every  thing  before  them.  Brutal  wagers  were  frequently 
laid  as  to  their  power  in  this  respect,  and  many  a  good  team  was  injured 
and  ruined.  The  immense  power  of  the  Suffolk  is  accounted  for  by  the 
low  position  of  the  shoulder,  which  enables  him  to  throw  so  much  of  his 
weight  into  the  collar. 

Although  the  Punch  is  not  what  he  was,  and  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk 
farmer  can  no  longer  boast  of  ploughing  more  land  in  a  day  than  any  one 
else,  this  is  undoubtedly  a  valuable  breed. 

The  Duke  of  Richmond  obtained  many  excellent  carriage  horses,  with 
strength,  activity,  and  figure,  by  crossing  the  Suffolk  with  one  of  his  best 
hunters. 

The  Suffolk  breed  is  in  great  request  in  the  neighbouring  counties  of 
Norfolk  and  Essex.  Mr.  Wakefield,  of  Barnham  in  Essex,  had  a  stallion 
for  which  he  was  offered  four  hundred  guineas. 

The  Clydesdale  is  a  good  kind  of  draught-horse,  and  particularly  for 
farming  business  and  in  a  hilly  country.  It  derives  its  name  from  tlie 
district   on   the  Clyde    in   Scotland,    Mhere   it   is    principally    bred.     The 


"40  THE  HORSE. 

Clydesdale  horse  owes  its  origin  to  one  of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  who 
crossed  some  of  tlie  best  Lanark  mares  will,  stallions  which  he  had  brought 
over  from  Flanders.  The  Clydesdale  is  larger  than  the  Suffolk,  and  has  a 
better  head,  a  longer  neck,  a  lighter  carcase.-  and  deeper  legs;  strong, 
hardy,  pulling  true,  and  rarely  restive.  The  southern  parts  of  Scotland 
are  principally  supplied  from  this  district ;  and  many  Clydesdales,  not  only 
for  agricultural  purposes,  but  for  the  coach  and  the  saddle,  find  their  way 
to  the  central,  and  even  southern  counties  of  England.  Dealers  from 
almost  every  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  attend  the  markets  of  Glasgow 
and  Rutheiglen. 

Tiie  Hkavv  Black  Horse  is  the  last  variety  it  may  be  necessary  to 
notice.  It  is  bred  chiefly  in  the  midland  counties  from  Lincolnsliiie  to 
Staffordshire.  Manyvare  bought  up  by  the  Surrey  and  Berkshire  farmers 
at  two  years  old, — and  being  worked  moderately  until  they  are  foui-,  earn- 
ing their  keep  all  the  while,  they  are  then  sent  to  the  London  market,  and 
sold  at  a  profit  of  ten  or  twelve  per  cent. 

It  would  nut  answer  the  breeder's  purpose  to  keep  them  until  they  are 
fit  for  town-work.  He  has  plenty  of  fillies  and  mares  on  his  farm  foi 
every  purpose  that  he  can  require;  he  therefore  sells  them  to  a  person 
nearer  the  metropolis,  by  whom  they  are  gradually  trained  and  prepared. 
The  traveller  has  probably  wondered  to  see  four  of  these  enormous  animaLs 
in  a  line  before  a  plough,  on  no  very  heavy  soil,  and  where  two  lighter 
horses  would  have  been  quite  suflicient.  The  farmer  is  training  them  for 
their  future  destiny  ;  and  he  does  right  in  not  requiring  the  e.xertion  of  all 
their  strength,  for  their  bones  are  not  yet  perfectly  formed,  nor  their  joints 
knit;  and  were  he  to  urge  them  too  severely,  he  would  probably  injure 
and  deform  them.  By  the  gentle  and  constant  exercise  of  the  plough,  he 
is  preparing  them  for  that  continued,  and  equable  pull  at  the  collar,  which  is 
afterwards  so  necessary.  These  horses  are  adapted  more  for  parade  and 
show,  and  to  gratify  the  ambition  which  one  brewer  has  to  outvie  his 
neighbour,  than  for  any  peculiar  utility.  They  are  certainly  noble-looking 
animals,  with  their  round  fat  carcases,  and  their  sleek  coats,  and  the 
evident  pride  which  they  take  in  themselves ;  but  they  eat  a  great  deal  of 
hay  and  corn,  and  at  hard  and  long-continued  work  they  would  be 
completely  beaten  by  a  team  of  active  muscular  horses  an  inch  and  a 
half  lower. 

The  only  plea  which  can  be  urged  in  their  favour,  besides  their  fine 
appearance,  is,  that  as  shaft-horses,  over  the  badly-paved  streets  of  the 
metropolis,  and  with  the  immense  loads  they  often  have  behind  them, 
great  bulk  and  weight  are  necessary  to  stand  the  unavoidable  shaking  and 
battering.  Weight  must  be  opposed  to  weight,  or  the  horse  would  some- 
times be  quite  thrown  off  his  legs.  A  large  heavy  horse  must  be  in  the 
shafts,  and  then  little  ones  before  him  would  not  look  well. 

Certainly  no  one  has  walked  the  streets  of  London  without  pitying  the 
poor  thill-horse,  jolted  from  side  to  side,  and  exposed  to  many  a  bruise, 
unless,  with  admirable  cleverness,  he  accommodates  himself  to  every 
motion ;  but,  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  evident,  that  bulk  and  fat  do 
not  always  constitute  strength,  and  that  a  compact  muscular  horse,  ap- 
proaching to  sixteen  hands  high,  would  acquit  himself  far  better  in  such 
9  situation.  The  dray-horse,  in  the  mere  act  of  ascending  from  tne 
wharf,  may  display  a  powerful  effort,  but  he  afterwards  makes  little  exer- 
tion, much  of  his  force  being  expended  in  transporting  his  own  overgrown 
mass. 

These  heavy  horses  are  bred  in  the  highest  perfection,  as  to  size,  in  the 


HEAVY  DRAUGHT.  4X 

fens  of  Lincolnshire,  and  few  of  them  are  less  than  seventeen  hanCs  high 
at  two  and  a  half  years  old,  Neither  the  soil,  nor  the  produce  of  the  soil, 
is  better  than  in  other  counties ;  on  the  contrary,  much  of  the  lower  part 
of  Lincolnshire  is  a  cold,  hungry  clay.  The  true  explanation  of  thf» 
matter  is,  that  there  are  certain  situations  better  suited  than  others  to 
different  lunds  of  farming  and  the  bi-eeding  of  different  animals ;  and  that 
not  altogetlier  depending  on  richness  of  soil  or  pasture.  The  principal  an 
of  the  farmer  is  to  find  out  what  will  best  suit  the  soil,  and  the  pi'oduce  of  it. 

A  dray-horse  should  have  a  broad  breast,  and  thick  and  upright  shoul- 
ders;  (the  more  upright  the  collar  stands  on  iiim  the  better;)  a  low  fore- 
hand, deep  and  round  barrel,  loins  broad  and  high,  ample  quarters,  thick 
tore-arms  and  thighs,  short  legs,  round  hoofs,  broad  at  the  heels,  and 
soles  not  too  flat.  The  great  fault  of  the  large  dray-horse  is,  his  slow- 
ness. This  is  so  much  in  the  breed,  that  even  the  discipline  of  the 
ploughman,  who  would  be  better  pleased  to  get  through  an  additional  rood 
in  the  day,  cannot  permanently  quicken  him.  Surely  the  breeder  might 
obviate  this.  Let  a  dray-mare  be  selected,  as  perfect  as  can  be  obtained. 
Let  her  be  put  to  the  strongest,  largest,  most  compact,  thorough-bred 
horse.  If  the  produce  be  a  filly,  let  her  be  covered  by  a  superior  dray- 
horse,  and  tiie  result  of  this  cross,  if  a  colt,  will  be  precisely  the  animal 
required  to  breed  from. 

The  largest  of  this  heavy  breed  of  black  horses  are  used  as  dray-horses. 
The  next  in  size  are  sold  as  waggon-horses ;  and  a  smaller  variety,  and 
with  more  blood,  constitutes  a  considerable  part  of  our  cavalry,  and  ia 
likewise  devoted  to  undertakers'  work. 

All  our  heavy  draught-horses,  and  some  even  of  the  lighter  kind,  have 
been  lately  much  crossed  by  the  Flanders  breed,  and  with  evident  improve- 
ment.  Little  has  been  lost  in  depth  and  bulk  of  carcase ;  but  the  fore- 
hand has  been  raised,  the  legs  have  been  flattened  and  deepened,  and  very 
much  has  been  gained  in  activity.  The  slow  heavy  black,  with  his  two 
miles  and  a  half  an  hour,  has  been  changed  into  a  lighter,  but  yet  exceed- 
ingly powerful  horse,  who  will  step  four  miles  in  the  same  time,  with 
perfect  ease,  and  has  considerably  more  endurance. 

THE  DRAY  HORSE. 


This  cut  is  the   portrait  of  a  favourite  dray-horse  belonging  to  Messrs; 
Meux,  and  painted  by  Mr.  Ward,  R.  A.,  to  whose  portfolio  we  hope  fre 
D 


42  THE  HORSE. 

f|iier.tl)  to  have  recourse.  It  is  the  Suffolk  crossed,  although  not  so  'ecplj 
AS  some,  witli  the  Flanders. 

This  is  the  very  system,  as  we  shall  presently  describe,  %'hich  has 
been  adopted  with  such  success  in  the  blood-horse,  and  has  made  the 
English  racer  and  hunter,  and  the  English  horse  generally,  what  it  is. 
As  the  racer  is  principally  or  purely  of  Eastern  origin,  so  has  the  Eng- 
lish draught  horse  sprung  chielly  from  Flemish  blood,  and  to  that  Hood 
the  agriculturist  has  recourse  for  the  perfection  of  the  breed.  For  the 
dray,  the  spirit  waggon,  and  not  too  heavy  loads,  and  for  road-work  gener- 
ally, a  cross  with  the  Flanders  will  be  advantageous;  but  if,  in  London, 
the  enormous  heavy  horse  must  be  used  in  the  coal-waggon,  or  the  heavier 
load  of  the  wharf,  we  must  leave  our  midland  black,  with  all  his  unwieldly 
bulk,  untouched. 

As  an  ordinary  beast  of  lighter  draught,  and  particularly  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London,  the  worn  out  hackney  and  the  refuse  of  the  coach, 
and  even  of  the  hackney-coach  is  used.  In  the  hay-markets  of  St. 
James's  and  Whitechapel  are  continually  seen  wretched  teams,  whicli 
would  disgrace  the  poorest  district  of  the  poorest  country.  The  small 
farmer  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis,  himself  strangely  inferior  to  the 
small  farmer  elsewhere,  has  too  easy  access  to  Smithfield,  that  sink  of  cru- 
elty. They  who  are  unacquainted  with  this  part  of  the  country,  would 
scarcely  think  it  possible,  tiiat  on  the  forests  and  commons  within  a  few 
miles  of  London,  as  many  ragged,  wild,  mongrel  horses  are  to  be  found, 
as  in  any  district  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  a  good  horse  is  scarcely  by 
any  chance  bred  there. 


CAVALRY  HORSE. 

This  is  the  proper  place  to  speak  of  the  cavalry  horse.  That  noble  ani- 
mal  whose  varieties  we  are  describing,  so  admirably  adapted  to  contribute 
to  our  pleasure  and  our  use,  was  at  a  very  early  age  perverted  to  the  de- 
structive purposes  of  war;  and,  as  if  he  had  been  destined  to  the  murder- 
ous business,  seemed  to  e.xult  and  triumph  in  the  work  of  death. 

A  sacred  writer,  more  tiian  three  thousand  years  ago,  gives  us  a  sublime 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  horse,  at  that  time,  as  at  present,  en- 
tered into  the  spirit  of  the  battle — Job  xxxix.  19  et  seq. : 

"  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with 
thunder?  Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grassliopper?  Tiie  glory  of  his 
nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength  : 
he  goeth  on  to  meet  the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear  and  is  not  affrighted  ; 
neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword.  The  quiver  rattleth  against  him, 
the  glittering  spear  and  the  shield.  He  swalloweth  ihe  ground  with  fierce- 
ness and  rage.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets  Ha  !  ha !  He  smelleth  the 
battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting." 

The  cavalry  horses  contain  a  different  proportion  of  blood,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  service  required,  or  the  caprice  of  the  commanding 
officer.  Those  of  the  household  troops  are  from  half  to  three-fourths 
bred.  Some  of  the  lighter  regiments  have  more  blood  in  them.  Our 
cavalry  horses  were  formerly  large  and  heavy.  To  this  imposing  size  was 
added  action  as  imposing.  The  horse  was  trained  to  a  peculiar,  and  g'and 
and  beautiful  method  of  going ;   but  he  was  often  found  deficient   in   reai 


RACE  HORSE.  43 

service,  for  this  very  action  diminished  his  speed,  a  td  added  to  his  laboui 
and  fatigue. 

A  considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  the  character  of  our  war- 
horses  :  lightness  and  activity  have  succeeded  to  bulk  and  strength ;  and 
for  skirmishing  and  sudden  attack,  the  change  is  an  im*f)rovement.  It  is 
particularly  found  to  be  so  in  long  and  rapid  marches,  which  the  lighter 
troops  scarcely  regard,  while  the  heavier  horses,  with  their  more  than  com- 
parative  additional  weiglit  to  carry,  are  knocked  up.  There  was.  how- 
ever, some  danger  of  carrying  this  too  far;  for  it  was  found  that  in  the 
engagements  previous  to,  and  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  our  heavy  house- 
hold troops  alone  were  able  to  repulse  the  formidable  charge  of  the  French 
guard. 

The  following  anecdote  of  the  memory  and  discipline  of  the  troop-horse 
is  related  on  good  authority.  The  Tyrolese,  in  one  of  their  insurrections 
in  1809,  took  fifteen  Bavarian  horses,  and  mounted  them  with  so  many  of 
(heir  own  men  ;  but  in  a  skirmish  with  a  squadron  of  the  same  regiment, 
no  sooner  did  these  horses  hear  the  trumpet,  and  recognise  the  uniform  of 
their  old  masters,  than  they  set  off  at  full  gallop,  and  carried  their  riders, 
in  spite  of  all  their  efibrts,  into  the  Bavarian  ranks,  where  they  were  made 
prisoners. 

Pliny  relates  a  curious  story  about  the  war-horse  ;  but,  although  an  ex- 
cellent naturalist  and  philosopher,  he  was  either  very  credulous  or  too 
fond  of  the  marvellous.  The  Sybarites  trained  their  horses  to  dance. 
The  inhabitants  of  Crotona,  with  whom  they  were  at  war,  had  their 
trumpeters  taught  the  tunes  to  which  the  horses  were  accustomed  to  dance. 
When  the  opposing  troops  were  in  the  act  of  charging  upon  each  other, 
the  Crotonian  trumpeters  began  to  play  these  tunes — the  Sybarite  horses 
began  to  dance,  and  were  easily  defeated. 


THE  RACE  HORSE 


There  is  much  dispute  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  thorovgh-hred 
horse.  By  some  he  is  traced  through  both  sire  and  dam  to  Eastern  parent- 
Age  ;  others  believe  him  to  be  the  native  horse,  improved  and  perfected  by 
judicious  crossing  with  the  Barb,  the  Turk,  or  the  Arabian.  "The  Stud 
Book,"  which  is  an  authority  acknowledged  by  every  Engl.sh  breeder. 
traces  all  the  old  racers  to  some  Eastern  origin ;  or  it  traces  them  uiitij 


44  THE  HOUSE. 

the  ^leJjgjee  is  lost  in  the  uncertainty  of  an  early  period  of  breeding.  If 
tlie  pedigree  of  a  racer  of  the  present  day  be  required,  it  is  traced  back  to 
a  certain  extent,  and  ends  with  a  well  known  racer  j  or  if  an  earlier  deri. 
vation  be  required,  that  ends  either  with  an  Eastern  horse,  or  in  obscurity. 

It  must,  on  the  wliole,  be  allowed,  that  the  present  English  thorough, 
bred  horse  is  of  foreign  extraction,  improved  and  perfected  by  the  influence 
of  the  climate,  and  by  diligent  cultivation.  There  are  some  exceptions, 
as  in  tlie  case  of  Samson  and  Bay-Malton,  in  each  of  whom,  altiiough  the 
best  horses  of  their  day,  there  was  a  cross  of  vulgar  blood  ;  but  they  are 
only  exceptions  to  a  general  rule.  In  our  best  racing  stables,  and,  par- 
ticulai'ly  in  the  studs  of  the  Earls  of  Grosvenor,  and  Egremont,  tins  is  an 
acknowleged  principle  ;  and  it  is  not,  when  properly  considered,  a  principle 
at  all  derogatory  to  the  credit  of  the  country.  The  British  climate,  and 
British  skill,  made  the  thorough-bred  horse  what  he  is. 

The  beautiful  tales  of  Eastern  countries,  and  somewhat  remoter  days, 
may  lead  us  to  imagine  that  the  Arabian  horse  possesses  marvellous  powers; 
but  it  cannot  admit  of  a  doubt,  that  the  English  trained  horse  is  more 
beautiful,  and  far  swifter  and  stouter  than  the  justly-famed  coursers  of 
the  desert.  In  the  burning  plains  of  the  East,  and  tiie  frozen  climate  of 
Russia,  he  has  invariably  beaten  every  antagonist  on  his  native  ground. 
A  kw  years  ago,  Recruit,  an  English  horse  of  moderate  reputation,  easily 
beat  Pyramus,  the  best  Arabian  on  the  Bengal  side  of  India. 

It  must  not  be  objected  that  the  number  of  Eastern  horses  imported  ia 
far  too  small  to  produce  so  numerous  a  progeny.  It  will  be  recollected, 
that  the  thousands  of  wild  horses  on  the  plains  of  South  America  de. 
scended  from  only  two  stallions  and  four  mares,  which  the  early  Spanish 
adventurers  left  there. 

Whatever  may  be  the  truth  as  to  the  origin  of  the  race-horse,  the 
strictest  attention  has  for  the  last  fifty  years  been  paid  to  pedigree.  In 
the  descent  of  almost  every  inodern  racer,  not  the  slightest  flaw  can  be 
discovered :  or  when,  with  the  splendid  exception  of  Samson  and  Bay- 
Malton,  one  drop  of  common  blood  has  mingled  with  the  pure  stream,  it 
has  been  immediately  detected  in  the  inferiority  of  form,  and  deficiency  of 
bottom,  and  it  has  required  two  or  three  generations  to  wipe  away  the  stain, 
and  get  rid  of  its  consequences. 

The  racer  is  generally  distinguished  by  his  beautiful  Arabian  head; — 
his  fine  and  finely-set-on  neck  ; — his  oblique,  lengthened  shoulders  ; — well- 
bent  hinder  legs  ; — his  ample,  muscular  quarters — his  flat  legs,  rather 
short  from  the  knee  downward,  although  not  always  so  deep  as  they 
should  be  ; — and  his  long  and  elastic  pastern.  These  are  separately  con- 
sidered where  tiie  structure  of  the  horse  is  treated  of. 

The  racer,  however,  with  the  most  beautiful  form,  is  occasionally  a 
sorry  animal.  There  is  sometimes  a  want  of  energy  in  an  apparently 
faultless  shape,  for  which  there  is  no  accounting ;  but  there  are  two  points 
among  those  just  enumerated,  which  will  rarely  or  never  deceive,  a  well, 
placed  shoulder  and  a  well-bent  hinder  leg. 

THE  DARLEY  ARABIAN. 

The  Darley  Arabian  was  the  parent  ol  our  best  racing  stock.  He  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Barley's  brother,  at  Aleppo,  and  was  bred  in  the  neigh- 
bouring desert  of  Palmyra.  The  figure  here  given  of  him  is  supposed  to 
be  an  accurate  delineation.  It  contains  every  point,  without  much  show, 
which  could  be  desired  in  a  turf-horse. 


THE  DARLEY  ARABIAN. 


4S 


The  inimediate  descendants  of  this  invaluable  horse,  were  the  Devon- 
shire or  Flying  Childers ;  the  Breeding  or  Bartlett's  Childers,  who  was 
never  trained  ;   Almanzor  and  others. 

The  two  Childers  were  the  means  through  which  the  blood  and  fame  of 
their  sire  were  widely  circulated,  and  from  them  descended  another 
Childers,  Blaze,  Snap,  Samson,  Eclipse,  and  a  host  of  excellent  horses. 


FLYING  CHILDERS. 


The  Devonshire  or  Flying  Childers,  so  called  from  the  name  of  his 
breeder,  Mr.  Childers,  of  Carr-house,  and  the  sale  of  him  to  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  was  the  fleetest  horse  of  his  day.  He  was  at  first  trained 
as  a  hunter,  but  the  superior  speed  and  courage  which  he  discovered 
caused  him  to  be  soon  transferred  to  the  turf.  Common  report  affirms 
that  he  could  run  a  mile  in  a  minute,  but  there  is  no  authentic  record  of 
this.  Childers  ran  over  the  round  course  at  Newmarket  (three  miles  six 
furlongs  and  ninety-three  yards)  in  six  minutes  and  forty  seconds;  and 
the  Beacon  course  (four  miles  one  furlong  and  one  hundred  and  thirty. 


4f,  THE  HORSE. 

eigl>  yards)  in  seven  minutes  and  thirty  seconds.  In  1772  a  mile  WM 
run  oy  Firetail,  in  one  minute  and  four  seconds. 

In  October,  1741,  at  the  Curragh  meeting  in  Ireland,  Mr.  Wilde  engagea 
to  ride  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  miles  in  nine  hours.  He  performed 
it  in  six  hours  and  twenty-one  minutes.  He  employed  ten  horses,  and, 
allowing  for  mounting  and  dismounting,  and  a  moment  for  refreshment,  he 
rode  for  six  hours  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour. 

Mr.  Thornhill,  in  1745,  exceeded  this,  for  he  rode  from  Stilton  to  Lon- 
don and  back,  and  again  to  Stilton,  being  two  hundred  and  thirteen  miles, 
in  eleven  hours  and  thirty-four  minutes,  which  is,  after  allowing  the  least 
l)0ssible  time  for  changing  horses,  twenty  miles  an  hour  for  eleven  hours, 
and  on  the  turnpike  road  and  uneven  ground. 

Mr.  Shaftoe,  in  1762,  with  ten  horses,  and  five  of  them  ridden  twice, 
accomplished  fifty  miles  and  a  quarter,  in  one  hour  and  forty-nine  minutes. 
In  1763,  Mr.  Shaftoe  won  a  more  extraordinary  match.  He  was  to 
procure  a  person  to  ride  one  hundred  miles  a  day,  on  any  one  horse  each 
day,  for  twenty-nine  days  together,  and  to  have  any  number  of  horses  not 
exceeding  twenty-nine.  He  accomplished  it  on  fourteen  horses;  and  on 
one  day  he  rode  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  on  account  of  the  tiring  of 
his  first  horse. 

Mr.  Hull's  Quibbler,  however,  afforded  the  most  extraordinary  instance, 
on  record  of  the  stoutness  as  well  as  speed  of  the  race-horse.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1786,  he  ran  twenty-three  miles  round  the  flat  at  Newmarket,  in  fifty- 
seven  minutes  and  ten  seconds. 


ECLIPSE. 

Eclipse  was  got  by  Marsk,  a  grandson  of  Bartlett's  Childers.* 

*  The  pedigree  of  Eclipse  affords  a  singular  illustration  of  the  d 'scent  of  our  ihorougb- 
bred  horses  from  pure  Eastern  blood. 

(  Darley  Arabian, 
f  Bartlett's  ChUders  . .  j  g^^^^  ^eeds  \  Careless  j  Shank-  \  Barb  Mare 

Squirt \  (  Snake  .  .  .  .  (  Lister  Turk, 

I  Dam  of  <  Daughter  (  tto,.«>,«„  S  DArceyWhiteTiirll 

•-      •     '  ^  Hautboy.  P'^^t^oy  Uoyal  Mare. 


Caroline  and  Shock . 


Daughter  of  ' 


Hautboy 


I    Hautboy. 
(Hutton's  Be 
Hutton's  Black  Legs  ^  (  Coneyskins.  ]  Lister  Turk. 

(  Daughter  of  < 


Hutton's  Bay  Turk. 


,  Daughter  of 


I  Daughter  of  <  Hautboy 

(  Clumsy.  }  Hautboy. 
Fox  Cub     ^  '       , 

(  Daughter  of  I  Leeds  Arabian. 
(  Coneyskins .  \  Lister  Turk. 
Daughter  of  {  5 

(  Daughter  of  ]  Hutton's  Grey  Barb. 

iGodolphin  Arabian. 
(  Bald  Galloway.  , 

Daughter  of  }  C  Snake.  I  Lister  Turk. 

'  Old  Wilkes,  by  Hautboy. 

(  Old  Montague  j  Daughter  of  Hautboy 

The  pediaree  of  Eclipse  will  likewise  afford  us  another  curious  illustration  of  the  un- 
certainty which  attends  thorough-bred  horses.  Marsk  was  sold  at  the  sale  of  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland's  stud  for  a  mere  trifle,  and  was  suffered  to  run  almost  wild  on  the  New 


Daughter  of  ■ 


H.egUI'18.  .  < 


RACE  HORSE. 


47 


Of  the  beauty,  yet  peculiarity  of  his  form,  much  has  been  said.  The 
very  great  size,  obliquity,  and  lowness  of  his  shoulders  were  the  objects  of 
general  remark — with  the  shortness  of  his  fore-quarters,  his  ample  and 
finely  proportioned  quarters,  and  the  swelling  muscles  of  his  fore-arm  and 
thigh.  Of  his  speerl,  no  correct  estimate  can  be  formed,  for  he  never  me* 
v\  ith  an  opponent  sufficiently  fleet  to  put  it  to  the  test. 


He  was  bred  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  sold  at  his  death  to  Mr. 
Wikhnan  a  sheep  salesman,  for  seventy-five  guineas.  Colonel  O'Kelly 
purchased  a  siiare  of  him  from  Wildman.  In  the  spring  of  the  following 
year,  when  the  reputation  of  this  wonderful  animal  was  at  its  height, 
O'Kelly  wished  to  become  sole  owner  of  him,  and  bought  the  remaining 
share  for  one  thousand  pounds. 

Eclipse  was  what  was  termed  a  thick-winded  horse,  and  puffed  and  roared 
so  as  to  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  For  this  or  some  other  cause, 
he  was  not  brought  on  the  turf  until  he  was  five  years  old. 

O'Kelly,  aware  of  his  horse's  powers,  had  backed  him  freely  on  his 
first  race,  in  May,  1769.  This  excited  curiosity,  or,  perhaps,  roused  sus- 
picion, and  some  persons  attempted  to  watch  one  of  his  trials.  Mr.  John 
Lawrence  says,  that  "  they  were  a  little  too  late ;  but  they  found  an  old 
woman  who  gave  theni  all  the  information  they  wanted.  On  inquiring 
whether  she  had  seen  a  race,  she  replied  that  she  could  not  tell  whether 
it  was  a  race  or  not,  but  that  she  had  just  seen  a  horse  with  white  legs 
running  away  at  a  monstrous  rate,  and  another  liorse  a  great  way  behind., 
tiying  to  run  after  him  ;  but  she  was  sure  he  never  would  catch  the  white- 
legged  horse  if  he  ran  to  the  world's  end." 

The  first  heat  was  easily  won,  when  O'Kelly,  observing  that  the  rider 
had  been  pulling  at  Eclipse  during  the  whole  of  the  race,  offered  a  wager 
that  he  placed  the  horses  in  the  next  heat.  This  seemed  a  thing  so  highly 
improbable,  that  he  immediately  had  bets  to  a  large  amount.  Being  called 
on  to  declare,  he  replied,  "  Eclipse  first,  and  the  rest  no  where  V  The 
event  jus-tified  his  prediction  :  all  the  others  were  distanced  by  Eclipse  with 
the  greatest  ease  ;  or,  in  the  language  of  the  turf,  they  had  no  place. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  he  beat  Mr.  Wentworth's  Bucephalus. 

Forest.  He  was  afterwards  purchased  by  the  Earl  of  Abing-don,  for  one  thousand  g-uineas, 
and  before  his  death  covered  for  one  hundred  guineas.  Squirt,  when  the  property  of 
Sir  Harry  Harpur,  was  ordered  to  be  shot,  and  while  he  was  actually  leading  to  the  dog- 
kennel,  he  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  one  of  Sir  Harry's  grooms;  and  neither 
Bartlett's  Childer's,  nor  Snake,  was  ever  trained.  On  tiie  side  of  the  dam,  Spilet?a 
never  started  but  once,  and  was  beaten:  and  the  Godolphin  Arabian  was  purchased 
from  a  water-cart  in  Paris. — Smilh's  Breeding  /or  the  Turf,  p.  5. 


'48  THE  HORSE. 

who  hfll  lever  Lefore  been  conquered.  Two  days  afterwards  he  distanced 
Mr.  Sirode's  Pensioner,  a  very  good  horse  ;  and,  in  the  August  of  the  same 
year,  he  won  the  great  subscription  at  York.  No  horse  daring  to  enter 
against  him,  he  closed  his  short  career  of  seventeen  months,  by  walking 
over  the  Newmarket  course  for  the  king's  plate,  on  October  18th,  1770. 
He  was  never  beaten,  nor  ever  paid  forfeit,  and  won  for  his  owner  more 
than  twenty-five  thousand  pounds. 

Eclipse  was  afterwards  employed  as  a  stallion,  and  produced  the 
extraordinary  number  of  three  hundred  and  thirty-four  winners,  and  these 
netted  to  their  owners  more  than  a  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  pounds, 
exclusive  of  plates  and  cups.  This  fine  animal  died  in  1789,  at  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years.* 

More  than  twenty  years  after  the  Darley  Arabian,  and  when  the  value 
of  the  Arabian  blood  was  fully  established.  Lord  Godolphin  possessed  a 
beautiful,  but  singularly  shaped  horse,  which  he  called  an  Arabian,  but 
which  was  really  a  Barb.  His  crest,  lofty  and  arched  almost  to  a  fault, 
will  distinguish  him  from  every  other  horse. 

It  will  likewise  be  seen  from  our  j)late  (vide  p.  9,)  that  he  had  a 
sinking  behind  his  shoulders,  almost  as  peculiar,  and  a  corresponding 
elevation  of  the  spine  towards  the  loins.  His  muzzle  was  uncommonly 
fine,  his  head  beautifully  set  on,  his  shoulders  capacious,  and  his  quarters 
well  spread  out.  He  was  picked  up  in  France,  where  he  was  actually 
employed  in  drawirg  a  cart;  and  when  he  was  afterwards  presented  to 
Lord  Godolphin,  "le  was  in  that  nobleman's  stud  a  considerable  lime  before 
his  value  was  discovered.  It  was  not  until  the  birth  of  Lath,  one  of  the 
first  horses  of  that  period,  that  his  excellence  began  to  be  appreciated. 
He  was  then  styled  an  Arabian,  and  became,  in  even  a  greater  degree 
than  the  Darley,  the  founder  of  the  modern  thorough-bred  horses.  He 
died  in  1753,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine. 

An  intimate  friendship  subsisted  between  him  and  a  cat,  which  either  sat 
on  his  back  when  he  was  in  the  stable,  or  nestled  as  closely  to  him  as  she 
could.  At  his  death,  the  cat  refused  her  food,  and  pined  away,  and  soon 
died. — Mr.  Holcroft  gives  a  similar  relation  of  the  attachment  between  a 
race-horse  and  a  cat,  which  the  courser  would  take  in  his  mouth  and  place 
in  his  manger  and  upon  his  back  without  hurting  her.  Chillaby,  called 
from  his  great  ferocity  the  Mad  Arabian,  whom  one  only  of  the  grooms 
dared  to  approach,  and  who  savagely  tore  to  pieces  the  image  of  a  man 
that  was  purposely  placed  in  his  way,  had  his  peculiar  attachment  to  a 
Iamb,  who  used  to  employ  himself  for  many  an  hour,  in  butting  away  the 
flies  from  him. 

Another  foreign  horse,  whose  portrait  we  have  given  (vide  p.  11,)  was 
the  Wellesley  Arabian;  the  very  picture  of  a  beautiful  wild  horse  of 
the  desert.  His  precise  country  was  never  determined.  He  is  evidently 
neither  a  perfect  Barb  nor  a  perfect  Arabian,  but  from  some  neighbouring 
province,  where  both  the  Barb  and  Arabian  would  expand  to  a  more  per- 
fect fulness  of  form.  This  horse  has  been  erroneously  selected  as  the  pat- 
tern of  a  superior  Arabian,  and  therefore  we  have  introduced  him  ;  tew, 
however,  of  his  produce  were  trained  who  can  add  much  to  his  reputation. 

It  has  been  imagined  that  the  breed  of  racing  horses  has  lately  very 
considerably  degenerated.     This  is  not  the  case.     Thorough-bred  horses 

*  The  produce  of  King-  Herod,  a  descendant  of  Flying  Childers,  was  even  more 
RUnierous.  He  got  no  less  than  four  hundred  and  ninety-seven  winners,  who  gained  foi 
their  proprietors  upwards  of  two  hundred  thousand  pounds.  Highflyer  was  a  son  '»t 
King  Herod. 


THE  RACER.  40 

vore  fonnerly  fewer  in  number,  and  their  performances  created  greater 
wonder.  The  breed  has  now  increased  twenty-fold,  and  superiority  is  not 
so  easily  obtained  among  so  many  competitors.  If  one  circumstance  could, 
more  than  any  other,  produce  this  degeneracy,  it  would  be  our  absurd  ani' 
cruel  habit  of  bringing  out  horses  too  soon,  and  the  frequent  failure  of 
tlK  ir  legs  before  they  have  come  to  their  full  power.  Childers  and 
Eclipse  did  not  appear  until  they  were  five  years  old ;  but  many  ot 
our  best  horses,  and  those,  perhaps,  who  would  have  shown  equal  excel- 
lence with  the  most  celebrated  racers,  are  foundered  and  destroyed  before 
that  period. 

Whether  the  introduction  of  short  races,  and  so  young  horses,  be  ad- 
vantageous, and  whether  stoutness  and  usefulness  may  not  thus  be  some- 
what too  much  sacrificed  to  speed — whether  there  may  be  danger  that  an 
animal  designed  for  service  may,  in  process  of  time,  be  frittered  away 
almost  to  a  shadow  of  what  he  was,  in  order  that  at  two  years  old,  over 
the  one-mile  course,  he  may  astonish  the  crowd  by  his  fleetness — are 
questions  that  more  concern  the  sporting  man  than  the  agriculturist;  and 
yet  they  concern  the  agriculturist  too,  for  racing  is  principally  valuable  as 
connected  with  breeding,  and  as  the  test  of  breeding. 

The  horse  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  race  as  thoroughly  as  does  his 
rider,  and,  without  whip  or  spur,  will  generally  exert  his  energies  to  the 
utmost  to  beat  his  opponent.  It  is  beautiful  to  see  him  advancing  to  the 
starting-post,  every  motion  evincing  his  eagerness.  The  signal  is  given, 
and  he  springs  away — he  settles  himself  in  his  stride — the  jockey  becomes 
a  part  and  portion  of  him,  every  motion  of  the  arms  and  body  corre- 
.sponding  with,  and  assisting  the  action  of  the  horse.  On  he  goes,  eager, 
yet  husbanding  his  powers.  At  length,  when  he  arrives  at  that  distance 
from  which  the  rider  knows  that  he  will  live  ho7ne  at  the  top  of  his  speed, 
the  hint  is  given,  and  on  he  rushes.  Then  the  race  in  reality  begins,  and 
every  nerve  is  strained  to  head  his  competitor.  Then,  too,  comes  the  art 
of  the  rider,  to  keep  the  horse  within  his  pace,  and  with  admirable  give 
and  take,  add  to  the  length  of  every  stride.  Then,  perhaps,  the  spui, 
skilfully  applied,  may  be  necessary  to  rouse  every  dormant  energy.  A 
sluggish  lurching  horse  may  need  more  punishment  than  the  humane 
observer  would  think  justifiable.  But  the  natural  ardour  of  the  race-horse, 
roused  at  the  moment  of  the  grand  struggle,  by  the  moderate  application 
of  the  whip  and  spur,  will  bring  him  through  if  he  can  win. 

Forrester  will  afford  sufficient  illustration  of  the  natural  emulation  of 
the  courser. — He  had  won  many  a  hardly  contested  race ;  at  length,  over- 
weighted and  over-matched,  the  rally  had  commenced.  His  opponent, 
who  had  been  waiting  behind,  was  gaining  upon  him  ;  he  overtook  him, 
and  they  continued  quite  close  to  within  the  distance.  It  was  a  point  that 
could  scarcely  be  decided.  But  Forrester's  strength  was  failing.  He 
made  one  desperate  plunge — seized  his  antagonist  by  the  jaw  to  hold  him 
back,  and  could  scarcely  be  forced  to  quit  his  hold,  In  like  manner,  a  horse 
belonging  to  Mr.  Quin,  in  1753,  finding  his  adversary  gradually  passing 
•lim,  seized  him  by  the  leg,  and  both  riders  were  obliged  to  dismount,  in 
order  to  separate  the  animals.  Let  us  here  pause  and  ask,  would  the 
butcherly  whipping  and  cutting  which  seems  so  often  to  form  the  expected 
and  necessary  conclusion  of  the  race — the  supposed  display  of  the  skill  of 
the  rider — the  exultation  of  the  thoughtless  or  unfeeling  spectator — would 
these  have  carried  such  horses  over  one  additional  inch  of  ground  ?  They 
would  have  been  thrown  abroad — they  would  have  shortened  their  stroke 
—and  perhaps  \\ould  have  become  enraged,  and  suspended  everyr  exertion. 


50  THE  HORSE. 

The  liO'se  is  as  susceptible  of  pleasure  and  pain  as  ourselves.  He  vva» 
coMimiUed  to  us  for  our  protection  and  our  use ;  he  i»  a  willing,  devote(^ 
servant.  Whence  did  we  derive  the  right  to  abuse  him  ?  Inteiest  speak.s 
the  same  language :  many  a  race  has  been  lost  by  the  infliction  of  wanion 
cruelty-* 

THE  HUNTER. 


There  are  few  agriculturists  who  have  not  a  little  liking  for  the  sports  of 
the  field,  and  who  do  not  fancy  rich  music  in  the  cry  of  the  hounds.  To 
what  extent  it  may  be  prudent  for  them  to  indulge  in  these  sports  circum- 
stances must  decide,  and  they  deserve  the  most  serious  consideration. 
Few  can,  or,  if  they  could,  ought  to  keep  a  hunter.  There  are  tempta- 
tions to  expense  in  the  field,  and  to  expense  after  the  chase,  which  it  may 
oe  difficult  to  withstand.      The   hunter,   however,   or  the   hunting  horse. 

*  One  of  the  severest  plate-races  on  record,  was  run  at  Carlisle,  in  1761,  and  in  which 
there  were  no  fewer  than  six  heats,  and  two  of  them  were  dead  heats,  each  of  which  was 
contested  by  the  winner  of  the  plate. 

In  1763  at  Salisbury,  and  over  a  four-mile  course,  there  were  four  heats  between  two 
horses,  the  Duke  of  Grafton's  Havana  and  Mr.  Wildman's  Pam. 

The  following- table  of  the  abbreviations  used  in  desig-nating-  the  diiferent  courses  at 
Newmarket,  and  the  length  of  these  courses,  may  not  be  unnacceptable. 


Abbrev. 

3Iiles. 

Purl. 

Yds. 

The  Beacon  course 

B.C.     is 

4 

1 

138 

Last  three  miles  of  ditto    - 

L.T.M. 

3 

0 

5 

From  the  Ditch  in           -         - 

D.I. 

2 

0 

94 

From  the  turn  of  the  lands  in 

T.L.I. 

0 

5 

184 

Clermont  course 

C.C. 

1 

5 

217 

Across  the  Flat 

AF. 

1 

1 

447 

Two-year  old  course 

T.Y.C. 

0 

5 

136 

Yearling  course 

Y.C. 

0 

2 

147 

Round  course          .         .         - 

R.C. 

3 

6 

93 

Ditch  mile            ... 

D.M. 

0 

7 

148 

Abingdon  mile        .        .        . 

A.M. 

0 

7 

211 

Rowtey  mile 

R.M. 

1 

0 

1 

Two  middle  miles  of  B.C. 

-  T.M.M. 

1 

7 

115 

A  Distance  is  the  length  of  two  hundred  and  forty  yards  from  the  winning  post.  In 
the  gallery  of  tlie  winning  post,  and  in  a  little  gallery  at  the  distance  pest  are  placed  two 
in*"!!  holding  crimaon  flags.    As  soon  as  the  the  first  horse  has  naqsed  the  winning  poaL  tha 


THE  HUNTER.  31 

.  «.  the  horse  on  whieh  a  farmer,  if  he  be  not  a  professed  sportsman,  may 
occasionally  with  pleasure,  and  without  disgrace,  follow  the  hounds,  is  in 
value  and  beauty  next  to  the  racer. 

He  shoulg  seldom  be  under  fifteen  or  more  than  sixteen  hands  high  ; 
below  tliis  standard  he  cannot  always  sufficiently  measure  the  object  befoie 
him,  and  above  this,  he  is  apt  to  be  leggy,  and  awkward  at  his  work. 

In  proportion  as  the  agriculture  of  the  country  is  improved,  the  speed  of 
the  chase  is  increased.  The  scent  both  of  the  fox  and  hare  will  lie  bettei 
in  inclosed  and  well-cultivated  ground,  than  on  open,  barren  heaths ;  and 
there  is  more  running  hreast-high  than  when  the  hound  is  compelled  to 
pick  out  the  scent,  carrying  his  nose  almost  close  to  the  ground,  and  con- 
sequently going  more  slowly.  The  character  of  the  hunter  is  consequently 
gradually  changing.  Stoutness  is  still  required,  but  speed  is  becoming 
more  necessary,  and,  therefore,  for  the  fox,  and  the  deer,  and  even  for  the 
hare,  blood  is  an  essential  quality. 

In  strong,  thickly  inclosed  countries,  the  half-bred  horse  may  get  tolei*- 
ably  well  along ;  but  for  general  use  the  hunter  should  be  at  least  three- 
quarters  bred,  perhaps  seven-eighths.  If  he  could  be  obtained  with  bone 
enough,  and  different  action,  a  thorough-bred  horse  would  form  the  best  of 
all  hunters  :  but  the  thorough-bred  horse,  with  the  usual  action  of  the  racer, 
would  not,  even  at  three-quarters  speed,  always  carry  himself  sufficiently 
high  to  be  aware  of  and  to  clear  his  fences. 

The  first  property  of  a  good  hunter  is,  that  he  should  be  light  in  hand 
For  this  purpose  his  head  must  be  small ;  his  neck  thin  ;  and  especiall} 
thin  beneath ;  his  crest  firm  and  arched,  and  his  jaws  wide.  The  head 
will  then  be  well  set  on.  It  will  form  that  angle  with  the  neck  which 
gives  a  light  and  pleasant  mouth. 

Somewhat  of  a  ewe-neck,  however  it  may  lessen  the  beauty  of  the  race- 
horse,  does  not  interfere  with  his  speed,  because,  as  is  shown  where  the 
structure  of  the  horse  is  considered,  more  weight  may  be  thrown  forward, 
and  consequently  the  whole  bulk  of  the  animal  more  easily  impelled  ;  at 
the  same  time,  the  head  is  more  readily  and  perfectly  extended,  the  wind- 
pipe is  brought  almost  to  a  straight  line  from  the  lungs  to  the  muzzle,  and 
the  breathing  is  freer.  Should  the  courser,  in  consequence  of  this  form 
of  the  neck,  bear  more  heavily  on  the  hand,  the  race  is  soon  over ;  but  the 
hunter  may  be  our  companion  and  our  servant  through  a  long  day,  and  it 
is  of  essential  consequence  that  he  shall  not  too  much  annoy  and  tire  us  by 
the  weight  of  his  head  and  neck. 

The  forehand  should  be  loftier  than  that  of  the  racer.  A  turf  horse  may 
be  forgiven  if  his  hind  quarters  rise  an  inch  or  two  above  his  fore  ones. 
His  principal  power  is  wanted  from  behind,  and  the  very  lowness  of  the 

man  drops  his  flag- ;  the  other  at  the  distance  post  drops  his  at  the  same  moment,  and  the 
horse  which  has  not  then  passed  that  post  is  said  to  be  distanced,  and  cannot  start  again 
for  tlie  same  plate  or  prize. 

A  Feather-weight  is  the  lightest  weight  that  can  be  put  on  the  back  of  a  horse. 

A  Give  and  Take  Plate  is  where  horses  carry  weight  according  to  their  height.  Pour- 
teen  hands  are  taken  as  the  standard  height,  and  horse  must  carry  nine  stone  (the  horse- 
man's stone  is  fourteen  pounds.)  Seven  pounds  are  taken  from  the  weight  for  every  inch 
below  fourteen  hands,  and  seven  pounds  added  for  every  inch  above  fourteen  hands.  A 
few  pounds  additional  weight  is  so  serious  an  evil,  that  it  is  said,  seven  pounds  in  a  mile 
race  are  equivalent  to  a  distance. 

A  Post  Match  is  for  horses  of  a  certain  age,  and  the  parties  possess  the  privilege  of 
6ring-ing  any  horse  of  that  age  to  the  post. 

A  Pbodcce  Match  is  that  between  the  produce  of  certain  mares  i;i  foal  at  the  time  of 
•he  r>atch   and  to  be  decided  when  they  arrive  at  a  certain  age  specified. 


52  THE  HORSE. 

foroi.and  .nay  throw  more  weight  in  front,  and  cause  the  whcJe  matnine  to 
be  more  easily  and  speedily  moved.  A  lofty  forehand,  however,  is  indis- 
pensahle  in  the  hunter ;  the  shoulder  as  extensive  as  the  racer ; — as  ob 
lique  and  somewhat  thicker  ;  the  saddle  will  then  be  in  its  proper  place, 
and  will  continue  so,  however  long  may  be  the  run. 

The  barrel  should  be  rounder,  to  give  greater  room  for  the  heart  and 
lungs  to  play,  and  send  more  and  purer  blood  to  the  larger  frame  of  this 
horse ;  and  especially  more  room  to  play  when  the  run  may  continue  un- 
checked for  a  time  that  begins  to  be  distressing.  A  broad  chest  is  an 
excellence  in  the  hunter. — In  the  violent  and  long-continued  exertion  of 
the  chase,  the  respiration  is  exceedingly  quickened,  and  abundantly  more 
blood  is  hurried  through  the  lungs  in  a  given  time  than  when  the  animal 
is  at  rest.  There  must  be  sufficient  room  for  this,  or  the  horse  will  be 
blown,  and  possibly  destroyed.  The  majority  of  the  horses  that  perish 
in  the  field  are  narrow  chested. 

The  arm  should  be  as  muscular  as  that  of  the  courser,  or  even  more  so, 
for  both  strength  and  endurance  are  wanted. 

The  leg  should  be  deeper  than  that  of  the  race  horse  (broader  as  you 
stand  at  the  side  of  the  horse,)  and  especially  beneath  the  knee.  In 
proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  tendon  from  the  cannon  or  shank-bone, 
and  more  particularly  just  below  the  knee,  is  the  mechanical  advantage 
with  which  it  acts.  A  racer  may  be  tied  beneath  the  knee,  without  per- 
fectly  destroying  his  power,  but  a  hunter  with  this  defect  will  rarely  have 
stoutness. 

If  any  objection  be  made  to  our  cut  of  the  hunter,  it  will  be  that  the 
mare  was  too  fine  below  the  knee.  It  was  the  only  bad  point  in  an  almost 
perfect  form.  She  was  the  property  of  T.  Millington,  Esq.,  to  whose 
kindness  we  are  indebted  for  permission  to  copy  her  portrait.  She  would 
go  over  any  thing,  and  was  never  tired. 

The  leg  should  be  shorter.  Higher  action  is  required  than  in  the  racer, 
that  the  legs  may  be  clearly  and  safely  lifted  over  many  an  obstacle,  and, 
particularly,  that  they  may  be  well  doubled  up  in  the  leap. 

The  pastern  should  be  shorter,  and  less  slanting,  yet  retaining  consider- 
able obliquity.  The  long  pastern  is  useful,  by  the  yielding  resistance 
which  its  elasticity  affords,  to  break  the  concussion  with  which  the  race- 
horse from  his  immense  stride  and  speed  must  come  on  the  ground :  and 
the  oblique  direction  of  the  different  bones  beautifully  contributes  to  effect 
the  same  purpose.  With  this  elasticity,  however,  a  considerable  degree  of 
weakness  is  necessarily  connected,  and  the  race-horse  occasionally  breaks 
down  in  the  middle  of  his  course.  The  hunter,  from  his  dilTerent  action, 
takes  not  this  length  of  stride,  and  therefore  wants  not  all  this  elastic  me- 
chanism ;  he  more  needs  strength  to  support  his  own  heavier  carcase,  and 
the  greater  weight  of  his  rider,  and  to  undergo  the  fatigue  of  a  long  day. 
Some  obliquity,  however,  he  requires,  otherwise  the  concussion  even  of 
his  shorter  gallop,  and  more  particularly  of  his  frequently  tremendous  leaps, 
would  inevitably  lame  him. 

The  foot  of  the  hunter  is  a  most  material  point.  It  is  of  consequence  in 
the  racer,  yet  it  is  a  notorious  fact,  that  many  of  our  best  thorough-bred 
horses  have  had  very  indifferent  feet.  The  narrow  contracted  foot  is  the 
curse  of  much  of  the  racing  blood.  The  work  of  the  racer,  however,  is 
all  performed  on  the  turf,  and  his  bad  feet  may  scarcely  incommode  him ; 
but  the  foot  of  the  hunter  is  battered  over  many  a  flinty  road  and  ?tony 
field,  and  if  not  particularly  good,  will  soon  be  disabled  and  ruined 

The  position  of  the  feet  requires  some  attention  in  the  hunter.     They 


THE  HUNTER.  53 

sliould,  if  possible,  stand  straight.  If  they  turn  a  little  outward  there  is  f)** 
serious  objection  ;  but  if  they  turn  inward,  his  action  cannot  be  safe,  par- 
ticularly wlien  he  is  fatigued  or  over-weighted. 

The  body  should  be  short  and  compact,  compared  with  that  of  the  race- 
horse, that  he  may  not  in  his  gallop  take  too  extended  a  stride.  This 
would  be  a  serious  disadvantage  in  a  long  day  and  with  a  heavy  rider 
from  the  stress  on  the  pasterns  ;  and  more  serious  when  going  over  clayey 
poached  ground  during  the  winter  months.  The  compact  short-stridea 
horse  will  almost  skim  the  surface,  while  the  feet  of  the  longer-reached 
animal  will  sink  deep,  and  he  will  wear  himself  out  by  efforts  to  disengage 
himself. 

Every  horseman  knows  how  much  more  enduring  is  a  short-bodied 
horse  in  climbing  hills,  although  perhaps  not  quite  so  much  in  descending 
them.  This  is  the  secret  of  suiting  the  race-horse  to  his  course ;  and 
unfolds  the  apparent  mystery  of  a  decidedly  superior  horse  on  a  flat  and 
straight  course,  being  often  beaten  by  a  little  horse  with  far  shorter  stride 
on  uneven  ground,  and  with  several  turnings. 

The  loins  should  be  broad ; — the  quarters  long ; — the  thighs  musculai 
— tlie  hocks  well  bent,  and  well  under  the  horse. 

The  reader  needs  not  be  told  how  essential  temper  and  courage  are.  A 
hot,  irritable  brute  is  a  perfect  nuisance,  and  the  coward  that  will  scarcely 
face  the  slightest  fence  exposes  his  owner  to  ridicule. 

The  training  of  the  race-horse  has  not  been  touched  upon.  It  contain."^ 
too  much  mystery,  and  too  much  absurdity  for  common  understandings, 
'i'he  jfincip/e  however  of  preparing  both  the  race-horse  and  the  hunter  for 
their  work  is  the  same,  and  can  have  no  mystery  about  it ;  viz:  by  physic 
and  by  exercise,  to  get  rid  of  all  superfluous  fat  and  flesh,  without  too 
much  lowering  the  animal ;  and,  particularly  to  bring  him  by  dint  of 
exercise  into  good  wind,  and  accustom  him  to  the  full  trial  of  his  powers 
without  over-straining  or  injuring  liim.  Two  or  three  doses  of  physic  as 
the  season  approaches,  and  tiiese  not  too  strong ;  plenty  of  good  hard 
meat ;  and  a  daily  gallop  of  a  couple  of  miles,^  and  at  a  pace  not  too 
quick,  will  be  nearly  all  that  can  be  required.  Physic  must  not  be 
omitted ;  but  the  three  words  air,  exercise,  food,  contain  the  grand  secret 
and  art  of  training. 

Some  think  that  even  the  simple  process  now  described  is  not  necessary, 
and  that  horses  that  are  taken  up  and  worked  in  the  day,  and  with  a  feed 
or  two  of  corn,  and  turned  out  at  night,  with  an  open  stable  or  shed  to 
run  into  if  they  please,  are  as  active,  healthy,  and  enduring,  as  those  who 
arc  most  carefully  ti'ained,  and  confined  to  tiie  stable  during  the  hunting 
season.  Many  a  farmer  has  boasted,  that  he  can  beat  the  most  numerous 
and  the  best  appointed  field,  and  that  his  horse  never  wants  wind,  and 
rarely  tires. 

It  is  true  that  the  farmer  may  enjoy  a  good  day's  sport  on  the  horse 
that  carries  him  to  market,  or  possibly,  occasionally  performs  more  menial 
drudgery ;  but  the  frothy  lather  with  which  such  a  horse  is  covered  in  the 
early  part  of  the  day  evinces  undeniable  inferiority.  There  is,  however, 
one  point  on  which  the  untrained  horse  has  the  advantage.  Accustomed 
to  all  weather,  he  rarely  suffers,  when,  after  a  sharp  burst,  there  comes  a 
sudden  check,  and  the  pampered  and  shivering  stabled  horse  is  exposed 
with  hini  for  a  considerable  time  to  a  piercing  north-easter.  I'he  one 
cares  nothing  about  it ;  the  other  may  carry  home  the  seeds  of  dangerous 
disease. 

The  hunler  may  be  fairl}'  ridden  twice,  or,  if  not  with  any  very  hard 


54 


THE  HORSE. 


days,  ihrNe  times  in  the  week;  but,  after  a  thoroiiolily  hard  day,  and  evi- 
dent  distress-,  three  or  four  days'  rest  should  be  allowed.  They  who  are 
merciful  to  their  horses,  allow  about  thirty  days'  work  in  the  course  of 
the  season ;  with  gentle  exercise  on  each  of  the  intermediate  days,  and 
particularly  a  sweat  on  the  day  before  hunting.  There  is  an  account, 
however,  of  one  horse  who  followed  the  fox-hounds  seventy-five  times  in 
one  season.     This  feat  has  never  been  exceeded. 

We  recollect  to  have  seen  the  last  Duke  of  Richmond  but  one,  although 
an  old  man,  and  when  he  had  the  gout  in  his  hands  so  severely  that  he 
was  obliged  to  be  lifted  on  horseback,  and  both  arms  being  passed  through 
the  reins,  were  crossed  on  his  breast,  galloping  down  the  steepest  part 
of  Bow-hill,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Goodwood,  almost  as  abrupt  as  tlie 
ridge  of  an  ordinary  house,  and  cheering  on  the  hounds  with  all  the  ardour 
of  a  youth.* 

The  horse  fully  shares  in  the  enthusiasm  of  his  rider.  It  is  beautiful  to 
watch  the  old  hunter,  who,  after  many  a  winters'  hard  work,  is  turned  into 
the  park  to  enjoy  himself  for  life.  His  attitude  and  his  countenance  when, 
perchance,  he  hears  the  distant  cry  of  the  dogs,  are  a  study.  If  he  can, 
he  will  break  his  fence,  and,  over  hedge,  and  lane,  and  brook,  follow  the 
chase,  and  come  in  first  at  the  death. 

A  horse  that  had,  a  short  time  before,  been  severely  fired  on  three  legs, 
and  was  placed  in  a  loose  box,  with  the  door,  four  feet  high,  closed,  and  an 
aperture  over  it  a  little  more  than  three  feet  square,  and  standing  himself 
nearly  sixteen  hands,  and  master  of  fifteen  stone,  hearing  the  cheering  of 
the  huntsmen  and  the  cry  of  the  dogs  at  no  great  distance,  sprung  through 
the  aperture  without  leaving  a  single  mark  on  the  bottom,  the  top  or  the 
sides. 

Then,  if  the  horse  be  thus  ready  to  exert  himself  for  our  pleasure — and 
pleasure  alone  is  here  the  object — it  is  indefensible  and  brutal  to  urge  him 

*  Sir  John  Malcolm  (in  his  sketches  of  Persia)  gives  an  amusing  account  of  the  im- 
pression which  a  fox-liunt  in  the  English  style  made  on  an  Arab : 

"I  was  entertained  by  listening  to  an  Arab  peasant,  who,  with  animated  gestures,  was 
narrating  to  a  group  of  his  countrymen  all  he  had  seen  of  this  noble  hunt.  '  There  came 
the  fox,'  said  he,  pointing  with  a  crooked  stick  to  a  clump  of  date  trees,  '  there  he  came 
at  a  great  rate.  1  hallooed,  but  nobody  heard  me,  and  I  tiiought  he  must  get  away ;  but 
when  he  got  quite  out  of  sight,  up  came  a  large  spotted  dog,  and  then  another  and  another. 
They  all  had  tl)eir  noses  to  the  ground,  and  gave  tongue — whow,  whow,  whow — so  loud,  I 
was  frightened.  Away  went  these  devils,  who  soon  found  the  poor  animal.  After  them 
galloped  the  Foringees  (a  corruption  of  Frank,  the  name  given  to  an  European  over  all 
Asia,)  shouting  and  trying  to  make  a  noise  louder  than  the  dogs.  No  wonder  they  killed 
the  fox  among  them.'  " 

The  Treasurer,  Burleigh,  the  sage  councillor  of  Q,ueen  Elizabeth,  could  not  enter  into 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase.     Old  Andrew  Fuller  relates  a  quaint  story  of  him  : 

"When  some  noblemen  had  gotten  William  Cecill  Lord  Burleigh  to  ride  with  them  a 
hunting,  and  the  sport  began  to  be  cold,  '  What  call  you  this?'  said  the  treasurer.  '  Oil ! 
now  the  dogs  are  at  fault,'  was  the  repl;'  '  Vea,'  quoth  the  treasurer,  '  take  me  again  in 
iuch  a  fault,  and  I'll  give  you  leave  to  punish  me.'  " 

In  former  times  it  was  the  fashion  for  women  to  hunt  almost  as  often  and  as  keenly  as 
the  men.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  extremely  fond  of  the  chase.  Rowland  VVhytc,  in  a 
letter  to  Sir  Robert  Sidney,  says  :  "  Her  majesty  is  well,  and  excellently  disposed  to  luin<- 
ing;  for  every  second  day  she  is  on  horseback,  and  continues  the  sport  long." 

This  custom  soon  afterwards  began  to  decline,  and  the  jokes  and  sarcasms  of  the  witty 
court  of  Charles  II.  contributed  to  discountenance  it. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  that  the  first  work  on  hunting  that  proceeded  from  ihc 
press,  was  from  the  pen  of  a  female,  Juliana  Barnes,  or  Bcrncrs,  the  sister  of  Lord  Berne's, 
tnd  prioress  of  the  nunnery  of  Sopewell,  about  the  year  l4ol. 


THE  HUNTER.  55 

beyond  his  own  natural  ardour,  so  severely  as  we  sometimes  do,  and  even 
until  nature  is  quite  exhausted.  We  do  not  often  hear  of  a  "hard-day," 
without  being  lilvewise  informed,  that  one  or  more  horses  either  died  in  the 
field,  or  scarcely  reached  home  before  they  expired.  Some  have  been 
thoughtless  and  cruel  enough  to  kill  two  horses  in  one  day.  One  of  the 
severest  chases  on  record  was  by  the  king's  stag-hounds.  There  was  an 
uninterrupted  burst  of  four  hours  and  twenty  minutes.  One  horse  dropped 
dead  in  the  field  ;  another  died  before  he  could  reach  the  stable  ;  and  seven 
more  within  a  week  afterwards. 

It  is  very  conceivable,  and  does  sometimes  happen,  that,  entering  as 
fully  as  his  master  into  the  sports  of  the  day,  the  horse  disdains  to  yield 
to  fatigue,  and  voluntarily  presses  on,  until  nature  is  exhausted,  and 
he  falls  and  dies  ;  but  much  oftener,  the  poor  animal  has,  intelligibly 
enough,  hinted  his  distress ;  unwilling  to  give  in,  yet  painfully  and 
fiulteringly  holding  on.  The  merciless  rider,  rather  tlian  give  up  one 
hour's  enjoyment,  tortures  him  with  whip  and  spur,  until  he  drops  and 
expires. 

Although  the  hunter  may  be  unwilling  to  relinquish  the  chase,  he  who 
"is  merciful  to  his  beast"  will  soon  recognise  the  symptoms  of  excessive 
and  dangerous  distress.  To  the  drooping  pace  and  staggering  gait,  and 
heaving  flank,  and  heavy  bearing  on  hand,  will  be  added  a  very  peculiar 
noise.  The  inexperienced  person  will  fancy  it  to  be  the  beating  of  the 
heart;  but  that  has  almost  ceased  to  beat,  and  the  lungs  are  becoming 
gorged  with  blood.  It  is  the  convulsive  motion  of  the  muscles  of  the  belly, 
called  into  violent  action  to  assist  in  the  now  laborious  office  of  breathing. 
The  man  who  proceeds  a  single  mile  after  this  ought  to  suffer  the  punish- 
ment he  is  infiicting.* 

Let  the  rider  instantly  dismount.  If  he  has  a  lancet,  and  skill  to  use  it, 
let  him  take  away  five  or  six  quarts  of  blood  ;  or  if  he  has  no  lancet,  let 
him  cut  the  burs  with  his  pocket  knife  as  deeply  as  he  can.  The  lungs 
may  be  thus  relieved,  and  the  horse  may  be  able  to  crawl  home.  Then, 
or  before,  if  possible,  let  some  powerful  cordial  be  administered.  Cordials 
are,  generally  speaking,  the  disgrace  and  bane  of  the  stable ;  but  here,  and 
almost  here  alone,  they  are  truly  valuable.  They  may  rouse  the  exhausted 
powers  of  nature  ;  they  may  prevent  what  the  medical  man  would  call  the 
reaction  of  inflammation  ;  although  they  are  the  veriest  poison  when  in- 
flammation has  commenced. 

A  favourite  hunter  fell  afte-r  a  long  burst,  and  lay  stretched  out,  convulsed, 
and  apparently  dying.  His  master  procured  a  bottle  of  good  sherry  from 
the   house   of  a  neighbouring  friend,   and   poured    it   down   the    animal's 

♦  We  should  almost  rejoice  if  the  abused  quadruped,  cruelly  urg-ed  beyond  his 
powers,  were  to  inflict  on  his  rider  the  punishment  whicli  a  Spanish  ruffian  received, 
when  mercilessly  torturing,  in  a  similar  way,  a  poor  Indian  slave,  who  was  carrying- 
him  on  his  back  over  the  mountains.  It  is  thus  related  by  Captain  Cochrane,  (C(jloinhia 
ii.  357.) — "  Shortly  after  passing  this  stream,  we  arrived  at  an  abrupt  precipice,  which 
went  perpendicularly  down  about  fifteen  hundred  feet,  to  a  mountain  torrent  below. 
There  Lieutenant  Ortegas  narrated  to  me  the  following  anecdote  of  the  cruelty  and 
punishment  of  a  Spanish  officer : — This  inhuman  wretch,  having  fastened  on  an  immense 
pair  of  mule  spurs,  was  incessantly  darting  the  rowels  into  the  bare  flesh  of  the  tortured 
sillero,  who  in  vain  remonstrated  with  his  persecutor,  and  assured  him  he  could  not 
quicken  his  pace.  The  officer  only  plied  his  spurs  thj  more,  in  proportion  to  the  murmurs 
i)f  the  sillero.  At  last  tlie  man,  roused  to  tlie  highest  pitch  of  infuriated  excitement  and 
resentment,  from  the  relentless  attacks  of  the  officer,  on  reaching  this  place,  jerked  him 
from  his  chair  into  the  immense  depth  of  the  torrent  below,  where  he  was  killed,  f.ul  iiis 
b^dy  could  not  be  recovered.  Tlie  sillero  dashed  off  ai  full  speed,  escaped  into  ihe 
uiountain,  and  was  never  after  heard  of  " 


5G  THE  HORSE. 

throat.  The  horse  immediately  began  to  revive ;  soon  after,  got  up ; 
vvalked  home,  and  gradually  i-ecovered.  The  sportsman  may  not  always 
be  able  to  get  this,  but  he  may  obtain  a  cordial-ball  from  the  neai-est 
farrier*  or  he  may  beg  a  little  ginger  from  some  good  house-wife, 
and  mix  it  with  warm  ale,  or  he  may  give  the  ale  alone,  or  strength- 
ened with  a  little  rum  or  gin.  When  he  gets  home,  or  if  he  stops  at 
the  first  stable  he  finds,  let  the  horse  be  put  into  the  coolest  place,  and 
then  well  clothed  and  diligently  rubbed  about  the  legs  and  belly.  The 
practice  of  putting  the  animal,  thus  distressed,  into  "  a  comfortable  warm 
stable,"  and  excluding  every  breath  of  air,  has  destroyed  many  valuable 
horses. 

We  are  now  describing  the  very  earliest  treatment  to  be  adopted,  and 
before  it  may  be  possible  to  call  in  an  experienced  practitioner.  This 
stimulating  plan  would  be  fatal  twelve  hours  afterwards.  It  will,  however, 
be  the  wisest  course,  to  commit  the  animal,  the  first  moment  it  is  practica- 
ble, to  the  care  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  if  such  there  be  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, ia  whom  confidence  can  be  placed. 

The  labours  and  the  pleasures  of  the  hunting  season  being  passed,  the 
farmer  makes  little  or  no  difference  in  the  management  of  his  untrained 
horse ;  but  the  wealthier  sportsman  is  somewhat  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with 
his.  It  used  to  be  thought,  that  when  the  animal  who  had  so  long  con- 
tributed, sometimes  voluntarily,  and  sometimes  with  a  little  compulsion,  to 
the  enjoyment  of  his  owner,  he  ought,  for  a  few  months,  to  be  permitted  to 
seek  his  own  amusement,  in  his  own  way  ;  and  he  was  turned  out  for  a 
summer's  run  at  grass.  Fashion,  which  governs  every  thing,  and  now  and 
then  most  cruelly  and  absurdly,  has  exercised  her  tyranny  over  this  poor 
quadruped.  His  field,  where  he  could  wander  and  gambol  as  he  liked,  is 
changed  to  a  loose  box;  and  the  liberty  in  which  he  so  evidently  exulted, 
to  an  hour's  walking  exercise  daily.  He  is  allowed  vetches,  or  grass 
occasionally,  but  from  his  box  he  stirs  not,  except  for  his  dull  morn- 
ing's round,  until  he  is  taken  into  training  for  the  next  winter's 
business. 

In  this,  however,  as  in  most  other  things,  there  is  a  medium.  There 
are  few  horses  who  have  not  materially  suffered  in  their  legs  and  feet, 
before  the  close  of  the  hunting  season.  There  is  nothing  so  refreshing  tc 
their  feet  as  the  damp  coolness  of  the  grass  into  which  they  are  turned 
in  May  ;  and  nothing  so  calculated  to  remove  every  enlargement  and 
sprain,  as  the  gentle  e.xercise  which  the  animal  voluntarily  takes  while  his 
legs  are  exposed  to  the  cooling  process  of  evaporation,  which  is  taking 
place  from  the  herbage  he  treads.  The  experience  of  ages  has  shown, 
that  it  is  superior  to  all  the  embrocations  and  bandages  of  the  most 
skilful  veterinarian.  It  is  the  renovating  process  of  nature,  where  the 
art  of  man  fails. 

The  spring  grass  is  the  best, physic  that  can  possibly  be  administered  to 
the  horse.  To  a  degree,  which  no  artificial  aperient  or  diuretic  can  attain, 
it  carries  off"  every  humour  which  may  be  lurking  about  the  animal ;  it 
fines  down  the  roundness  of  the  legs;  and,  except  there  be  some  bony 
enlargement,  restores  them  almost  to  their  original  form  and  strengtii. 
When,  however,  the  summer  has  thoroughly  set  in,  the  grass  ceases  to  be 
succulent,  aperient,  or  medicinal ;  the  ground  is  no  longer  cool  and  moist, 
at  least  during  the  day  ;  and  a  host  of  tormentors,  in  the  shape  of  files. 
are  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set  persecuting  the  poor  animal.  Running  and 
stamping  to  rid  himself  of  his  plagues,  his  feet  are  battered  by  the  hard 
ground,  and  he  newly,  and  perhaps  more  severely,  injures  his  legs.     Kept 


GALLOWAYS  AND  PONIES. 


S' 


n  a  constant  state  of  irritation  and  fever,  he  rapidly  loses  his  condition, 
and  sometimes  comes  up  in  August  little  better  than  a  skeleton. 

Let  tiie  horse  be  turned  out  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  hunting  season 
IS  over.  Lcl  liim  have  the  whole  of  May,  and  the  greater  part,  or  possibh 
the  whole  of  June  ;  but  when  the  grass  fails,  and  the  ground  gets  hard, 
and  the  flies  torment,  let  him  be  taken  up.  All  the  benefits  of  turning 
out,  and  that  wiiicli  a  loose  box  and  artificial  physic  can  never  give,  will 
have  been  obtained,  without  the  inconvenience  and  injury  which  attend 
an  injudiciously  protracted  run  at  grass,  and  which,  arguing  against  the 
use  of  a  thing  from  the  abuse  of  it,  have  been  improperly  urged  against 
turning  out  at  all. 

The  Steeple  Hunt  is  a  relic  of  ancient  foolhardiness  and  cruelty.  It 
was  the  form  under  which  the  horse-race,  at  its  first  establishment,  was 
fVequently  decided.  It  is  a  race  across  the  country,  of  two,  or  four,  or 
even  a  greater  number  of  rniles;  and  it  is  generally  contrived  that  there 
shall  be  some  deep  lane,  or  wide  brook,  and  many  a  stiff  and  da<ngerous 
fence  between.  It  is  ridden  at  the  evident  hazard  of  the  life  of  the 
sportsman  :  and  it  likewise  puts  to  hazard  the  life  or  enjoyment  of  the 
horse.  It  is  getting  into  gradual  disuse,  and  no  man  whose  good  opinion 
is  Worth  having  would  deem  such  an  exhibition  creditable  to  the  head  or 
heart  of  him  who  was  engaged  in  it. 


GALLOWAYS  AND  PONIES. 


A  horse  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  hands  in  height  is  called  a  Gal- 
loway, from  a  beautiful  breed  of  little  horses  once  found  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  on  the  shore  of  the  Solway  Firth,  but  now  sadly  degenerated, 
and  almost  lost  from  the  attempts  of  the  l"armers  to  obtain  a  larger  kind, 
and  better  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture.  There  is  a  tradition 
in  that  country  that  the  breed  is  of  Spanish  extraction,  some  horses  having 
escaped  from  one  of  the  vessels  of  the  Grand  Armada,  which  was  wrecKed 
in  the  neiglibouririg  coast.  This  district,  however,  so  early  as  the  time  ef 
Edward  I.,  supplied  that  monarch  with  a  great  number  of  horses. 

The  pure  Gallowav  was  said  to  be  nearly  fourteen  hands  high,  and  some. 


58  THE  HORSE. 

times  mule,  of  a  bright  bay,  or  brown,  with  black  legs,  small  head  and 
neck,  and  peculiarly  deep  and  clean  legs.  Its  qualities  were  speed,  stout- 
ness,  and  sure-footedness  over  a  very  rugged  and  mountainous  country. 

Dr.  Anderson  thus  describes  the  galloway :  "  There  was  once  a  breed 
of  small  elegant  horses  in  Scotland,  similar  to  those  of  Iceland  and 
Sweden,  and  which  were  known  by  tlie  name  of  galloways ;  the  best  of 
which  sometimes  reached  the  height  of  fourteen  hands  and  a  half  One 
of  this  description  I  possessed,  it  having  been  bought  for  my  use  when  a 
boy.  In  point  of  elegance  of  shape  it  was  a  perfect  picture ;  and  in  dis- 
position was  gentle  and  compliant.  It  moved  almost  with  a  wish,  and 
never  tired.  1  rode  this  little  creature  for  twenty-five  years,  and,  twice  in 
that  time,  I  rode  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  at  a  stretch,  without  stopping, 
except'to  bait,  and  that  not  tor  above  an  hour  at  a  time.  It  came  in  at 
th«  last  stage  with  as  much  ease  and  alacrity  as  it  travelled  the  first.  I 
could  iiave  undertaken  to  have  performed  on  this  beast,  when  it  was  in 
its  prime,  sixty  miles  a-day  for  a  twelvemonth  running  without  any  ex- 
traordinary exertion." 

A  galloway,  in  point  of  size,  whether  of  Scotch  origin  or  not  we  are 
uncertain,  performed,  about  the  year  1814,  a  greater  feat  than  Dr. 
Anderson's  favourite.  It  started  from  London  with  the  Exeter  mail, 
and  notwithstanding  the  numerous  changes  of  horses,  and  the  rapid 
driving  of  that  veiiicle,  it  arrived  at  Exeter  (one  hundred  and  seventy- 
two  miles)  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  mail.  We  saw  him  about  a 
twelvemonth  afterwards,  wind-galled,  spavined,  ring-boned,  and  a  lament- 
able picture  of  the  ingratitude  of  some  human  brutes  towards  a  willing 
and  faithful  servant. 

In  1754  Mr.  Corker's  galloway  went  one  hundred  miles  a-day  for  three 
successive  days,  over  the  Newmarket  course,  and  without  the  slightest 
distress. 

A  galloway  belonging  to  Mr.  Sinclair,  of  Kirby-Lonsdale,  performed  at 
Carlisle  the  extraordinary  feat  of  one  thousand  miles  in  a  thousand  hours. 

Many  of  the  galloways  now  in  use  are  procured  either  from  Wales  or 
the  New  Forest,  but  they  have  materially  diminished  in  number:  there  are 
scarcely  sufficient  to  supply  even  the  neighbouring  districts,  and  they  are 
still  more  materially  deteriorated  in  form  and  value.  Both  liie  Welsh  and 
the  Hampshire  galloways  and  ponies  claim,  however,  some  noble  blood. 

Old  Marsk,  before  his  value  was  known,  contributed  to  the  improvement 
of  the  Hampshire  breed  ;  and  the  Welsh  ponies  are  said  to  be  indebted  to 
the  celebrated  Merlin  for  their  form  and  qualities. 

The  Welsh  Pony  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  little  animals  that  can  be 
imagined.  He  has 'a  small  head,  high  withers,  deep  yet  round  barrel, 
short  joints,  flat  legs,  and  good  round  feet.  He  will  live  on  any  fare,  and 
can  never  be  tired  out. 

The  New-foresters,  no*  withstanding  their  Marsk-blood,  are  generally 
ill-made,  large-headed,  short-necked,  ragged  hipped,  but  hardy,  safe,  and 
useful;  with  much  of  their  ancient  spirit  and  speed,  and  all  their  old 
paces.  The  catching  of  these  ponies  is  as  great  a  trial  of  skill,  as  the 
hunting  of  the  wild-horse  on  the  Pampas  of  South  America,  and  a  greatei 
one  of  patience. 

A  great  many  ponies,  of  little  value,  used  to  be  reared  in  Lincolnshire, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Boston,  but  the  breed  has  been  neglected  for  some 
years,  and  the  inclosure  of  the  fens  will  render  it  extinct. 

The  Exmoor  Forties,  although  generally  ugly  enough,  are  hardy  ana 
useliil.     A   well-known  sportsman  says,  that  he  rode  one  of  them  half  • 


GALLOWAYS  AND  PONIES.  59 

dozea  miles,  and  never  fel  sucli  power  and  action  in  so  small  a  conipasa 
before.  To  show  his  accom|)lishments,  he  was  turned  over  a  gate  at  least 
eight  inches  higher  than  his  back  ;  and  his  owner,  who  rides  fourteeo 
stone,  travelled  on  him  from  Bristol  to  South  Molton,  eighty-six  miles, 
beating  the  coach  which  runs  the  same  road. 

The  horses  which  are  still  used  in  Devonshire,  and  particularly  in  the 
western  and  southern  districts,  under  the  denomination  of  Pack-Horses, 
are  a  larger  variety  of  the  Exmjor  or  Dartmoor  breed.  The  saddle- 
horses  of  Devonshire  are  mostly  procured  from  the  more  eastern  counties. 

There  are  many  farms  in  that  beautiful  part  of  the  kingdom  on  which 
there  is  not  a  pair  of  wheels.  Hay,  corn,  straw,  fuel,  stones,  dung,  lime, 
&c.,  are  carried  on  horseback  ;  and  in  harvest,  sledges  drawn  by  oxen  and 
horses  are  used.  This  was  probably  in  early  times  the  mode  of  con- 
veyance throughout  the  kingdom,  and  is  continued  in  these  districts, 
partly  from  the  hilliuess  of  "the  country,  and  more  from  backwardness 
in  all  matters  of  improvement.  Light  articles,  as  corn,  straw,  faggots, 
&c.,  are  carried  in  crooks,  formed  of  willow  poles,  of  the  thickness  of 
scythe-handles,  bent  as  ox-bows,  and  with  one  end  much  longer  than 
the  other;  these  are  joined  in  pairs  by  cross-bars,  eighteen  inches  or  two 
feet  long,  and  each  horse  has  two  pair  of  them,  slung  together^  so  that 
the  shorter  ends  lie  against  the  pack-saddle,  and  the  longer  stand  four  or 
five  feet  from  each  other,  and  rise  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches  above  the 
horse's  back.  Within  and  between  these  crooks  the  load  is  piled.  Dung, 
sand,  &c.,  are  carried  in  pots,  or  strong  coarse  panniers,  slung  together 
'n  the  same  way,  and  the  dung  ridged  up  over  the  saddle.  At  tlie  bottom  of 
the  pot  is  a  falling  door,  and  at  the  end  of  the  journey  the  trap  is  unlatched,, 
and  the  load  falls  out. 

There  is  on  Dartmoor  a  race  of  ponies  much  in  request  in  that  vicinity, 
being  sure-footed,  and  hardy,  and  admirably  calculated  to  scramble  over 
the  rough  roads  and  dreary  wilds  of  that  mountainous  district.  The, 
Dartmoor  pony  is  larger  than  the  Exmoor,  and,  if  possible,  uglier  He 
exists  there  almost  in  a  state  of  nature.  The  late  Captain  Colgrave,  of 
the  prison,  had  a  great  desire  to  possess  one  of  them,  of  somewhat  superior 
figure  to  its  fellows,  and  having  several  men  to  assist  him,  they  separated 
it  from  the  herd.  They  drove  it  on  some  rocks  by  the  side  of  a  tor  (an 
abrupt  pointed  hill)  ;  a  man  followed  on  horseback,  while  the  Captain  stood 
below  watching  the  chase.  The  little  animal,  being  driven  into  a  corner, 
leaped  completely  over  the  man  and  horse,  and  escaped. 

The  Highland  Pony  is  far  inferior  to  the  galloway.  The  head  is  large, 
he  is  low  before,  long  in  the  back,  short  in  the  legs,  upright  in  the  pasterns, 
rather  slow  in  his  paces,  and  not  pleasant  to  ride,  except  in  the  canter. 
His  habits  make  him  hardy,  for  he  is  rarely  housed  in  the  summer  or  the 
winter.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hall,  in  his  "  Travels  in  Scotland,"  says,  "  that 
when  these  animals  come  to  any  boggy  piece  of  ground,  they  first  put 
their  nose  to  it,  and  then  pat  on  it  in  a  peculiar  way  with  one  of  their  fore- 
feet,  and  from  the  sound  and  feel  of  the  ground,  they  know  whether  it  will 
bear  them.  They  do  the  same  with  ice,  and  determine  in  a  minute  whether 
they  will  proceed." 

The  Shetland  Pony,  called  in  Scotland  Sheltle,  an  inhabitant  of  the 
extremest  northern  Scottish  isles,  is  a  very  diminutive  animal,  sometimes 
not  seven  hands  and  a  half  in  height,  and  rarely  exceeding  nine  and  a  half, 
fie  is  often  exceedingly  beautiful,  with  a  small  head,  good-tempered  coun- 
tenance,  a  short  neck,  fine  towards  the  throttle,  shoulders  low  and  thick,  (in 
so  little  a  creature  far  from  being  9  blemish,)  back  short,  quarters  expanded 


THE  HORSE. 


and  po'verfi.i,  legs  flat  and  fine,  and  pretty  round  feet.  They  possess 
immense  strength  for  their  size,  will  fatten  upon  any  thing,  and  are  per. 
fectly  docile.  One  of  them,  nine  hands  or  tliree  feet  in  height,  <;arried  a 
man  of  twelve  stone,  forty  miles  in  one  day. 


THE  SHETLAND  PONY. 


Our  cut  is  the  portrait  of  a  Sheltie,  the  property  of  Lord  Verulam, 
painted  by  Mr.  Ward.  A  friend  of  ours  was,  not  long  ago,  presented  with 
one  of  these  elegant  little  animals.  He  was  several  miles  from  home,  and 
puzzled  how  to  convey  his  newly-acquired  property..  The  Shetlander  was 
scarcely  more  than  seven  hands  high,  and  as  docile  as  he  was  beautiful. 
"  Can  we  not  carry  him  in  your  chaise  ?"  said  his  friend.  The  strange 
experiment  was  tried.  The  Sheltie  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  gig, 
and  covered  up  as  well  as  could  be  managed  with  the  apron  ;  a  k\v  bits  of 
bread  kept  him  quiet ;  and  thus  he  was  safely  conveyed  away,  and  exhibited 
the  curious  spectacle  of  a  horse  riding  in  a  gig. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom  the  Shetlanders  have  a  very  pleasing 
appearance,  harnessed  to  a  light  garden  chair,  or  carrying  an  almost  baby 
rider.     There  are  several  of  them  now  running  in  Windsor  park. 

It  has  been  disputed  whether  the  pony  and  large  English  horse  were, 
or  could  be,  originally  from  the  same  stock.  The  question  is  difficult  to 
answer.  It  is  not  impossible  that  they  might  have  one  common  extraction, 
and,  if  we  reflect  on  the  effect  of  feeding,  it  is  not  so  improbable  as  it  may 
at  first  appear. 

Mr.  Parkinson*  relates  a  circumstance,  very  much  to  the  point,  that  fell 
under  his  observation.  His  father  had  a  mare  that  brought  him  no  less 
than  fourteen  colts,  and  all  by  the  same  horse,  and  not  one  of  which  at 
three  years  old  was  under  seventeen  hands.  She  was  in  the  fifteenth  foal 
by  the  same  horse,  when  he  sold  her  to  a  neighbouring  farmer,  reserving 
the  foal,  which  was  to  be  delivered  in  a  twelvemonth.  At  her  new  master's 
she  was  comparatively  starved,  and  she  came  back  at  the  expiration  of 
the  year  so  altered  as  scarcely  to  be  recognised.  The  foal,  four  months 
old,  Avas  very  small.  The  litt!-e  animal  was  put  on  the  most  luxuriant 
keep,  but  it  did  not  reach  more  than  fifteen  hands  at  the  expiration  of  '.he 
third  year. 


Park! 


on  Breeding-,  and  the  Manag-ement  of  Live  Stock,  vol.  ii.  p.  139. 


ZOOI-OGICAL  CLASSIFICATION. 


THK  IRISH  HORSE. 


In  somo  of  the  rich  grazing  counties,  as  Meath  and  Roscommon,  a  large, 
long  blood  horse  is  reared,  of  considerable  value,  but  he  seldom  lias  the 
elegance  of  the  English  horse  ;  he  is  larger  headed,  more  leggy,  ragged- 
hipped,  angular,  yet  with  great  power  in  the  quarters,  much  depth  beneath 
the  knee,  stout  and  hardy," full  of  fire  and  courage,  and  the  best  leaper  in 
the  world. 

The  Irish  horse  is  generally  smaller  than  the  English,  He  is  stinted 
in  his  growth,  for  the  poverty  and  custom  of  the  country  have  imposed 
upon  him  much  hard  work,  at  a  time  when  he  is  unfit  for  labour  of  any 
kind.  For  this  reason,  too,  the  Irish  horse  is  deficient  in  speed.  There  is, 
however,  another  explanation  of  this.  The  Irish  thorough-bred  horse  is 
not  equal  to  the  English.  He  is  comparatively  a  weedy,  leggy,  worthless 
animal,  and  very  little  of  him  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  hunter 
or  the  hackney. 

For  leaping  the  Irish  horse  is  unrivalled.  It  is  not,  however,  the  leaping 
of  the  English  horse,  striding  as  it  were  over  a  low  fence,  and  stretched 
at  his  full  length  over  a  higher  one;  it  is  the  proper  jump  of  the  deer, 
beautiful  to  look  at,  difiicuk  to  sit,  and,  both  in  height  and  extent,  un- 
equalled by  the  English  horse. 

There  are  very  few  horses  in  the  agricultural  districts  of  Ireland  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  draught.  The  minute  division  of  the  farms  renders  it  im- 
possible  for  them  to  be  kept.  The  occupier  even  of  a  tolerable  sized  Irish 
farm,  wants  a  horse  that  shall  carry  him  to  market,  and  draw  his  small 
car,  and  perform  every  kind  of  drudgery — a  horse  of  all  work  ;  therefore 
the  thorough  draught  horse,  whether  Leicestershire  or  SulFolk,  is  rarely 
found. 

U  we  look  to  the  commerce  of  Ireland,  there  are  few  stage  waggons, 
or  drays  with  immense  cattle  belonging  to  them,  but  almost  every  thing  is 
done  by  one-horse  carts.  In  the  North  of  Ireland,  some  stout  horses  are 
employed  in  the  carriage  of  linen,  but  the  majority  of  the  garroiis  used  in 
agriculture  or  commercial  pursuits  are  miserable  and  half-starved  animals. 
In  the  north  it  is  somewhat  better.  There  is  a  native  breed  in  Ulster,  hardy, 
and  sure-footed,  but  with  little  pretension  to  beauty  or  speed. 


CHAPTER   V. 
THE  ZOOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  HORSE. 

There  are  so  many  thousand  species  of  living  beings,  some  so  much 
resembling  each  other,  and  some  so  strangely  and  altogether  different,  that 
it  would  have  been  impossible  to  have  arranged 'them  in  any  order,  or  to 
tiave  given  any  dec^ription  that  could  be  understood,  had  not  naturalists 
cigreed  on  certain  peculiarities  of  form  which  should  characterize  certain 
classes,  and  other  lesser  peculiarities  again  subdividing  these  classes. 

Tlie  first  division  of  animals  is  into  verteh rated  and  inverlehraled 


»3J  THE  HORSE. 

Verfehrated  animals  are  tliose  which  have  a  cranium,  or  bony  cavity, 
containing  the  brain,  and  a  succession  of  bones,  called  tlie  spine,  and  the 
divisions  of  it,  verlcbrce,  proceeding  from  the  cranium,  and  containing  a 
prolongation  of  the  brain,  denominated  the  spinal  marrow. 

Invertebrated  animals  are  those  wliich  have  no  vertebrae. 

The  horse  then  belongs  to  the  division  vertebrated,  because  he  has  a  cra- 
nium or  skull,  and  a  spine  or  range  of  vertebrae  proceeding  from  it. 

The  vertebrated  animals,  however,  are  very  numerous.  They  include 
man,  quadrupeds  of  all  kinds,  birds,  fishes,  and  many  reptiles.  We  look 
out  then  for  some  subdivision,  and  a  very  simple  line  of  distinction  is  soon 
presented.  Some  of  these  vertebrated  animals  have  mamma  or  teats, 
with  which  the  females  suckle  their  young.  The  human  female  has 
two,  the  mare  has  two,  the  cow  four,  the  bitch  ten  or  twelve,  and  the  sow 
more  than  twelve. 

This  class  of  vertebrated  animals,  having  mammae  or  teats,  is  called 
mammalia,  and  the  horse  belongs  to  the  division  veriebrata,  and  the  clas.T 
mammalia. 

The  class  mammalia  is  still  exceedingly  large,  and  we  must  ajrain  sub- 
divide it.  It  is  stated  (Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge,  vol.  i  p.  13) 
that  "  this  class  of  quadrupeds,  or  mammiferous  quadrupeds,  adi  uts  of  a 
division  into  two  Tribes. 

"  I.  Those  whose  extremities  are  divided  into  fingers  or  toes,  scientifi- 
cally  called  ungiiiculata,  from  the  Latin  word  for  nail ;  and 

II.  Those  whose  extremities  are  hoofed,  scientifically  called  ungulata, 
from  the  Latin  word  for  hoof. 

"  The  extremities  of  the  first  are  armed  with  claws  or  nails,  which  enable 
them  to  grasp,  to  climb,  or  to  burrow.  The  extremities  of  the  second  tribe 
are  employed  merely  to  support  and  move  the  body. 

The  extremities  of  the  horse  are  covered  with  a  hoof,  by  which  the  body 
is  supported,  and  with  which  he  cannot  grasp  anything,  and  therefore  he 
belongs  to  the  tribe  ungulata,  or  hoofed. 

But  there  is  a  great  variety  of  hoofed  animals.  The  elephant,  the 
rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus,  the  swine,  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  deer, 
and  many  others,  are  ungulated  or  hoofed;  they  admit,  however,  of  an 
easy  division.  Some  of  them  masticate,  or  chew  their  food,  and  it  is  im- 
mediately received  into  the  stomach  and  digested  ;  but  in  others,  the  food, 
previous  to  digestion,  undergoes  a  very  singular  process.  It  is  returned 
to  the  mouth,  to  be  re-masticated  or  chewed  again.  These  are  called 
ruminanlia,  or  ruminants,  from  the  food  being  retwned,  from  one  of  th*^ 
stomachs  (for  they  have  four),  called  the  rumen  or  paunch,  to  be  chewe*' 
again. 

The  7mgulata  that  do  not  ruminate  are  somewhat  improperly  calle^-' 
pachydermata,  from  the  thickness  of  their  skins.  The  horse  does  not  ru 
minate,  and  therefore  belongs  to  the  order  pachydermata. 

The  pachydermata  who  have  only  one  toe  belong  to  the  family  solipedi 
— single  footed.  Therefore  the  horse  ranks  under  the  division  vertebrata  ; 
— the  class  mammalia; — the  tribe  ungulata; — the  order  pachydermata;— 
and  the  family  solipeda. 

The  solipeda  consists  of  several  species,  as  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  mule, 
and  the  quagga. 

First  stands  the  Equus  Caballtjs,  or  Common  Horse. 

Animals  are  likewise  distinguished  according  to  the  number,  description, 
and  situation  of  their  teeth.  The  horse  has  six  incisors  or  cutting  teeth,  in 
the  front  of  each  jaw  ;  and  one  canine  tooth  or  tusk. 


ZOOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION. 


C3 


On  each  side  above  and  below,  and  at  some  distance  from  the  incisors. 
Ijehind  the  canines  and  with  some  intervening  space,  are  six  molar  teeth 
or  grinders;  and  these  molar  teeth  have  flat  crowns  with  ridges  of  enamel, 
and  that  enamel  penetrating  into  the  substance  of  the  tooth. 

The  whole  is  thus  represented  by  natural  historians,  and  the  reader  wih 
comprehend  our  meaning  when  we  are  speaking  of  other  animals. 
6  1—1  6—6 

Horse. — Incisors  — ,  Canine  ,  Molar  ,     Total,  40  teeth. 

1_1  6—6 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HORSE. 


A  The  Head. 

o  Posterior  maxillary  or  under  jaw. 

6  Superior   maxillary  or   upper   jaw.      Opposite   to   the  letter  is   a   forair^v,    th    ■ug'% 

which  pass  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  which  chiefly  supply  the  lo»«r  p?  t  of 

the  face, 
f    Orbit,  or  cavity  containing'  the  eye. 
d   Naial  bones,  or  bones  of  the  nose. 

e   Suture  dividing'  the  parietal  bones  below  from  the  occipital  bones  abo\e. 
f  Inferior  maxillary  bone,  containing'  the  upper  incisor  teeth. 
B  The  Seven  Cervical  Vertebra;,  or  bones  of  the  neck. 
C  The  Eig-hleen  Dorsal  Vertebra;,  or  bones  of  the  back. 
D  The  Six  Lumbar  Vertebra,  or  bones  of  the  loins. 


i>4  THE  HORSE. 

K  The  Fi  'e  Sacral  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  haunch. 

V  Caudal  Vertisbra;,  or  bones  of  the  tail,  g-cncrally  about  fifteen. 

G  Scapula,  or  shoulder-blacie. 

H  Sternum  or  fore-part  of  the  chest. 

I    Costtc  or  ribs,  seven  or  eig-lit  articulating-  with  the  sternum,  and  called  the  true  rib$ 

and  ten  or  eleven  united  together  by  cartilage,  called  the  false  ribs. 
J    Humerus,  or  bone  of  the  arm. 
K  Radius,  or  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

L  Ulna  or  elbow.     The  point  of  the  elbow  is  called  the  Olecranon 
M  Carpus  or  knee,  consisting  of  seven  bones. 
N  Metacarpal   bones.      The   larger   metacarpal   or   cannon  or   shank  in  front,  and  tlie 

smaller  metacarpal  or  splent  bone  behind. 
g  Fore   Pastern    and  Foot,  consisting   of  the  Os  Suffraginis,  or  the  upper  and  larger 

pastern  bone,  with  the  sessamoid  bones  behind,  articulating  with  the  cannon  and 

greater  pastern ;  the  Os  Coronse,  or  lesser  pastern;  the  Os  Pedis  or  collin  bone; 

and  the  Os  Naviculare,  or  navicular,  or  shuttle-bone,  not  seen,   and  articulating 

with  the  smaller  pastern  and  coffin  bones. 
h  Corresponding  bones  of  the  iiind-feet. 

O  Haunch,  consisting  of  three  portions — the  Ilium,  the  Ischium,  and  the  Pubis. 
P  Femur  or  thigh. 
Q,  Stifle  joint  with  the  Patella. 

R  Tibia  or  proper  leg  bone — behind  is  a  small  bone  called  the  fihula. 
S  Tarsus   or   hock,    composed  of    six  bones.       The  prominent  part    is  the  Os   Calcia 

point  of  ihe  hock. 
T  Metatarsals  of  the  hind  leg. 


Beautiful  as  is  the  horse,  and  identified  so  much  with  our  pleasure  and 
our  profit,  he  has  been  the  object  of  ahnost  universal  regard  ;  and  there 
are  few  persons  who  do  not  pretend  to  be  somewhat  competent  judges  of 
liis  form,  qualities,  and  worth.  From  the  nobleman  with  his  nuuicrous 
and  valuable  stud,  to  the  meanest  helper  in  the  stable,  and  not  excluding 
even  the  mechanic  who  scarcely  crosses,  or  sits  behind  a  horse  once  in  a 
twelvemonth,  there  is  scarcely  a  man  who  would  not  be  offended  if  he 
were  thought  altogether  ignorant  of  horse-flesh.  There  is  no  subject  on 
which  he  is  so  positive,  there  is  no  subject  on  which,  generally  .speaking, 
he  is  so  deficient,  and  there  are  few  horses,  on  some  points  of  which  these 
pretended  and  self-sufficient  judges  would  not  give  a  totally  opposite 
opinion. 

The  truth  is,  that  this  supposed  knowledge  is  rarely  founded  on  principle 
— or  is  the  result  of  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  the  actual  structure 
of  this  animal,  or  that  form  and  connexion  of  parts  on  which  strength, 
or  fleetness,  or  stoutness,  must  necessarily  depend.  If  we  were  construct- 
ing or  e.xamining  a  machine  composed  of  levers  and  pullies,  and  by  which 
we  purposed  to  raise  a  great  weight,  or  to  set  in  motion  certain  bodies 
with  a  given  velocity,  we  should  fail  in  our  object,  or  expose  our  igno- 
rance of  the  matter,  if  we  were  not  aware  what  kind  of  lever  or  connex- 
ion of  levers  was  necessary,  and  in  what  situation  the  ropes  should  be 
piaced,  ana  m  what  direction  the  force  should  be  applied,  and  by  what 
means  we  could  obtain  mechanical  advantage,  and  by  what  peculiar  con- 
struction it  would  inevitably  be  lost. 

Now  the  structure  of  the  horse,  like  that  of  the  human  being,*  consists 
of  numerous  levers  in  the  shape  of  bones,  with  ropes  attached  to  them  l»i 

*  See  Treatise  on  "  Ani  lal  Mechanic*." 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  65 

xho.  forii,  of  muscles  and  tendons;  and  these  levers  are  JifTerently  con- 
nected, and  act  in  different  directions;  and  he  will  be  the  best  judge  of 
horses  who,  while  he  has  loved,  and  lived  among  them,  is  somewhat 
acquainted  with  the  circumstances  in  which  mechanical  power  is  gained 
or  lost.. 

In  speaking  then  of  the  structure  of  this  animal,  and  the  points  which 
guide  the  opinion  of  real  judges  of  him,  we  shall,  as  briefly  and  as  simply 
as  we  are  able,  explain  those  fundamental  principles  on  which  his  useful- 
ness and  beauty  must  depend.  We  require  one  kind  of  horse  for  slow 
and  heavy  draught,  and  another  for  lighter  and  quicker  work  :  one  as  a 
pleasant  and  safe  roadster ;  another  with  more  speed  and  equal  continu- 
ance as  a  hunter;  and  another  still  is  wanted  for  the  race-course.  What 
is  the  peculiarity  of  structure — what  are  the  particular  points  that  will 
fit  each  for  his  proper  business,  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  unfit  him  for 
every  thing  else  ?  The  farmer  will  require  a  horse  of  all  work,  that 
can  carry  him  to  market  and  take  him  round  his  farm,  on  which  he  can 
occasionally  ride  for  pleasure,  and  which  he  must  sometimes  degrade  to 
the  dung-cart  or  the  harrow.  What  combination  of  powers  will  enable 
the  animal  to  discharge  most  of  these  duties  well,  and  all  of  them  to  a 
certain  extent  profitably  ? 

Much  time  spent  among  horses,  an  acquired  love  of  them,  and  a 
little,  sometimes,  possibly,  too  dearly-bought  experience,  may  give  the 
agriculturist  some  insight  into  these  matters.  We  will  try  whether  we 
cannot  assist  him  in  this  affair ;  whether  we  cannot  explain  to  him  the 
reason  why  certain  points  must  be  good,  and  why  a  horse  without  them 
must,  of  necessity,  be  good  for  nothing.  Perhaps  some  useful  rules  may 
thus  be  more  deeply  impressed  upon  his  memory,  or  some  common,  but 
dangerous  prejudices  may  be  discarded,  and  a  considerable  degree  of  error, 
disappointment,  and  expense  avoided. 

It  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Horse, 
in  which  we  shall  endeavour  to  elucidate  those  numerous  and  beautiful 
instances  of  wise  and  benevolent  design,  exhibited  in  the  structurp  of  this 
valuable  animal,  and  which  will  render  our  study  of  him  more  interesting  ; 
while  many  a  hint  of  practical  utility  will  be  gained. 

If  we  treat  of  this  at  a  considerable  length,  let  it  be  remembered,  that 
ihe  horse  is  our  noblest  servant,  and  that,  in  describing  the  structure  and 
economy  of  his  frame,  we  are,  in  a  great  measure,  describing  that  of  other 
domestic  quadrupeds,  and  shall  hereafter  have  to  speak  only  of  points  of 
difTerence  required  by  the  different  services  and  uses  for  which  they  were 
destined.  And  further,  let  it  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  by  being  well 
acquainted  with  the  structure  and  anatomy  of  the  horse  that  we  can  appre- 
ciate his  shape  and  uses,  or  understand  the  different  diseases  to  which  he 
IS  liable.  We  trust  the  reader  who  may  fancy  us  rather  prolix  on  this 
head  will,  before  the  work  is  finished,  feel  the  full  value  of  what  we 
purpose  to  explain.  It  is  from  want  of  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
horse,  that  much  of  the  mass  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  which  exists,  as 
to  the  diseases,  &c.,  to  which  the  horse  is  subject,  is  to  be  referred  ;  and 
we  deem  it  one  of  the  most  important  objects  of  this  treatise  to  reform  this 
icnorance,  and  remove  these  prejudices. 

It  will  be  proper  here,  once  for  all,  to  caution  the  reader,  who  has  hitherto 
been  unaccustomed  to  reading  books  of  science,  against  being  deterred  by 
the  sight  of  a  few  of  what  are  termed  hard  names.  The  fact  is,  that  science 
must  have,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  new  language  to  express  minutely  and 
accurately   ihe  particular  parts  or  things  to  be  described;  and  this  is  the 


66 


THE  HORSE, 


case  with  every  art.  A  carpenter  could  not,  without  this,  describe  with 
precision  and  clearness  the  different  tools  in  use,  nor  could  he  describe  the 
different  operations  to  be  performed,  without  inventing  a  particular  language 
adapted  to  his  purpose,  and  whereby  he  is  enabled  to  express  in  one  word 
what  would  otherwise  only  be  accomplished  by  a  long  sentence.  It  is  the 
same  with  anatomy,  except  that  the  names  and  signs  have  principally  been 
adopted  from  the  Latin  and  Greek,  inasmuch  as  those  languages  are  usually 
known  to  scientific  men  in  all  countries.  This  new  language  becomes  one 
common  to  all  men  pursuing  the  same  science.  We  shall  as  we  go  on 
e.x  plain  the  meaning  of  all  the  words  so  adopted,  and  a  very  little  attention 
will  enable  the  reader  to  master  them,  and  it  will  require  little  tliouglit 
So  be  convinced  of  the  advantage,  in  respect  of  clearness  and  certainty 
derived  from  their  use. 


DESCRirTION    OF    THE    HEAD. 

We  begin  with  the  head,  containing  the  brain,  and  the  most  important 
organs  of  sense. 

The  head  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  skull  and  the  face.  The 
bones  which  compose  the  skull  or  cranium,  and  which  contain  and  protect 
the  brain,  are  nine  in  number:  two  frontal,  a  a — two  parietal,  c  c — two 
temporal,  d  d — the  occipital,  g — the  ethmoid  and  the  sphenoid.  The  two 
lalter  lie  principally  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  are  not  seen  in  this  cut, 
but  will  be  found  delineated  in  figs,  k  and  /,  page  68.  These  nine  bones 
are  separate  in  the  foal  at  an  early  period  of  its  existence ;  but  soon  after 
the  birth  they  are  firmly  united  together  by  what  anatomists  call  sutures, 
and  so  firm  is  the  union,  that  a  fracture  will  occur  in  any  other  part  more 
readily  than  over  a  suture. 


a  a  The  frontal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  forehead. 

6  6  Tlie*  supra-orbital  foramina,  or  holes  above  the  orbit, 
tlirough  which  pass  out  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels 
supplying-  the  forehead.  The  small  hole  beneath  (of 
which  in  many  horses  there  are  several)  receives  ves- 
sels wliich  dip  into  and  supply  the  bone. 

c  c    The  parietal  bones,  or  walls  of  the  skull. 

d  d  The  temporal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  temples. 

e  e    The  zyg^omatic,  or  yoke-shaped  arch, 

^yThe  temporal  fossa,  or  pit  above  the  eye. 
g  The  occipital  bone,  or  bone  of  the  hinder  part  of  the 
head. 

h  h  The  orbits,  containing  and  defending  the  eye. 

i  i    The  lachrymal  bones,  or  tear-bones. 

j  j  The  nasal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  nose. 

k  k  Tlie  molar,  or  cheek  bones. 

I  I  The  superior  maxillary,  or  that  portion  of  the  upper  jaw 
containing  the  molar  teeth  or  grinders. 

ni;n.  The  infra-orbital  foramen,  a  hole  below  the  orbit, 
through  which  pass  branches  of  nerves  and  blood- 
vessels to  supply  the  lower  p  art  of  the  face. 

n  n  The  inferior  maxillary,  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  jaw- 
bone, a  separate  bone  in  quadrupeds,  containing  the 
incisor  or  cutting  teeth,  and  the  upper  tushes  at  the 
point  of  union  between  the  superior  and  inferior 
maxillaries. 
o   The  upper  incisor  or  cutting  teeth. 

p   The  openings  into  the  nose,  with  the  bones  forming  the 
roof  of  the  palate. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE. 


P7 


There  is  an  evident  intention  in  this  division 
o(*  the  head  into  so  many  bones.  When  the  fetus 
—  the  unborn  foal — first  begins  to  have  life,  that 
which  afterwards  becomes  bone,  is  a  mere  jelly- 
like  substance  ;  this  is  gradually  changed  into  a 
harder  material — cartilage ;  and,  before  the  birth 
of  the  animal,  much  of  the  cartilage  is  taken 
away  by  vessels  called  absorbents,  and  bone  de- 
posited in  its  stead.  In  flat  bones,  like  those  of 
the  head,  this  deposite  takes  place  in  the  centre, 
and  rays  or  radiations  of  bone  extend  thence  in 
every  direction.  Then,  by  having  so  many  bones, 
there  are  so  many  centres  of  radiation ;  and,  con- 
sequently, the  formation  of  bone  is  carried  on  so 
much  the  more  rapidly,  and  perfected  at  the  time 
when  the  necessities  of  the  animal  require  it.  At 
the  period  of  birth,  however,  this  process  is  not 
completed,  but  the  edges  of  the  bones  remain 
somewhat  soft  and  pliant,  and  therefore,  in  par- 
turition, they  yield  a  little,  and  overlap  each  other, 
and  thus,  by  rendering  the  birth  more  easy,  they 
save  the  mother  much  pain,  and  contribute  to  the 
safety  of  the  foal.  Without  a  change  in  the  form 
of  the  head,  from  a  compression  and  yielding  of  the  bone  of  which  it  is 
composed,  the  animal  could  not  be  born. 

The  first  of  these  bones,  or  the  first  pair  of  them,  occupying  the  broad 
expanse  of  the  forehead,  are  called  the  frontal  hones,  a  a.  They  are 
united  together  by  a  most  curious  and  intricate  dove-tailing,  to  defend  from 
injury  the  brain,  which  lies  beneath  the  upper  part  of  them.  Lower  down, 
and  where  the  cavity  of  the  nose  is  to  be  defended,  their  union  is  sufficient, 
but  far  less  complicated.  The  mechanism  is  here,  as  in  every  part  of  the 
frame,  and  every  part  of  the  universe,  wisely  adjusted  to  the  necessities 
and  wants  of  the  animal. 

Few  things  more  clearly  indicate  the  breed  or  blood  of  the  horse  than 
the  form  of  the  frontal  bones.  Who  has  not  remarked  the  broad  angular 
forehead  of  the  blood-horse,  giving  him  that  beautiful  expression  of  intelli- 
gence and  fire,  and  the  face  gradually  tapering  from  the  forehead  to  the 
muzzle  ;  and  then  compared  it  with  the  large  face  of  the  cart  or  dray-horse, 
and  the  forehead  scarcely  wider  than  the  face. 

At  /,  between  the  frontal  bones,  is  the  pit  or  cavity  above  the  eye,  and 
by  the  depth  of  which  we  form  some  idea  of  the  age  of  the  horse.  There 
is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  eye  a  considerable  quantity  of  fatty  substance, 
on  which  the  eye  may  revolve  easily  and  without  friction.  In  aged  horses, 
and  in  diseases  attended  with  general  loss  of  condition,  much  "of  this  fat 
disappears ;  the  eye  becomes  sunken,  and  the  pit  above  the  eye  deepens. 
It  is  said  that  some  of  the  lower  class  of  horse-dealers  puncture  the  skin, 
and,  with  a  tobacco-pipe  or  small  tube,  blow  into  the  orifice,  until  the  de- 
pression is  almost  filled  up.  This  operation  is  vulgarly  called  jnijing  the 
glims,  and.  with  the  aid  of  a  bishopped  tooth,  will  give  a  false  appearance 
of  youth  that  will  remain  during  many  hours,  and  may  deceive  the 
unwary,  though  the  puffing  may  easily  be  detected  by  pressing  on  the  part. 

These  bones,  however,  are  not  solid,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  them 
is  composed  of  two  plates  receding  from  each  other,  and  leaving  numerous 
anc.  large  vacuities  or  cells.     These  vacuities  are  called  the  frontal  sinuses. 


.18 


THE   HORSE. 


They  commiic  icate  witii  the  cavities  of  the  nose,  and  likewise  with  those 
of  the  splienoid,  ethmoid,  and  upper  jaw  bones,  and  like  the  windings  of  a 
French  horn,  increase  the  clearness  and  loudness  of  the  neighing.  They 
are  sufficiently  evident  at  h  in  the  following  cut. 


SECTION    OF    THE    HEAD. 


rX_^' 


^10 


\<^c- 


M!!:^^^- 


PRINCIPAL    BONES,    LIGAMENTS,    ETC. 


w  Nasal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose. 

it  Frontal  bone.     The  cavities  or  cells  beneath  are  called  the  frontal  sinuses. 

f  Crest  or  ridge  of  the  parietal  bones. 

d  Tentorium,  or  bony  separation  between  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum. 

e  Occipital  bone. 

f  Lig-ament  of  the  neck,  or  pack-was,  by  which  the  head  is  chiefly  supported. 


Atlas,  sustaining  or  carrying,  or  first  bone  of  the  neck. 

h     Dentata,  tooth-like,  or  second  bone  of  the  neck. 

i  Cuneiform,  or  u edge-shaped  process,  or  base  of  the  occipital  bone.  Between  it  and 
the  other  porti  >n  of  the  occipital  bone,  e,  lies  the  great  foramen  or  aperture  through 
which  tlie  pro!  jni,ation  of  the  brain — the  spinal  marrow — issues  from  the  skull. 

k     Sphenoid,  wedge-like,  bone,  with  its  cavities. 

I      Ethmoid,  sieve-like  bone,  with  its  cells. 

TO    Cerebrum,  or  brain,  witli  the  appearance  of  its  cortical  ana  medullary  si  ostance. 

n     Cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  with  its  beautiful  aborescent  appearance. 

0  A  portion  of  the  central  medullary,  marrow-like,  substance  of  the  brain,  and  the  pro- 
longation of  it  under  the  name  of  the  crus  cerebri,  leg  of  the  brain,  and  from  which 
,         many  of  the  nerves  take  their  origin. 

p  Medulla  oblongata, — the  prolongation  of  the  brain  after  the  medullary  substance  oi 
the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  have  united,  and  forming  the  commencement  of  tha 
spinal  marrow.  The  columnar  appearance  of  this  portion  of  the  brain  is  lepre- 
eented,  and  the  origins  of  the  respiratory  nerves. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  QQ 

J  Sp"nal  marrow,  extending-  through  a  canal  in  the  centre  of  the  bonea  of  the  neck 
back,  and  loins,  to  the  extremities  of  the  tail,  and  from  which  t.ie  nerves  of  feeling 
and  of  motion,  tliat  supply  every  part  of  the  frame,  except  the  head,  arise. 

r     Septum  nariuin,  or  cartilaginous  division  between  the  nostrils. 

J  The  same  cut  off  at  the  lower  part,  to  show  the  spongy,  turbinated,  turban-shaped, 
bones  filling  the  cavity  of  the  nostril. 

.'     Palate. 

u    Mular  teeth,  or  grinders. 

V  Inferior  maxillary  bone,  containing  the  incisor  teeth  or  nippers.  The  canine  tooth, 
or  tush,  is  concealed  by  the  tongue. 

le    Posterior  maxillary,  or  lower  jaw  with  its  incisors. 

.V    Lips. 

y     Tongue. 

z     A  portion  of  the  os  hyoides,  or  bone  of  the  tongue,  like  a  Greek  u,  d. 

1  Thyroid,  helmet-shaped,  cartilage,  inclosing  and  shielding  tiie  neighouring  parts. 

2  Epiglottis,  or  covering  of  the  glottis,  or  aperture  of  the  wind-pipe. 

3  Arytenoid,  fun7iel-shaped,  cartilages,  having  between   them  the  aperture  leading  intu 

the  trachea  or  wind-pipe. 

4  One  of  tlie  chorda;  vocales,  cords  or  ligaments  concerned  in  the  formation  of  the  voice 

5  Sacculus  laryngis,  sac  or  ventricle  of  the  larynx,  throat,  to  modulate  the  voice. 

6  Trachea  or  wind-pipe,  with  its  diflerent  rings. 

7  Soft  palate  at  tlic  back  of  the  mouth,  so  constructed  as  almost  to  prevent  the  possi 

bility  of  vomiting. 

8  Opening  from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  into  the  nostril. 

9  Cartilage  covering  the  entrance  into  the  Eustachian  tube,  or  communication  between 

the  mouth  and  internal  part  of  the  ear. 

10  Oesophagus,  or  gullet. 

11  Cricoid,  ring-like,  cartilage,  below  and  behind  the  thyroid. 

12  Muscle  of  the  neck,  covered  by  the  membrane  of  the  back  part  of  the  mouth. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD,  ETC. 

In  the  sheep  and  occasionally  in  the  ox,  rarely  in  the  horse,  the  larvaj  oi 
maggots  produced  by  certain  species  of  flies,  crawl  up  the  nose,  lodge 
themselves  in  these  sinuses,  and  produce  intolerable  pain. 

Veterinary  surgeons  have  availed  themselves  of  these  sinuses,  to  detect 
the  existence  of  glanders,  that  disease  so  infectious  and  so  fatal.  They 
may  suspect  that  a  horse  respecting  which  they  are  consulted  isglandered. 
It  is  of  great  consequence  to  be  sure  about  it.  The  safety  of  ti)e  whole 
team  may  depend  upon  this.  It  may  be  a  puzzling  case.  There  may  be 
no  ulceration  of  the  nose  within  sight.  The  glands  under  the  jaw  may 
not  be  close  to,  and  seemingly  sticking  to  the  bone,  which  is  a  common 
symptom,  yet  for  a  considerable  time  there  may  have  been  a  discharge 
Irom  the  nostril,  and  the  horse  is  out  of  condition.  On  ihe  other  hand, 
some  slight  ulceration  may  be  detected  in  the  nostril,  but  the  horse  eats 
well,  works  well,  and  is  in  good  plight.  From  the  closest  examination 
of  the  animal,  no  horseman,  and  no  veterinary  surgeon  can  give  a  decided 
opinion. 

If,  however,  the  horse  be  glandered,  there  will  probably  be  considerable 
ulceration  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  and  a  collection  of 
matter  there.  To  detect  this,  the  veterinary  surgeon  soineiimes  makes  an 
opening  into  these  sinuses.  He  may  do  this  with  perfect  safety.  On  tluit 
part  of  the  frontal  bone,  which  lies  between  the  eye  and  the  pit  above  it,  and 
above  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  there  is,  on  either  side,  a  small  depression 
or  hole  (see   fig.   b  b,  cut,   p.  66),  which  may  be  easily  felt  in   the  living 


70  THE  HORSE. 

horse.  It  is  what  anatcimists  call  a  foramen — the  supra-orUlal  foramen. 
1 1  gives  passage  to  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  forehead. 

Suppose  a  line  to  be  drawn  across  the  forehead,  from  one  of  these 
depressions  to  the  other;  on  that  line,  and  about  half  an  inch  from  the 
centre  of  it,  either  on  the  one  side  or  the  other,  the  frontal  sinuses  will  be 
found  an  inch  in  deptli  (compare  fig.  h,  pp.  66  and  68).  There  a  perfo- 
ration may  be  easily  and  safely  made.  A  little  way  above,  the  brain 
would  be  endangered,  and  a  livJe  below  this  line,  the  cavity  of  the  nose 
would  be  pierced.  Some  warm  water  may  then  be  thrown  into  this  bole, 
with  a  common  squirt,  and  it  will  run  out  at  the  nose.  If  there  be  matter 
in  the  frontal  sinuses,  or  any  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose,  it  will  appear 
mi.xed  with  the  water,  and  the  owner  may  be  assured  that  the  horse  is 
glandered ;  but  if  the  water  flow  uncoloured,  or  simply  mi.xed  with  blood 
or  mucus,  the  horse  may  be  considered  as  free  from  this  disease.  The 
thick  creamy  consistence  of  pus,  its  sinking  in  water,  and  its  capability 
of  being  perfectly,  although  not  readily  mixed  with  water,  will  distinguish 
it  sufficiently  from  the  natural  running  of  the  nose,  which  is  ropy,  lighter 
than  water,  and  when  mixed  with  it  still  preserves  a  kind  of  slringiness. 
And  this  is  one  of  the  surest  modes  of  distinguishing  between  the  matter 
and  the  natural  running  of  the  nose. 

The  inner  plate  of  the  frontal  bone  forms  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  roof  the  cavity  which  contains  the  brain  {m  in  the  last  cut).  The 
bones  immediately  above  the  frontal,  and  extending  from  the  frontal  to  the 
poll,  are  called  the  pariela7s,  (c  c,  pp.  66  and  68,)  from  the  Latin  word 
paries,  a  wall.  They  are  two,  united  together  by  a  suture  when  the 
animal  is  young,  but  that  suture  soon  becomes  obliterated.  They  have 
the  occipital,  g,  p.  66,  above,  the  frontals,  a  a,  below,  and  the  temporals, 
d  d,  on  either  side.  They  are  of  a  closer  and  harder  texture  than  the 
frontals,  because  they  are  more  exposed  to  injury,  and  more  concerned  in 
defending  the  brain. 

A  very  small  portion  only  of  the  parietaJs  is  naked,  and  that  is  composed 
of  bone  even  harder  than  the  other  part,  and  with  an  additional  layer  of 
bone  rising  in  the  form  of  a  crest  or  ridge  externally.  Every  other  part 
of  these  bones  is  covered  by  a  thick  mass  of  muscle,  the  temporal,  muscle, 
which  is  principally  concerned  in  chewing  the  food,  but  which  likewise  by 
its  yielding  resistance  speedily  and  effectually  breaks  the  force  of  the  most 
violent  stroke.  A  blow  on  the  calf  of  the  leg  is  comparatively  disregarded, 
while  one,  half  as  heavy,  received  on  the  shin,  gives  excessive  pain.  A 
wool-pack  hung  over  the  wall  of  a  fortress,  when  the  enemy  is  battering 
to  effect  a  breach,  renders  the  heaviest  artillery  almost  harmless.  So  the 
yielding  resistance  of  the  temporal  muscle  affords  a  sure  defence  to  the  brain, 
however  sudden  or  violent  may  be  the  blow  which  falls  on  the  parietal. 
These  benevolent  provisions  will  not  be  disregarded  by  the  reflecting  mind. 

On  the  side  of  the  head,  and  under  the  parietals,  are  placed  [d  d,  p.  60) 
the  temporal  bones,  one  on  each  side.  These  again  are  divided  into  two 
parts,  or  consist  of  two  distinct  bones  ;  the  petrous  portion,  so  called  from 
its  great  or  stmiy  hardness,  and  containing  the  wonderful  mechanism  of  the 
ear,  and  the  squamous  portion,  from  the  appearance  of  its  union  with  the 
parietal,  overlapping  it  like  a  great  scale. 

From  the  latter  there  projects  a  portion  of  bone,  e,  which  unites  with  the 
frontal,  and  forms  a  strong  arch  distinctly  to  be  felt  at  the  side  of  the  head 
immediately  above  the  eye.  This  arch  is  designed  to  protect  the  upper  part 
of  the  lower  jaw,  the  motion  of  which  may  very  plainly  be  seen  beneath 
it  when  the  horse  is  eating.     It  is  very  strong,  and  it  ought  to  be,  lest   the 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  71 

motion  should  by  accident  be  impeded,  and  the  horse  should  starve.  If 
only  one  species  of  violence  were  considered  to  which  this  arch  is  too 
frequently  exposed,  it  would  require  to  possess  no  common  strength  ;  we 
mean,  the  brutal  manner  in  which  the  collar  is  forced  over  the  head.  Al 
the  base  of  the  arch  is  an  important  cavity,  not  visible  in  our  cut,  I'eceiving 
into  it,  and  forming  a  joint  with  tiie  head  of  the  lower  jaw  :  we  shall  have 
to  speak  of  it  presently. 

Having  reached  the  base  of  the  temporal  bone,  we  find  it  united  to  the 
parietal,  not  by  a  simple  suture,  as  the  lower  part  of  the  frontals,  or  the 
bones  of  the  nose  (see  fig.  a  and  j,  p.  66),  nor  by  a  dove-tailed  suture, 
as  the  upper  part  of  the  frontals  (see  the  same  cut),  but  it  is  spread  over 
the  parietal  in  the  form  of  a  large  scale,  and  hence,  as  before  observed, 
called  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone.  In  fact,  there  are  two 
plates  of  bone  instead  of  one.  Was  there  design  in  this  ?  Yes,  evidently 
so.  In  the  first  place,  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  base  of  the  zygomatic 
arch.  This  extensive  union  between  the  temporal  and  parietal  bones 
answers  to  the  buttress  or  mass  of  masonry  attached  to  the  base  of  every 
arch  to  counteract  its  lateral  pressure.  The  concussion  likewise  which 
might  be  communicated  by  a  blow  to  the  top  of  the  arch,  is  thus  spread 
over  a  large  surface,  and  consequently  weakened,  and  rendered  compara- 
tively harmless ;  and  that  surface  is  composed  of  the  union  of  two  bones 
of  dissimilar  construction.  The  hard  sl07}y  structure  of  the  parietal  is  very 
different  from  the  tougher  material  of  the  temporal ;  and  thus,  as  a  finger 
acts  on  a  sounding  glass,  the  vibration  communicated  to  the  temporal  is  at 
once  stopped,  and  the  brain  receives  no  injury. 

But  there  is  yet  more  admirable  design.  Where  is  this  squamous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bone  situated  ?  On  the  side  of  the  head.  And  what 
is  the  figure  of  the  cranium  or  skull,  and  principally  that  part  of  it  which 
contains  the  cerebrum  or  brain  ?  It  is  an  elliptical  or  oval  arch  (see  fig. 
VI,  n,  0,  p.  68).  If  pressure  be  made  on  the  crown  of  that  arch — if  a  blow 
be  received  on  the  suture  between  the  parietals,  sutficient  to  cause  the 
elastic  materials  of  which  the  skull  is  composed  to  yield — the  seat  of  dan- 
ger and  injury  is  at  the  side.  If  a  man  receive  a  violent  blow  on  the  crown 
or  back  part  of  the  head,  the  fracture,  if  there  be  any,  is  generally  about  the 
temple,  and  the  extravasation  of  blood  is  oftenest  found  there.  The  follow- 
mg  figure  will  explain  this. 


Let  the  line  ABC  represent  an  elliptical  arch,  composed  of  elastic  ma- 
trials.  Some  force  shall  be  applied  at  B,  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  yield. 
We  cannot  compress  it  into  smaller  compass  ;  but  just  in  proportion  as  it 
vields  at  B,  will  it  spur  or  bulge  out  at  D,  and  give  way  sometimes  as 
represented  at  E.  In  a  dome,  the  weight  of  the  materials  constantly  acting 
may  be  considered  as  representing  the  force  applied  at  B  ;  and  so  great  is 
the  lateral  pressure,  or  tendency  to  bulge  out  {vide  D  and  E),  that  it  is 


72  THE  HORSE. 

necessary  either  to  dove-tail  the  materials  into  one  another,  or  to  pass  strong 
iron  chains  round  them.  For  want  of  sufficient  attention  to  this,  "  tlie 
dome  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople,  built  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian, fell  three  times  during  its  erection;  and  the  dome  of  the  cathedral 
of  Florence  stood  unfinished  an  hundred  and  twenty  years  for  want  of  an 
architect." 

Nature,  in  the  construction  of  the  horse's  head,  has  taken  away  the' 
pressure,  or  removed  the  probability  of  injury,  by  giving  an  additional  layer 
of  bone,  or  a  mass  of  muscle,  where  alone  there  was  danger,  and  has  dove- 
tailed all  the  materials,  and  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure,  has  placed  this 
efTcctual  girder  at  the  base,  in  the  overlapping  of  the  squamous  portion  of 
the  temporal  bone. 

In  the  ox,  where,  to  give  a  secure  base  to  the  horn,  the  frontal  bone 
spreads  over  the  whole  fore-part  of  the  head,  and  the  crania-l  cavity  is  suffi- 
ciently secured  by  the  beautiful  mechanism  between  the  two  plates  of  that 
bone,  the  temporal  bone  does  not  overlap  the  parietal.  Nature  gives  every 
thing  essential  to  the  protection  and  welfare  of  the  animal,  but  nothing 
superfluous. 

Above  the  jxirietals,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  suture  (fig.  g,  pp.  66 
and  68,  and  fig.  c,  p.  66),  is  the  occipital  bone.  Superiorly  it  covers  and 
protects  the  smaller  portion  of  the  brain,  the  cerebeilum ;  and  as  it  there 
constitutes  the  summit  or  the  crest  of  the  head,  and  is  not  protected  by  mus- 
cles,  and  particularly  exposed  to  danger,  it  is  interesting  to  see  what  thick- 
ness it  assumes.  The  head  of  the  horse  does  not,  like  that  of  the  human 
being,  ride  upright  on  the  neck,  with  all  its  weight  supported  by  the  spinal 
column,  and  the  only  office  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck  being  to  move  the 
head  forward  or  backward,  or  horizontally  on  its  pivot;  but  it  hangs  in  a 
slanting  position  from  the  extremity  of  the  neck,  and  the  neck  itself  pro- 
jects a  considerable  distance  from  the  chest,  and  thus  the  whole  weight  of 
the  head  and  neck  are  suspended  from  the  chest,  and  require  very  great 
power  to  support  them.  In  addition  to  the  simple  weight  of  the  head  and 
neck,  the  neck  projecting  from  the  chest,  and  the  head  hanging  fi'om  the 
extremity  of  the  neck,  act  with  enormous  mechanical  force,  and  increase 
more  than  a  hundred-fold  the  power  necessary  to  support  them. 

It  requires  a  strong  man  to  lift  a  small  table  from  the  ground  at  arm's 
length.  The  farmer's  steelyards  show  that  a  weight  of  a  kw  pounds,  at  the 
extremity,  will  counterbalance  or  act  with  a  force  equal  to  a  hundred 
weight  ne.ar  the  hook  or  centre. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  horse,  and  particularly  of  some  horses  of  a 
coarse  breed,  are  of  no  little  bulk  and  weight.  We  shall  hereafter  have  to 
show  in  what  breeds,  and  for  what  purposes  a  light  or  heavy  head  and 
neck  are  advantageous;  but  it  may  be  safely  affirmed,  that,  projecting  so 
far  from  the  chest,  and  being  consequently  at  so  great  a  distance  from  the 
fulcrum  or  support,  the  liglitest  head  will  act  or  bear  upon  the  joint  be- 
tween the  last  bone  of  the  neck  and  the  first  rib,  with  a  force  equal  to  many 
thousand  pounds. 

How  is  this  weight  to  be  supported?  Is  the  power  of  muscle  equal  to 
the  task  ?  The  muscles  of  the  animal  frame  can  act  for  a  certain  time 
with  extraordinary  force ;  but  as  the  exertion  of  this  power  is  attended  with 
the  consumption  of  vital  energy,  the  period  soon  arrives  when  their  action 
is  remitted  or  altogether  suspended. 

Muscular  power  is  altogether  inadequate  to  the  constant  support  of  the 
head  of  the  horse.  A  provision,  however,  is  made  for  the  purpose,  simple 
and  complete. 


EXTERNAL   STRUCTURE.  VS 

From  the  back  of  the  occipital  bone  (fig.  f,  p.  68),  and  inimodiately 
Oelow  the  crest,  proceeds  a  round  cord  of  considerable  bulk,  and  composed 
of  a  ligamentous  substance,  and  which  is  carried  down  and  securely  at- 
taciied  to  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  back ;  and  by  this  lig- 
ament (the  ligamentum  colli,  ligament  of  the  neck,  commonly  called  the 
pack-wax)  the  head  is  supported. 

There  are,  however,  some  admirable  contrivances  connected  with  this 
ligament.  As  it  proceeds  from  the  head,  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  round  cord. 
It  passes  over  the  atlas,  or  the  lirst  bone  of  the  neck,  without  touching  it, 
and  then  attaching  itself  strongly  to  the  second  bone,  principally  supports 
the  head  by  its  union  with  this  bone.  The  mechanical  disadvantage  is  in- 
creased, but  the  head  is  turned  more  freely  on  the  first  and  second  bones. 
The  principal  stress  is  on  the  dentata  or  second  bone,  so  much  so,  that,  in 
poll-evil,  this  ligament  may  be  divided  without  serious  inconvenience  to  the 
horse.  It  then  suddenly  sinks  deeper,  and  communicates  with  all  the  other 
vertebrre.  Each  of  these  commiinications  becomes  a  separate  point  of 
support,  as  they  approach  nearer  to  the  prop,  or  the  centre  of  motion,  the 
mechanical  disadvantage,  or  the  force  with  which  the  weight  of  the  head 
and  neck  presses  and  acts,  is  materially  lessened. 

The  head,  then,  without  any  aid  from  muscular  energy,  is,  while  tho 
animal  is  in  a  state  of  rest,  supported  by  this  ligament. 

There  is,  however,  something  yet  wanting.  The  head  must  not  be 
always  elevated.  The  horse  has  his  food  to  seek.  In  a  state  of  nature  this 
food  lies  principally  on  the  ground,  and  the  head  must  be  lowered  to  enable 
the  animal  to  get  at  it.  How  is  this  effected  ?  This  ligament,  as  \\e  call 
it,  because  it  resembles  in  appearance  the  other  ligaments  of  the  body,  pos- 
sesses a  property  which  they  have  not,  and  which  they  must  not  have,  or 
they  would  be  useless.  No  well-knit  joint  could  exist  if  it  had  this  pro- 
perty. The  pack-wax  is  elastic.  It  will  yield  to  a  force  impressed  upon 
it,  and  it  will  resume  its  natural  dimensions  when  that  force  is  removed, 
It  sustains  perfectly  the  weight  of  the  head.  That  portion  of  tenacity  or 
strength  is  given  to  it,  which  will  not  yield  to  the  simple  weight  of  the 
head,  but  will  yield  to  a  very  little  additional  weight.  Its  resting  power  ia 
so  admiraljjy  adjusted  to  that  which  it  has  to  sustain,  that  when  certain 
muscles,  whose  action  is  to  depressor  lower  the  head,  begin  to  act,  and  add 
tiieir  power  to  the  previous  weight  it  had  to  bear,  the  ligament  stretches, 
antl  when  the  horse  is  browsing,  it  is  full  two  inches  longer  than  when  the 
head  is  erect. 

When  the  animal  has  satisfied  himself,  these  depressing  muscles  cease  to 
act,  and  other  muscles,  which  are  designed  to  assist  in  raising  the  head, 
begin  to  exert  themselves;  and,  by  their  aid  (but  more  by  the  inherent 
ela  (icity  of  the  ligament),  the  head  is  more  elevated,  and  remains  so  with- 
out the  slightest  exertion  of  muscular  power.  This  is  one  of  the  many 
applications  of  the  principle  of  elasticity  which  we  shall  have  to  observe 
end  admire  in  the  construction  of  the  animal  frame. 

The  ligament  of  the  neck  is  inserted  into  the  centre  of  the  back  part  of 
the  occipital  bone,  and  immediately  below  the  vertex  or  crest  of  that  bone, 
and,  therefore,  the  bone  is  so  thick  at  this  part  (see  fig.  e,  p.  68). 

Many,  and  large,  and  powerful  muscles,  however,  are  necessary  to  turn 
the  head  in  various  directions,  and  to  assist  in  raising  it  when  depressed. 
The  occipital  bone,  as  will  be  seen  in  this  cut,  presents  a  spine  running 
down  the  centre,  B,  and  a  large  roughened  surface  for  the  attachment  of 
tl\ese  muscles  C  C. 

liovver  down,  and  still  at  the  back  of  the  occipital  bone,  are  two  roundeo 
F 


protuberances,  D  D,  by  which  the  head  is  connected  with  the  alias,  or  upper, 
or  first  vertebra,  or  bone  of  the  neck,  and  these  are  called  the  condyloid, 
cup-shaped,  processes  of  the  occipital  bone.  All  the  motions  of  the  head  are 
partly,  and  many  of  them  wholly,  performed  by  this  joint. 

Between  them  is  a  large  hole,  called  the  foramen  magnum,  or  great 
aperture,  E,  through  which  the  continuation  of  the  brain,  called  the  spinal 
cord  or  marrow,  passes  out  of  the  skull. 

As  an  additional  contrivance  to  support  the  great  weight  of  the  head,  are 
two  other  projections  of  the  occipital  bone,  jjeculiar  to  animals  whose  heads 
are  set  on  in  a  slanting  direction,  and  into  which  powerful  muscles  are 
inserted  ;  they  are  called  the  ceracoid,  beak-like,  processes  or  prolongations, 
F  F,  of  ihe  occipital  bone. 

Runnmg  forward,  and  forming  outwardly  a  part  of  the  base,  and  inwardly 
a  portion  of  the  floor  of  the  skull,  is  what,  from  its  wedge-like  shape,  is 
called  the  cuneiform  process  of  the  occipital  bone  (fig.  i,  p.  68).  It  is  thick, 
strong  and  solid ;  and  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  skull,  not  only  to  be  a 
proper  foundation  for,  and  to  give  additional  strength  to  the  arch  on  each 
bide,  but  speedily  to  break  and  stop  all  vibration  and  concussion. 

At  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  anterior  to,  or  below  the  occipital,  lies  the 
sphenoid,  wedge-like  bone  (fig.  k,  p.  68).  Its  body,  likewise  called  the 
cuneiform  or  wedge-shaped  process,  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  process  of 
the  occipital,  and  like  it  is  thick  and  solid,  and  for  the  same  important 
purpose.  This  bone  branches  out  into  four  irregular  bodies  or  plates,  two 
of  which  are  called  the  wings,  and  two  running  to  the  palate,  the  legs. 
They  could  not  be  represented  in  the  cut,  and  there  is  nothing  important 
belonging  to  them  so  far  as  our  work  is  concerned.  Internally  (fig.  A),  the 
sphenoid  forms  a  portion  of  the  cavity  of  the  skull. 

Of  the  ethmoid,  sieve-like,  bone  little  can  be  seen  outwardly.  A  small 
portion  is  found  in  the  back  part  of  the  orbit,  and  in  the  cavity  of  the  cra- 
nium ;  but  the  most  important  part  of  it  is  that  which  is  composed  of  a 
great  number  of  thin  plates,  forming  numerous  cavities  or  cells  (fig.  /,  p.  68) 
lined  with  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  and  entering  into  the  cavity  of  the 
nose.  The  upper  portion  is  called  the  cribriform,  or  sieve-shaped  plate, 
from  its  being  perforated  by  a  multitude  of  little  holes,  through  which  the 
nerve  connected  with  the  smelling  passes  and  spreads  over  the  nose. 

Altogether,  lliese  bones  form  a  cavity  of  an  irregular  oval  shape,  but  the 
tentorium  penetrating  into  it,  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  divided  into 
two  {d,  p.  68). 

The  cavity  of  the  cranium  may  be  said  to  be  arched  all  round.  The 
builder  knows  the  strength  which  is  connected  with  the  form  of  the  arch. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  75 

[f  properly  constructed,  it  is  equal  to  a  solid  mass  of  masonry.  The  arc)' 
of  the  horse's  skull  has  not  much  weight  to  support,  but  it  is  exposed  to 
many  injuries  from  ihe  brutality  of  those  by  whom  he  should  be  protected, 
and  from  accidental  causes. 

The  roof  of  the  skull  is  composed  of  two  plates  of  bone  :  the  outer,  hard 
and  tough,  and  the  different  parts  dove-tailed  together,  so  as  not  to  be  easily 
fractured  ;  the  inner  plate  is  elastic,  and  ijy  the  union  of  these  two  sub- 
stances of  different  construction,  the  vibration  is  partly  damped  or  destroyed. 
By  means  of  the  elasticity  of  the  inner  plate,  the  force  or  influence  whicli 
might  reach  it  through  tiie  outer  plate,  and,  notwithstanding  its  differenco 
of  structure,  affect  it,  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  roof;  and  the  inner 
plate  is  not  dove-tailed  like  the  outer,  because  the  dove-tailing  would  impede 
the  spread  of  the  vibration. 

The  brain  of  the  horse  corresponds  with  the  cavity  in  which  it  is  placed 
(??j,  p.  68).  It  IS  a  flattened  oval.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  much 
larger  than  the  other,  the  cerebrum  or  brain,  and  the  cerebellum  or  little 
brain  (n.  p.  68).  In  the  human  being  the  cerebrum  is  above  the  cerebel- 
lum, in  the  quadruped  below  ;  and  yet  in  both  they  retain  the  same  relative 
situation.  The  cerebellum  is  nearer  to  the  foramen  or  hole,  through  which 
ihe  brain  passes  out  of  tiie  skull  (/t,  p.  68),  and  to  the  continuation  of  the 
cerebrum  passes  under  the  cerebellum  (p,  p.  68)  to  arrive  at  this  foramen. 
In  the  human  head  this  foramen  is  at  the  base  of  tiie  skull,  but  in  the 
quadruped,  in  whom  the  head  is  placed  slanting,  it  is  necessarily  elevated. 

It  would  occupy  too  great  a  portion  of  our  time  fully  to  consider  the 
wonderful  and  mysterious  functions  discharged  by  tiie  brain,  but  some 
diseases  to  which  the  horse  is  subject,  and  a  very  useful  operation,  the  divi- 
sion of  the  nerve  of  tlie  leg,  for  foot  lameness,  could  not  be  understood  with- 
out a  slight  account  of  this  important  organ. 

When  the  brain  is  cut  it  presents  two  distinct  substances  (m,  p.  68),  one 
principally  on  the  outside,  grey,  or  ash-coloured,  and  therefore  called  the 
cortical  (bark-like,  or  rind-like)  from  its  situation,  or  the  cineritious  (ash- 
like), from  its  colour;  and  one  more  in  the  centre,  and  its  fibres  running 
towards  the  centre,  and  white  and  pulpy,  and  from  its  consistence  called  the 
medullary  (narrow-like)  part.  This  latter  portion  seems  to  be  collected  and 
condensed  towards  the  centre  or  base  of  the  brain,  and  all  the  nerves  derive 
their  origin  from  it. 

The  medullary  portion  then  is  evidently  connected  with  the  nervous 
system  ;  and  the  nerves  are  concerned  in  the  discharge  of  all  the  offices  of 
life.  They  give  motion  to  the  limbs  ;  they  supply  with  energy  the  heart, 
the  lungs,  the  stomach,  and  every  part  connected  with  life:  and  being  the 
medium  through  which  sensation  is  conveyed,  they  supply  the  mind  with 
materials  to  think  and  work  upon. 

The  cineritious  part  has  a  different  appearance,  and  is  evidently  differently 
constituted ;  and  some  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  residence  of  the  mind, 
receiving  the  impressions  which  are  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  the  nerve  of 
sensation,  and  directing  the  operation  and  action  of  those  which  give  motion 
to  the  limbs.  In  accordance  with  this  it  happens  that  where  supcior  intel- 
ligence is  found,  the  cineritious  prevails,  and  where  little  beside  brutal 
strength  and  appetite  exist,  the  medullary  portion  is  enlarged. 

From  the  medullary  substance  proceed  certain  cords  or  prolongations, 
called  nerves,  by  which  the  animal  is  enabled  to  receive  impressions  from 
surrounding  objects,  and  to  connect  himself  with  them,  and  to  possess  many 
pleasurable  or  painful  sensations.  One  is  spread  over  the  membrane  of  the 
nose,  and  gives  the  sense  of  smell ;   another  expands  on  the  back  of  the  eye, 


70  THE  HORSE. 

air]  tiio  faculty  of  sight  is  gained  ;  and  a  tliird  goes  to  the  internal  stmc- 
lure  of  the  ear,  and  tlie  animal  hears.  Other  nerves  proceeding  to  different 
parts  of  the  head  give  the  faculty  of  motion  to  tliose  parts ;  and  another 
class  bestows  the  power  of  feeling. 

One  division  of  nerves  (A,  p.  6S)  springing  from  a  prolongation  of  the 
brain,  and  yet  within  the  skull,  wander  to  dillcrent  parts  of  the  frame,  for 
important  purposes  connected  with  respiration  or  breathing  ;  and  as  the  act 
of  breathing  is  essential  to  life,  and  were  it  to  cease,  the  animal  would  die 
— these  are  nerves  of  mvolunlary  motion  ;  so  that,  whether  he  is  awake  or 
asleep,  conscious  of  it  or  not,  the  lungs  heave  and  life  is  supported.  Lastly, 
from  the  spinal  cord,  q,  (a  further  prolongation  of  the  brain,  and  running 
through  a  cavity  in  the  bones  of  the  neck,  back,  and  loins,  and  extending 
to  the  very  tip  of  the  tail,)  other  nerves  are  given  olf  at  certain  intervals. 
This  cut  delineates  one  pair  of  them.     The  spinal  cord,  a,  is  combined  of 


six  distinct  columns  or  rods,  running  through  its  whole  length — three  on 
either  side.  The  two  columns  (the  portion  of  the  spinal  marrow  repre- 
sented in  our  cut,  is  supposed  to  be  placed  with  its  inner  or  lower  surface 
toward?,  us)  i)roceed  from  those  tracks  of  the  brain  devoted  to  sensation. 
From  these  come  out  abruptly  distinct  fibres  from  the  column,  and  which 
connect  together,  and  passing  through  a  little  ganglion  or  enlargement,  d, 
(an  enlargement  of  a  nervous  cord  is  called  a  ganglion,)  become  a  nerve 
of  sensation.  From  the  lower  or  inner  side,  (a  prolongation  of  tne  tracic 
devoted  to  motion,)  proceed  other  fibres,  which  also  collect  gradually 
together,  and  form  a  nervous  cord,  c,  giving  the  power  of  motion.  Beyond 
the  ganglion  the  two  unite,  and  form  a  perfect  spinal  nerve,  h,  possessing  the 
power  both  of  sensation  and  motion;  and  the  fibres  of  the  two  columns 
proceed  ta  their  destination,  enveloped  in  the  same  sheath,  and  apparently 
one  nerve.  Each  portion,  however,  continues  to  be  wrapped  in  its  oAvn 
membrane.  They  are  united,  yet  distinct;  they  constitute  one  nerve,  yet 
neither  tli  ^ir  substance  nor  their  office  is  confounded.  Our  cut,  closely 
examined,  h,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  these  distinct 
fibres  are  continued ; — each  covered  in  its  own  membrane,  but  all  envel- 
oped ir  a  connnon  covering. 

All  these  nerves  are  organs  of  sensation  and  motion  alone  ;  but  there 
are  others  whose  origin  seems  to  be  outside  of  and  below  the  brain.  These 
are  the  sympalheiic,  so  called  from  their  union  and  sympathy  with  all  the 
others,  and  identified  with  life  itself  They  proceed  from  a  small  ganglion 
or  enlargement  in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  or  from  a  collection  of  little 
ganglions  in  the  belly.  Tliey  go  to  the  heart,  and  it  beats,  and  to  the 
stomach,  and  it  digests.     They  form  a  net-work  round  each  blood-vessel, 


tXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  77 

and  the  current  flows  on.  They  surround  tlie  very  minutest  vessels,  and 
the  frame  is  nourisiied  and  built  up.  They  are  destitute  of  sensation,  and 
tiiey  are  perfectly  beyond  the  control  of  the  will. 

The  reader,  we  trust,  will  now  comprehend  this  wonderful,  yet  simple 
machinery,  and  be  able,  by  and  by,  to  refer  to  it  tlie  explanation  of  severa* 
diseases,  and  particularly  of  the  operation  to  which  we  have  referred. 

Two  of  the  senses  have  their  residence  in  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  those 
of  hearing  and  sight. 

They  who  know  any  tiling  of  the  horse  pay  much  attention  to  the  size, 
setting  on,  and  motion  of  the  ear.  Ears  rather  small  than  large,  placed  not 
too  far  apart,  and  erect,  and  quick  in  motion,  indicate  both  breeding  and 
spirit ;  and  if  a  horse  is  frequently  in  the  habit  of  carrying  one  ear  forward, 
and  tlie  other  backward,  and  especially  if  he  does  so  on  a  journey,  he  will 
generally  possess  both  spirit  and  continuance.  The  stretcliing  of  tlie  ears 
in  a  contrary  direction  shows  that  he  is  attentive  to  every  thing  that  is  taking 
place  around  him,  and,  while  he  is  doing  this,  he  cannot  be  much  fatigued, 
or  likely  soon  to  become  so.  It  has  been  remarked  tliat  few  horses  sleep 
without  pointing  one  ear  forward  and  the  other  backward,  that  they  may 
receive  notice  of  the  approach  of  objects  in  every  direction.* 

The  ear  of  the  horse  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  parts  about  him,  and 
by  few  things  is  the  temper  more  surely  indicated  than  by  its  motion.  The 
ear  is  more  intelligible  even  than  the  eye,  and  a  person  accustomed  to  the 
horse,  and  an  observer  of  the  horse,  can  tell  by  the  e.xpressive  motion  of  the 
ears  almost  all  that  he  thinks  or  means.  It  is  a  common  saying  that  when 
a  horse  lays  his  ears  flat  back  upon  his  neck,  and  keeps  them  so,  he  most 
assuredly  is  meditating  mischief,  and  the  stander-by  should  beware  of  his 
heels  or  his  teeth.  In  play  the  ears  will  be  laid  back,  but  not  so  decidedly, 
nor  so  long.  A  quick  change  in  their  position,  and  more  particularly  tiie 
expression  of  the  eye  at  the  time,  will  distinguish  between  playi'uliiess  and 
vice. 

The  external  ear  is  formed  by  a  cartilage  of  an  oval  or  cone-like  siiape, 
flexible,  yet  firm,  and  terminating  in  a  point.  It  has,  directed  towards  tiie 
side,  yet  somewhat  pointing  forward,  a  large  opening,  extending  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom.  The  intention  of  this  is  to  collect  the  sound,  and  convey 
it  to  the  interior  part  of  the  ear. 

The  hearing  of  the  horse  is  remarkably  acute.  A  thousand  vibrationa 
of  the  air,  too  slight  to  make  any  impression  on  the  human  ear,  are  readily 
perceived  by  him.  It  is  well  known  to  every  iiunting-man,  that  the  cry  of 
the  hounds  will  be  recognised  by  the  horse,  and  liis  ears  will  be  erect,  and 
he  will  be  all  spirit  and  impatience,  a  considerable  time  before  the  rider  is 
conscious  of  the  least  sound.  Need  anything  more  be  said  to  ex[»nse  the 
absurdity  of  cropping?  Fortunately  for  this  too-often  abused  animal,  crop- 
ping is  not  now  the  fashion.  Some  thoughtless  or  unfeeling  young  men 
endeavoured,  a  little  while  ago,  to  introduce  it,  but  the  voice  of  reason  and 
humanity  prevailed. 

This  cartilage,  the  conch  or  snell,  is  attached  to  the  head  by  ligaments, 
and  sustained  by  muscles,  on  which  its  action  depends.  It  rests  upon 
anotlier  cartilage,  round  witiiout  and  irregular  within,  called  the  annular, 
•mg-like,  cartilage,  and  conducting  to  the  interior  of  the  ear;  and  it  is 

♦  "  When  horses  or  mules  inarch  in  company  at  night,  those  in  front  direct  their  ears 
forward;  those  in  the  rear  direct  them  backward;  and  tliose  in  the  centre  direct  ihem 
laterally  c  across;  tlie  whole  troop  seeming-  thus  to  be  actuated  by  one  feeling',  which 
watches  the  general  safety." — Abnott's  Elements  of  Physics,  vol.  i.  p.  478. 


7%  THE  RORSE. 

likmise  svipported  and  moved  by  a  third  small  cartilage,  placed  ai  the 
tore  part  el'  the  base  of  the  conch,  and  into  which  several  muscles  are 
inserted. 

The  ear  is  covered  by  a  skin  thinner  than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and  altogether  destitute  of  fut,  tiiat  it  may  not  be  too  bulky  and  heavy,  and 
may  be  more  easily  moved.  Under  the  skin  lining  the  inside  of  the  car- 
tilage are  more  numerous  glands,  that  secrete  or  throw  out  a  scaly,  white, 
greasy  matter,  which  may  be  rubbed  off  with  the  finger,  and  which  is  des 
lined  to  supple  this  part  of  the  ear,  and  to  keep  it  soft  and  smooth.  Below 
this  are  other  glands,  w  hich  pour  out  a  peculiar,  sticky,  bitter  fluid,  the  wax, 
probably  displeasing  to  insects,  and  therefore  deterring  them  from  crawling 
down  the  ear  and  annoying  the  animal :  or  by  its  stickiness  arresting  their 
progress. 

The  internal  part  of  the  conch  is  covered  with  long  hair,  which  stands 
across  the  passage  in  every  direction,  Tiiis  likewise  is  to  protect  the  ear 
from  insects,  that  would  with  difficulty  penetrate  through  this  thick  defence. 
The  cold  air  is  likewise  prevented  from  reaching  the  interior  of  the  ear,  and 
the  sound  is  moderated,  not  arrested ;  penetrating  readily,  but  not  violently  ; 
and  not  striking  injuriously  on  the  membrane  covering  the  drum  of  the 
ear.  Can  these  purposes  be  accomplished,  when  it  is  the  custom  of  so 
many  carters  and  grooms  to  cut  the  hair  out  of  the  ear  so  closely  and  indus- 
triously as  they  do?  The  groom  who  singes  it  to  the  roots  with  a  candle 
must  either  be  very  ignorant  or  very  brutal.  It  can  scarcely  be  accom- 
plished without  singeing  the  ear  as  well  as  the  hair.  Many  a  troublesome 
sore  is  occasioned  by  it;  and  many  a  horse  that  was  perfectly  quiet  before, 
rendered  difficult  to  handle  or  halter ;  and  even  disposed  to  be  otherwise 
vicious  from  a  recollection  of  the  pain  which  he  suffered  during  the  absurd 
and  barbarous  operation. 

The  sound  collected  by  the  outer  ear,  passes  through  the  lower  or  annular, 
ring-shaped  cartilage.,  and  through  irregularities  which,  while  they  break 
and  modify  it,  carry  it  on  to  another  canal,  partly  cartilaginous  and  partly 
bony,  conducting  immediately  to  the  internal  mechanism  of  the  ear.  Tiiis 
canal  or  passage  is  called  the  external  auditory  passage,  a  ;  and  at  the  base 
of  it  is  placed,  stretching  across  it,  and  closing  it,  a  thick  and  elastic  mem- 
brane, called  the  membrane  of  the  drum,  Z/.  This  membrane  is  supplied 
with  numerous  fibres,  from  the  fifth  pair,  or  sensitive  nerve  of  the  head,  for 
it  is  necessary  that  it  should  possess  extreme  sensibility. 

The  mechanism  of  the  ear  is  so  exquisite  that  we  cannot  refrain  from 
entering  into  a  minute  description  of  it,  although  we  feel  that  we  are  some- 
wluit  trenching  on  the  comprehensive  subject  of  animal  physiology. 

Sound  is  produced  by  certain  vibrations  or  undulations  communicated  to 
the  air,  by  the  concussions  or  tremblings  of  things  around,  and  which 
NlL.'ations  spread  through  the  air,  and  fall  upon  the  ear.  The  striking  of 
a  glass,  and  the  sound  of  a  large  bell,  are  sufficient  illustrations  of  the 
manner  in  which  sound  is  propagated  by  distinct  vibrations  or  waves  of  the 
tiir.  These  vibrations  reach  the  conch  of  the  ear.  From  its  hollow  form 
and  peculiar  shape,  and  the  faculty  of  being  directed  to  every  quarter 
whence  the  vibrations  proceed,  they  are  collected,  and  condensed,  and  con- 
veyed down  the  outer  passage,  and  fall  upon  the  membrane,  h.  That 
membrane,  tightly  stretched,  and  elastic,  receives  the  impression  made 
upon  it,  and  vibrates  in  perfect  unison. 

This  membrane  covers  the  entrance  into  a  cavity,  called  the  tympanum 
or  drum  of  tiie  ear,  /,  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  a  drum.  It  is  of 
un  irregular  shape.     The  walls  or  sides  are  composed  of  bone,  lined  with  & 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE. 


7& 


ielicote  membrane,  with  several  apertures  or  holes,  J,  /,  k,  the  principal 
of  ivhich  we  shall  describe. 

STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EAR 


EXPLANATION    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    PARTS, 


WITH   THEIR   ANATOMICAL  TERMS. 


Meatus  extemus,  or  outer  passagre. 

Membrana  tympani,  or  membrane  stretched  over  the  entrance  to  the  dri  a  of  tlia 
ear. 

Malleus,  or  hammer,  the  first  of  the  osslculi  (little  bones),  and  resting  ufon  tha 
membra.na  tympani. 

Incus,  or  anvil. 

Orbiculare,  or  ro«n-A  bone. 

Slopes,  or  stirrup  bcris,  resting'  on  the  membrane  which  covers  the  .^»  >men  ovale, 
or  oval  windu--v,  and  which  conducts  to  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 

One  of  the  muscles  of  the  tyiVipanum  attached  to  the  stapes. 

Vestibule  or  hall,  the  first  portion  of  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 

Semicircular  canals. 

Opening's  into  the  canals. 

iSjmpanum,  or  drum  of  the  ear. 

Cochlea,  or  shell-like  portion  of  the  labyrinth. 

Meatus  auditorius  intemus,  or  internal  passage,  through  which  both  divisions  of  the 
seventh  pair  of  nerves  enter  the  ear.  At  the  end  of  it  is  the  cribriform  sieve- 
like plate,  through  which  ihc  portio  mollis,  or  soft  portion  of  the  seventh  pair  of 
nerves,  and  which  is  the  auditory  nerve,  or  nerve  of  hearing-,  enters  to  spread  over 
the  cochlea  and  vestibule. 

Eustachian  tube,  or  communication  between  the  tympanum  and  the  mouth,  so  called 
from  its  discoverer. 

Cord,  or  nerve  of  the  ear,  corda  tympani,  a  branch  of  the  portio  dura,  hard  portion,  of 
the  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  united  to  a  portion  of  the  fifth  pair,  running  ac'oss  thfl 
tympanum,  and  ramifying  on  it  and  on  the  membrane. 

Exit,  of  the  portio  dura  from  the  temporal  bone,  to  spread  over  the  face. 


^0  THE  HORSE. 

Between  the  membrane  at  which  we  have  arrived,  b,  and  a  smaller  one 
almost  opposite,  f.  leading  to  the  still  interior  part  of  tlie  ear,  and  on  which 
the  nerve  of  hearing  is  expanded,  are  four  little  bones,  c,  d,  e,  f,  united  to 
these  membranes  and  to  each  other.  Their  office  is  to  convey,  more 
perfectly  than  it  could  be  done  through  the  air  of  the  cavity,  the  '  ibrations 
which  have  reached  the  membrana  tympani. 

The  first  of  tliese  little  bones  {ossicuU)  is  called  the  malleus,  c,  from  its 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  hammer.  The  longer  arm  of  the  hammer  is 
attached  to  the  edge  of  the  membrane,  and  reaches  to  its  centre,  and  is  so 
strongly  united  to  it,  as  to  draw  it  down  into  a  kind  of  funnel-shape.  It 
is  the  bracing  of  the  parchment  of  the  soldier's  drum;  and  it  must  be 
sufficiently  evident,  that  every  vibration  given  to  the  membrane  must  be 
communicated  to  the  hammer  bone. 

From  the  hammer,  the  vibration  is  communicated  to  the  iiiciis,  d,  so 
named  from  its  imagined  likeness  to  a  blacksmith's  anvil,  although  it  is  a 
great  deal  more  like  a  molar  tooth  or  grinder,  with  two  fangs,  and  one  of 
them  much  lengthened  and  curved.  The  hammer,  however,  is  so  formed 
and  placed,  that  the  impression  or  vibration  is  not  merely  conveyed,  but 
considerably  increased.  Between  the  extremity  of  the  handle  of  the 
hammer  and  its  head,  resting  on  the  anvil,  is  a  sharp  process,  received 
into  a  hollow  in  the  bony  wall  of  the  drum,  and  which  is  evidently  the 
fulcrum,  or  centre  of  motion,  on  which  the  hammer  turns  ;  and  this  is 
much  nearer  the  head  of  the  bone  than  the  extremity  of  the  handle.  It  is 
then  a  lever,  and  it  acts  upon  the  principle  of  the  lever.  Tlie  point  of  the 
handle  is  the  place  where  the  vibration  is  received,  or  the  power  applied  ; 
the  little  process  is  the  fulcrum  or  prop,  or  turning  point ;  and  tlie  head  of 
the  bone  is  the  extremity  of  the  other  arm,  where  the  weight  is  to  be  hung, 
or  the  effect  produced.  Now,  in  proportion  (as  we  shall  have  again  and 
again  to  demonstrate,  when  we  speak  of  the  construction  of  the  limbs)  as 
the  distance  of  the  power  from  the  fulcrum  exceeds  that  of  the  weight,  so 
will  be  the  mechanical  advantage  gained,  or  so  will  the  effiict  be  increased. 
Here  the  extremity  of  the  hammer  is  twice  as  far  from  the  centre  as 
the  head;  and,  therefore,  the  effect  will  be  doubled,  and  the  vibration 
received  by  the  extremity  of  the  handle,  will  be  conveyed  with  double 
intensity  to  the  anvil. 

The  bodies  of  these  bones  are  elastic  ;  and  the  heads  of  all  bones  are 
covered  by  a  substance,  cartilage,  elastic  in  the  highest  degree  :  therefore, 
the  impression  or  vibration  communicated  from  the  hammer  to  the  anvil, 
will  not  be  deadened,  but  rather  increased  by  the  collision  of  these  elastic 
bodies. 

The  anvil  d  is  another  lever,  and  not  only  would  the  vibration  be  com- 
municated  undiminished  through  its  substance,  but  one  of  the  projecticns 
or  fangs  being  received  into  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  the  drum,  and  the 
distance  of  the  point  at  which  the  impression  was  received,  or  the  power 
resides,  being  greater  from  the  centre  than  that  where  the  impression  is  to 
be  conveyed  or  given  up  to  the  next  bone,  or,  in  other  words,  where  the 
effect  is  to  be  produced,  mechanical  advantage  is  here,  likewise,  gained, 
and  the  efft'ct  on  the  next  bone,  e,  may  fairly  be  reckoned  at  three  times 
the  intensity  of  the  original  vibration. 

Tlie  round  bone,  e,  a  very  minute  one,  is  the  next  in  order.  It  is  tlie 
smallest  bone  in  the  body ;  and  its  use  seems  to  be,  to  form  a  more 
complete  and  moveable  joint  between  the  anvil  and  the  stirrup,  and  to 
cause  the  impulse  or  vibration  to  be  communicated  to  the  stirrup-bone  in  a 
perpendicular  direction. 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  Si 

The  last  of  tliese  four  little  bones,  is  the  stapes  or  stirrup-bone.  It 
closely  resembles  a  stirrup  in  form,  and  it  is  placed  on  the  membrane  of 
the  fenestra  ovalis,  the  oval  window,  or  opening  into  the  most  interior  part 
of  the  ear,  and  the  immediate  and  actual  seat  of  hearing.  The  stirrup 
being  retained  in  a  perpendicular  direction  on  this  n^.embrane,,  by  the  round 
bone,  not  only  is  the  full  impression  which  had  been  communicated  to  the 
first  membrane  conveyed  to  the  other,  but  it  is  trebled  by  the  beautiful 
mechanism  of  the  bones. 

Sound,  we  have  said,  is  produced  by  vibrations  conveyed  to  the  ear,  and 
exciting  similar  vibrations  in  certain  parts  of  the  ear.  These  vibrations, 
once  excited,  do  not  immediately  cease.  A  glass  continues  to  sound,  and 
the  prolonged  undulations  of  the  deep-toned  bell  K'-e  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  pulses  of  sound  succeed  each  other  with  great  /qpidity.  In  speaking, 
the  words  quickly  follow  each  other,  and  each  syllable  produces  a  separate 
impulse  on  the  external  membrane  of  the  ear.  Uiiioss,  however,  one 
pulsation  or  vibration  had  ceased  before  the  next  v.as  communicated, 
language  would  be  unintelligible,  and  a  confused  and  endless  noise  would 
prevail.  The  finger  placed  on  the  edge  of  a  glass  immediately  stops  the 
vibration.  The  damper  applied  to  the  piano-forte  effects  the  same  purpose, 
and  gives  distinctness  of  sound  and  tone. 

There  is  in  the  ear  an  admirable  contrivance  to  accomplish  the  same 
object.  Muscles  are  attached  to  these  little  bones,  and  particularly  to  the 
hammer  and  stirrup,  which  are  in  contact  with  the  membranes.  One 
belonging  to  the  stirrup  is  given  in  our  cut,  g.  They  are  placed  there, 
according  to  seme  physiologists,  to.  tighten  or  relax  the  chain  of  bones,  in 
order  to  produce  greater  or  less  intensity  of  sound.  We  would  rather  say 
that  they  were  inteniled  as  dampers,  to  prevent  the  otherwise  unavoidable 
confusion  of  sound.  No  sooner  is  an  impression  conveyed  to  these  bones, 
or  a  vibration  communicated  down  them,  than  the  muscles  contract,  and 
by  that  contraction  tighten  the  chain  of  bones,  and  by  that  tightening, 
destroy,  and  not  increase  the  vibration.  The  heads  of  the  bones  are 
pressed  one  on  the  other,  so  that,  like  the  finger  on  the  edge  of  the  glass, 
the  vibration  is  not  only  immediately  arrested  in  these  bones,  but  in  the 
membranes  above  and  below  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  air  in  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  not  always  of  the  same  warmth.  In 
fever,  or  in  consequence  of  inflammation  in  a  neighbouring  part,  or  during 
the  excitement  of  exercise,  the  air  in  the  drum  may  attain  a  degree  of 
heat  far  above  the  natural  standard  ;  the  consequence  of  which  would  be 
Ihat  it  would  expand.  All  bodies  expand  with  heat  ;  and  this  air  expand- 
ing would  press  on  every  part  of  the  cavity.  The  bony  walls  of  the 
cavity  would  not  yield,  but  the  membrane  might  be  so  violently  distended, 
as  to  be  incapable  of  vibrating.  Under  the  cold  fit  of  fever,  the  air  would 
collapse,  or  would  diminish  in  bulk.  All  bodies  contract  by  the  application 
of  cold.  Then  the  external  air,  endeavouring  to  enter  the  partial  vacuum, 
and  pressing  the  membranes  inward,  might  produce  precisely  the  same 
effect.  To  prevent  all  this,  and  to  preserve  a  proper  balance  between 
tiie  heat  of  the  air  in  the  tympanum,  and  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
body,  or  the  atmosphere,  there  is  a  passage  communicating  with  the  mouth ; 
and  by  means  of  the  mouth,  with  the  external  air.  See  p  in  this  cut,  and 
9  in  the  cut,  page  68,  which  gives  the  cartilage  that  covers  the  entrance 
of  this  passage,  the  Euslachian  tube,  into  the  mouth. 

The  Eustachian  lube  commences  in  the  drum  of  the  ear,  by  a  mere  slit 
in  the  bony  wall,  which,  passing  through  the  stony  portion  of  the  temporal 
bone,  and  part  of  the  sphenoid  bojie,  becomes  cartilaginous,  and  then  expands. 


92  THE  HORSE. 

and  ends  in  a  large  pouch  or  bag.  The  cartilage,  p.  protects  the  mv'Uth  of 
this  bag,  and  prevents  the  food  from  entering  it ;  and  lilvewise  enables  it 
occasionally  to  unclose  for  purposes  connected  with  the  faculty  of  hearing 

'I'he  impression,  then,  has  been  conveyed  by  the  rnecnanisrn  of  \iie  bones, 
from  the  membrane  of  the  drum,  h,  to  the  membrane  on  which  ilie  stirrup 
rests,  f ;  and  which  closes  the  fenestra  ovalis,  or  oval  window,  or  opening 
into  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear.  This  mechanism,  however,  deeply  seated  as 
it  is  in  the  head,  and  guarded  by  the  stony  hardness  of  the  temporal  bone, 
is  liable  to  injury,  and  we  are  next  led  to  admire  many  provisions  for 
preserving  the  sense  of  hearing,  even  when  much  mischief  has  been  done  to 
the  machine.  The  membrane  may  be  punctured  or  ruptured.  It  is  occa- 
sionally so  by  accident  or  violence,  and  lately  purposely  done  in  the  human 
subject,  to  remedy  deafness  produced  by  obstruction  of  the  Eustachian 
tube.  Tlie  vibrations  of  tlie  external  air  would  proceed  down  the  passage 
a,  and  be  communicated,  although  imperfectly,  to  the  little  bones  at  the 
bottom,  c,  d,  e,  and  carried  on  the  oval  window,  f,  and  hearing  would 
remain.  Supposing  that  the  three  first  of  the  little  bones  were  diseased  or 
removed,  the  vibration  of  the  external  air  would  be  communicated  to  the 
air  in  the  drum,  and  by  that  to  the  stirrup,  f,  and  the  animal  would  not  be 
entirely  deaf:  or  even  if  the  whole  of  the  little  bones  were  destroyed,  yet 
the  membrane  of  the  oval  window  remaining,  some  vibration  might  bo 
communicated  to  it,  and  some  sound  perceived. 

Passing  the  oval  window,  y,  we  arrive  at  the  true  seat  of  hearing.  A 
strangely  irregular  cavity,  h,  presents  itself,  filled  with  an  aqueous  fluid, 
while  the  substance  or  pulp  of  the  porlio  mollis  or  soft  portion  of  the  seventh 
pair  of  nerves,  the  auditory  nerve,  expands  on  the  membrane  which  lines 
the  walls  of  this  cavity.  Why  is  this  cavity  filled  with  a  liquid?  First, 
that  the  membrane  which  covers  the  passage  into  it,  might  always  be  pre- 
served  in  a  proper  state  to  receive  and  communicate  vibrations.  If  the 
labyrinth  had  contamed  a  fluid  possessed  of  much  expansibility,  in  the 
considerable  changes  of  temperature  to  which  the  frame. is  subject,  this 
membrane  might  be  stretched  beyond  the  power  of  vibrating,  and  almost 
to  bursting  by  tlie  increased  bulk  of  that  fluid.  Air  is  highly  expansible. 
That  is  of  no  consequence  in  the  drum  of  the  ear,  I,  because,  as  it  expanded, 
it  would  rush  out  of  the  Eustachian  tube  ;  but  in  the  labyrinth  it  would  be 
highly  injurious,  because  that  is  a  closed  cavity.  These  interior  chambers 
then  are  filled  with  water  instead  of  air,  because  it  is  not  one-hundredth 
part  so  expansible  as  air.  If,  however,  the  labyrinth  be  completely  filled 
with  this  aqueous  fluid,  how  can  any  undulation  or  vibration  take  place  ? 
Undulation  supposes  a  change  of  figure,  an  enlargement  in  some  direction ; 
but  there  can  be  no  enlargement  in  a  bony  cavity  completely  filled.  This 
was  not  forgotten  in  the  wonderful  construction  of  the  ear,  and,  therefore, 
at  the  base  of  the  shell,  m,  and  between  the  stirrup  and  the  shell,  is  an 
opening,  covered  likewise  with  membrane,  called  the  round  window,  or 
communication  between  the  drum  and  tiie  labyrinth.  When  any  force, 
then,  is  impressed  on  the  membrane  under  the  stirrup,  this  membrane 
yields  to  the  impression,  and  sufl^ers  the  vibration  to  be  propagated  through 
the  whole  of  the  labyrinth.  When  the  vibration  ceases,  and  the  fluid  is  at 
rest,  the  membrane  over  this  opening  returns  to  its  natural  situation,  and  is 
ready  to  yield  to  the  next  impression. 

T.'iere  is  another  important  reason  why  these  cavities  are  filled  with 
aqueous  fluid.  The  principal  object  of  the  mechanism  of  the  little  bones, 
we  have  seen  to  be,  perfectly  to  convey,  and  even  to  increase  the  effect  of, 
the  vibration  first  connnunicated  to  the  membrane  of  the  drum.     The  vibra- 


EXTERNAL    STRUCTURE.  83 

tion  reaches  the  oval  window,  trebled  in  intensity.  The  same  objeci  is 
pursued  within  the  labyrinth.  A  liquid  is  placed  there,  because  sour.d  i» 
propagated  through  it  with  greater  rapidity.  While  sound  travels  through 
air  at  the  rate  of  1132  feet  in  a  second,  it  passes  through  water  at  the  rate 
of  more  than  400[)  feet  in  the  same  time.  The  impulse  communicated  to 
the  water  by  the  membrane,  is  thus  more  suddenly  spread  over  the  whole 
of  the  labyrinth.  There  is,  besides,  a  law  regulating  the  pressure  of  fluids, 
by  which  this  impulse  must  be  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  labyrinth,  and 
every  portion  of  the  expansion  of  the  nerve  will  be  affected  by  it,  which 
would  not  be  the  case  in  a  fluid  so  rare  and  expansible  as  air. 

The  strongest  reason,  however,  remains  to  be  stated, — the  impression  or 
vibration  is  rendered  more  intense  by  travelling  through  water.  That 
sound  which  would  scarcely  be  heard  in  the  air,  is  almost  deafening  under 
water.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  boys  when  they  bathe,  to  dive  with  a 
stone  in  each  hand,  and  the  rubbing  of  them  together  under  water  produces 
a  rumbling  sound  of  extraordinary  loudness.  This  is  contrary  to  the  old 
opinion  ;  and  even  philosophers,  of  no  mean  repute,  have  denied  that  fishes 
had  ears,  because  they  were  placed  in  a  medium  through  which  sound 
could  scarcely  be  conveyed,  and  where  their  ears  would  be  of  little  use  to 
them.  Later  and  better  observers  have  proved  that  sound  is  propagated 
far  more  intensely  through  water  than  through  air;  and  therefore  an  aque- 
ous fluid  occupies  those  chambers  of  the  ear,  on  the  walls  of  which  tho 
auditory  nerve  is  expanded. 

The- oval  window  opens  into  the  labyrinth,  which  is  divided  into  three 
compartments.  First  is  the  vestibule,  h,  the  hall  of  entrance,  not  more 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide  in  the  actual  subject,  but  magnified  in  our 
cut,  for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  Over  the  whole  of  the  membrane  by 
which  it  is  lined,  there  are  spread  expansions  of  the  soft  portion  of  the 
seventh  pair  of  nerves. 

On  the  upper  side  are  several  foramina  or  holes,  k,  which  conduct  to  the 
semi-circular  canals,  i,  containing  also  water,  lined  by  the  same  membrane, 
and  that  membrane  likewise  covered,  although  not  so  thickly,  with  nervous 
pulp.  The  posterior  one  is  a  perfect  semi-circular  canal,  with  two  openings 
into  the  vestibule.  The  other  two  run  into  each  other  in  a  part  of  their 
course,  and  have  one  common  opening,  and  one  peculiar  to  each;  so  thai 
these  canals  open  into  the  vestibule  by  five  apertures. 

These  canals  contain  a  singular  mechanism.  In  the  part  of  the  vestibule 
at  the  openiiigs  of  the  canals,  k,  is  suspended  a  little  bag,  filled  with  a  very 
clear  fluid,  and  from  which  branches  go  into,  and  occupy  the  canals,  not 
filling  them,  but  floating  in  the  fluid  which  they  contain  ;  and  on  these  bags 
the  portion  of  the  nerve  belonging  to  the  canal  is  principally  distributed. 
The  membrane  composing  these  bags  is  exceedingly  thin.  Thus  floating  in 
the  fluid  of  the  canals,  and  richly  supplied  with  nervous  matter,  the  slight- 
est vibration  or  motion  communicated  to  ihe  fluid  by  the  stirrup  on  the  oval 
window,  will  be  immediately  and  powerfully  felt. 

On  the  other  side  is,  if  possible,  a  more  complex  mechanism.  At  711  ia 
the  cochlea,  so  termed  from  its  likeness  to  the  convolutions  of  a  sliell.  It, 
however,  more  resembles  a  spiral  lamina,  or  narrow  and  thin  plate,  partly 
bony,  and  partly  membranous,  running  round  a  column  in  the  centre.  It 
is  a  spiral  stair-case  in  a  round  tower.  The  base  of  it  rests  on  the  internal 
passage,  n.  through  which  both  portions  of  the  seventh  pair  of  nerves  pass 
into  the  ear.  Its  apex,  or  top,  approaches  the  Eustachian  tube,  0.  The 
50ft,  or  auditory  portion  of  the  nerve,  penetrates  tlirough  the  cribriform  or 
sieve-like  termination  of  the  passage,  and  a  fart  of  it  runs  up  ihs  central 


8^  THE  HORSE. 

co/iimn  or  bone,  which  is  hollow  and  spongy,  and,  through  a  thouifind 
apertures  in  it.  ramifies  on  the  lamina  of  bone,  tvvinmg  spirally  around 
the  cclumn,  and  on  the  membranous  fringe  wliich  floats  in  the  fluid  with 
which  the  shell  is  filled,  and  the  whole  is  covered  by  a  thick  expansion  of 
nervous  matter. 

The  cribriform  plate  extends  beyond  the  base  of  the  shell  to  the  vestibule, 
and  those  portions  of  nerve  there  enter,  which  spread  over  the  vestibule 
and  the  semi-circular  canals  j  but  the  principal  part  of  it  seems  to  be  given 
(o  the  cochlea. 

What  is  the  distinct  and  peculiar  offices  of  these  parts,  so  curiously  and 
^eX.  so  differently  constructed,  we  know  not.  They  are  both  admirably 
adapted  to  render  the  sense  of  hearing  fully  equal  to  every  possible  want 
of  the  animal.  In  the  horse  the  cochlea  is  nmch  larger,  compared  with  the 
canals  than  it  is  in  the  ox  or  sheep;  but  for  what  esj)ecial  purpose,  we  are 
unable  to  determine :  nor  can  we  account  for  the  large  pouch-shaped 
opening  of  the  Eustachian  tube  in  the  horse,  (fig.  9,  p.  68),  nor  for  the 
small  developements  of  the  mastoid  cells  in  the  horse,  while  they  are 
exceedingly  large  in  the  ox.  There  are  many  parts  of  the  frame,  the  pre- 
cise use  or  function  of  which  we  cannot  ascertain ;  but,  as  far  as  we  do 
understand  the  mechanism  of  the  various  animals  which  pass  under  our 
notice,  all  is  fittest  and  best ;  and  the  study  of  the  animal  frame,  with 
a  view  to  discover  the  evidences  of  design,  is  pleasing  and  improving. 

The  Eye  is  a  most  important  organ,  and  comes  next  under  consideration, 
as  inclosed  in  the  bones  of  the  skull.  The  eye  of  the  horse  should  be 
large,  and  somewhat  (but  not  too)  prominent,  and  the  eyelids  fine  and  tiiin. 
If  the  eye  be  sunk  in  the  head,  and  apparently  little  (for  there  is  actually  a 
very  trifling  difierence  in  the  size  of  the  eye  in  animals  of  the  same  species 
and  bulk,  and  the  seeming  difference  arises  from  the  larger  or  smaller 
opening  l)etween  the  lids),  and  the  lid  be  thick,  and  especially  if  there 
be  any  puckering  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  lids,  that  eye  either  is 
diseased,  or  has  been  lately  subject  to  inflammation  ;  and,  particularly  if 
one  eye  is  smaller  than  the  other,  it  has  been,  at  no  great  distance  of  time, 
inflamed. 

The  eye  of  the  horse  enables  us  pretty  accurately  to  guess  at  his  temper. 
If  much  of  the  white  be  seen,  the  buyer  should  pause  ere  he  completes  his 
bargain  ;  because,  although  it  may,  yet  very  rarely,  happen  that  the  cornea 
or  transparent  part  is  unnaturally  small,  and  therefore  an  unusual  portion 
of  the  white  of  the  eye  is  seen,  and  especially  when  the  horse  is  looking 
sideways,  or  backward,  yet  experience  has  shown  that  this  display  of  white 
is  dangerous.  The  mischievous  horse  is  slyly  on  the  look  out  for  opportu- 
nities to  do  mischief,  and  the  frequent  backward  direction  of  the  eye,  when 
the  white  is  most  perceptible,  is  only  to  give  surer  effect  to  the  blow  whicb 
he  is  about  to  aim. 

We  will  give  a  cursory  description  of  the  eye,  and  the  uses  of  its  differ- 
ent  parts. 

The  eyes  are  placed  at  the-side  of  the  head,  yet  a  little  pointing  forward, 
to  give  the  animal  a  more  extended  field  of  vision.  He  needs  this  in  his 
wild  state  to  detect  the  approach  of  his  enemies,  and  it  is  useful  to  him 
when  employed  in  our  service. 

The  eye  is  supported  behind  by  muscles  attached  to  different  parts  of  the 
bony  orbit,  and  it  is  embedded  in  a  vast  mass  of  fat,  upon  which  it  may  be 
readily  moved,  and  without  friction  ;  and  that  fat  being  absorbed  in  sickness 
or  old  age,  the  eye  is  retracted  and  sinks  into  the  orbit. 

In  front,  the  eye  is  supported  and  covered  by  the  lids,  which,  closing 


EXTERNAL    STRUCTURE.  85 

rapidly,  protoct  it  from  many  an  injury  that  tlircatens ;— supply  it  witi? 
that  moisture  which  is  necessary  to  preserve  its  transparency  ;  in  tne 
momentary  act  of  closing,  they  give  a  certain  and  sufficient  respite  to  a  del- 
icate organ,  which  would  otherwise  be  fatigued  and  worn  out,  by  the  con- 
stant glare  of  day  ;  when  the  eye  labours  under  inflammation,  defend  it  from 
the  stimulus  of  light;  and,  gradually  drooping,  permit  the  animal  to  enjoy 
that  repose  which  nature  requires. 

Extending  round  both  lids,  and,  it  may  be  almost  said,  having  neither 
origin  nor  insertion,  is  a  muscle  called  the  orbicularis,  or  circular  muscle. 
Its  office  is  to  close  the  lids  in  the  act  of  winking  or  otherwise,  but  only 
while  the  animal  is  awake.  "When  he  sleeps,  this  is  elTected  by  another  and 
very  ingenious  mechanism,  for  no  voluntary  muscle  will  continue  in  action 
during  sleep.  The  natural  state  of  the  eyelids  is  tiiatof  being  closed  ;  and 
they  are  kept  open  by  the  energy  of  the  muscles,  whose  office  it  is  to  raise 
the  upper  lid.  As  sleep  steals  upon  the  animal,  these  muscles  cease  to  act, 
and  the  lids  close  by  the  inherent  elasticity  of  the  membrane  of  which  they 
are  composed. 

Tlie  skin  of  the  lid  is,  like  that  of  the  ear,  exceedingly  fine,  to  prevent 
unnecessary  weight  and  pressure  on  such  a  part,  and  to  give  more  easy  and 
extensive  motion.  The  lids  close  accurately  when  drawn  over  the  eye,  and 
this  is  effected  by  a  little  strip  of  cartilage,  at  the  edge  of  each  of  them, 
which  may  be  easily  felt  with  the  finger,  and  which  preserves  them  in  a 
hoop-like  form,  and  adapts  them  closely  to  the  eye  and  to  each  other.  The 
lower  cartilage,  however,  does  not,  as  a  moment's  observation  will  show, 
present  towaixls  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  the  whole  of  its  flat  surface  to 
the  upper,  but  it  evidently  slopes  inward,  and  only  the  outer  edge  of  the 
under  lid  touches  the  upper,  and,  by  this  means,  a  little  gutter  is  formed,  by 
which  the  superfluous  moisture  of  the  eye  flows  to  the  inner  corner,  where 
there  is  a  canal  to  convey  it  away,  and  therefore  it  neither  accumulates  in 
the  eye,  nor  unpleasantly  runs  down  the  cheek. 

Along  the  edges  of  the  lids  are  placed  numerous  little  hollows,  which 
can  be  plainly  distinguished  even  in  the  living  horse  by  slightly  turning 
down  the  lid.  These  are  the  openings  into  numerous  small  cells,  containing 
a  thick  and  unctuous  fluid,  by  means  of  which  the  eyes  are  more  accu- 
ralely  closed,  and  the  edges  of  the  lids  defended  from  the  acrimony  of  the 
tears. 

The  horse  has  no  eyehrotvs,  and  the  eye/ashes  are  very  peculiarly  ar. 
ranged.  The  rows  of  liair  are  longest  and  most  numerous  on  the  upper  lid, 
and  especially  towards  the  outer  or  temporal  corner,  because  the  light 
comes  from  above ;  and,  as  the  animal  stands,  and  particularly  when  he  is 
grazing,  and  from  the  lateral  situation  of  his  eyes,  the  greater  portion  of  the 
light,  and  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  the  rolling  down  of  moisture,  would 
ciiiefly  be  from  the  outside  or  temples.  Towards  the  inner  corner  of 
the  eye  there  is  little  or  no  eyelash,  because  there  is  no  probable  danger  or 
nuisance  in  that  direction.  Only  a  small  quantity  of  light  can  enter  from 
below,  and  therefore  the  lashes  are  thin  and  short ;  but  as,  in  the  act  of 
grazing,  insects  may  more  readily  climb  up  and  be  troublesome  to  the  eye, 
towards  the  inner  angle,  there  the  principal  or  only  hair  is  found  on  the 
lower  lid.  These  apparently  trifling  circumstances  will  not  be  overlocked 
by  the  careful  observer. 

They  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  absurdities  of  stable  management, 
or  who  have  not  carefully  examined  the  abuses  which  may  exist  in  their 
own  establishments,  can  scarcely  conceive  the  foolish  and  cruel  practices 
of  some  carters  and  grooms.      We  know  that  when  the  groom  is  anxious 


86  THE  HORSE. 

that  his  horse  should  bo  as  neat  and  trim  all  over  as  art  can  n.ake  him,  tlie 
very  eye-lashes  are  generally  sacrificed.  What  has  the  poor  animal  suf- 
fered, when,  travelling  in  the  noon  of  day,  the  full  blaze  of  the  sun  has 
fallen  upon  his  eyes !  and  how  many  accidents  have  probably  happened, 
from  his  being  dazzled  by  the  light,  but  which  have  been  attributed  to  other 
causes. 

If  the  horse  has  no  eyebrow,  there  are  several  hairs  or  bristles  scattered 
on  the  upper  eyelid,  and  there  is  a  projecting  fold  of  the  lid  which  dis- 
charges nearly  the  same  office.  It  is  more  conspicuous  in  old  horses  than  in 
young  ones.  Some  horsemen  do  not  like  to  see  it,  and  associate  the  idea 
of  it  with  weakness  or  disease  of  the  eye.  This  is  perfectly  erroneous.  It 
i'^  a  provision  of  nature  to  accomplish  a  certain  purpose,  and  has  nothing  to 
do  either  with  health  or  disease. 

On  the  lower  lid  is  a  useful  provision  to  warn  the  horse  of  the  near 
approach  of  any  object  that  might  incommode  or  injure  him,  in  the  form  of 
long  projecting  hairs  or  bristles,  and  which  are  plenteously  embued  with 
nervous  influence,  so  that  the  slightest  touch  shall  put  the  animal  on  his 
guard.  We  would  request  any  of  our  readers,  by  whom  the  experiment 
never  has  been  made,  to  toucli  very  slightly  the  extremity  of  one  of  these 
hairs.  They  will  be  surprised  to  observe  the  sudden  convulsive  twitching 
of  the  lid,  rendering  the  attack  of  the  inseci| absolutely  impossible.  Those 
ignorant  grooms,  however,  who  cut  away  the  eye-lashes,  do  not  spare  these 
useful  feelers. 

The  eye  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  aii',  and  the  process 
of  evaporation,  destructive  of  its  transpai'ency,  is  continually  going  on. 
The  eye  of  the  horse,  or  the  visible  part  of  the  eye,  is,  likewise,  more 
prominent  and  larger  than  in  the  human  being,  and  the  animal  is  often  sub- 
ject to  extreme  annoyance  from  dust  and  insects,  while  he  has  no  hands  or 
other  guard  to  defend  himself  from  the  torture  which  they  occasion.  Wliat 
is  the  provision  of  nature  against  this  ?  Under  the  lid,  and  a  little  within  the 
outer  corner  of  the  upper  lid,  is  a  large  irregular  body,  the  lachrymal  gland, 
comparatively  larger  than  in  the  human  being,  secreting  an  aqueous  fluid, 
and  which  fluid  slowly  issuing  out  from  the  gland,  and,  more  especially, 
pressed  out  of  it  by  the  act  of  winking,  flows  over  the  eye,  supplies  it  with 
moisture,  and  washes  off*  ail  impurities.  Human  ingenuity  could  not  have 
selected  a  situation  from  which  the  fluid  could  be  conveyed  over  the  eye 
«vith  more  advantage  for  this  purpose. 

When  this  fluid  is  secreted  in  an  undue  quantity,  and  flows  over  the  eye, 
it  is  called  tears.  An  increased  flow  of  tears  is  produced  by  any  thing  that 
irritates  the  eye,  and,  therefore,  a  constant  accompaniment  and  symptom  of 
inflammation.  A  horse  with  any  degree  of  weeping,  or  the  flowing  of  the 
tears  down  the  cheek,  should  be  regarded  with  much  suspicion.  In  the 
human  being  an  unusual  secretion  of  tears  is  often  caused  by  bodily  pain, 
and  emotions  of  the  mind  ;  and  so  it  is  occasionally  in  the  horse.  We  have 
seen  it  repeatedly,  under  acute  pain  or  brutal  usage.  John  Lawrence, 
speaking  of  the  cruelty  exercised  (and  we  know  still  too  often  exercised) 
by  some  dealers,  in  what  they  call  "  firing"  a  horse  before  he  is  led  out  for 
sale,  in  order  to  arouse  every  spark  of  mettle,  says  :  "  More  than  fifty  years 
have  passed  away,  and  I  have  before  my  eyes  a  poor  mare  stone  blind, 
exquisitely  shaped,  and  showing  all  the  marks  of  higli  blood,  whom  I  saw 
unmercifully  cut  with  a  whip  a  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  sale,  to  bring 
her  to  the  use  of  her  stiflened  limbs,  zckile  the  tears  zvere  Irlclding  down 
her  cheeks." 

Having  passe(f  over  the  eye,  the  fluid  is  conveyed  by  the  little  canal  of 


EXTERNAL   STRUCTURE.  S"/ 

vrhivu  .ve  liave  spoken,  formed  by  the  sloping  of  the  under  lid,  towards  the 
cornel  of  the  eye  ;  and  there  are  two  little  orifices,  that  conduct  it  to  a 
small  leservoir  within,  and  at  the  upper  part  of  the  lachrymal  bone,  (fig  i, 
p.  d6).  A  little  protuberance  of  black  or  pied  colour,  called  the  caruncle, 
placed  in  the  very  corner  of  the  eye,  and  to  be  seen  without  opening  the 
lids,  IS  situated  between  these  orifices,  and  guides  the  fluid  into  them. 
From  this  reservoir  the  tears  are  conveyed  by  a  long  canal,  the  lachrymal 
duct,  partly  bony  and  partly  membranous,  to  the  lower  part  of  the  nose. 
A  little  within  the  nostril,  and  on  the  division  between  the  nostrils,  is  seen 
the  lower  opening  of  this  canal ;  the  situation  of  which  our  readers  should 
carefully  mark,  and  bear  in  mind  its  real  use,  for  not  only  horsemen,  but 
even  some  careless  veterinary  surgeons,  have  mistaken  it  for  a  glanderous 
ulcer,  and  have  condemned  a  useful  and  valuable  animal.  It  is  found  just 
before  the  skin  of  the  muzzle  terminates  and  the  more  delicate  membrane 
of  the  nostril  commences.  The  opening  of  the  canal  is  placed  thus  low 
because  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and  would  be 
irritated  and  made  sore  by  the  frequent  or  constant  running  down  of  the 
tears. 

This  canal  is  sometimes  obstructed  in  the  human  being,  and  the  reservoir 
is  distended  and  bursts  ;  an  ulcer  is  then  formed,  very  difficult  to  heal,  and 
only  healed  by  a  metal  style  or  pin,  penetrating  into  the  duct,  being  worn 
for  a  considerable  time.  Fortunately  the  lachrymal  duct  is  rarely  obstructed 
m  the  horse,  for,  if  it  were,  and  ulceration  were  to  follow,  no  mechanical 
contrivance  could  retain  the  style  or  pin  in  its  place.  The  dog  is  subject 
to  obstructions  of  this  canal,  and  the  ulcer  formed  by  the  bursting  of  the 
sac  is  never  healed. 

There  is,  however,  something  yet  wanting.  We  have  a  provision  for 
supplying  the  eye  with  requisite  moisture,  and  for  washing  from  off  the 
transparent  part  of  it  insects  or  dust  which  may  annoy  the  animal.  What 
becomes  of  these  impurities  when  thus  washed  off?  Are  they  carried  by 
the  tears  to  the  corner  of  the  eye,  and  so  pass  down  this  duct,  and  irritate 
and  obstruct  it ;  or  do  they  accumulate  at  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye  ? 
There  is  a  beautiful  contrivance  for  disposing  of  them  as  fast  as  they 
enter  the  eye.  Concealed  within  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  or  only 
the  margin  of  it,  black  or  pied,  visible,  is  a  triangular-shaped  cartilage, 
the  haw,  with  its  broad  part  before.  It  is  concave  within,  exactly  to 
suit  the  globe  of  the  eye ;  and  it  is  convex  without,  accurately  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  membrane  lining  the  lid;  and  tlie  base  of  it  is  reduced  to  a 
thin  or  almost  sharp  edge.  At  the  will  of  the  animal  this  is  suddenly  pro- 
truded from  its  hiding-place,  passes  rapidly  over  the  eye,  and  shovels  up 
every  nuisance  mixed  with  the  tears,  and  then,  being  speedily  drawn  back, 
the  dust  or  insect  is  wiped  off  as  the  cartilage  again  passes  under  tiie 
corner  of  the  eye. 

How  is  this  managed  ?  This  cartilage  has  no  muscle  attached  to  it,  and 
the  limbs,  and  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  when  put  in  motion  by  tlie 
influence  of  the  will,  are  moved  invariably  by  muscles.  The  mechanism 
is  simple  and  effectual.  There  is  a  great  mass  of  fat  at  the  back  of  tiie  pye, 
that  the  eye  may  be  easily  moved  ;  and  this  fat  is  particularly  accumulnted 
about  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  and  beneath,  and  at  the  point  of  this  car- 
tilage. The  eye  of  the  horse  has  likewise  very  strong  muscles  attached 
to  :%  and  one,  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  of  extraordinary  power,  and  by 
whose  aid,  if  the  animal  has  not  hands  to  ward  off  a  danger  that  threatens, 
he  is  at  least  enabled  to  draw  the  eye  back  almost  out  of  the  reach  of  tliat 
danger. 


SS  THE   HORSE. 

Dust,  or  gravel,  or  insects  shall  have  entered  the  eye,  and  annoy  the 
horse.  This  peculiar  muscle  suddenly  acts.  The  eye  is  forcibly  drawn 
back,  and  presses  upon  the  fatty  matter.  That  may  be  displaced,  but  can- 
not be  squeezed  into  less  compass.  It  is  forced  violently  towards  the  inner 
corner  of  the  eye,  and  it  drives  before  it  tlio  haw  ;  and  the  haw  having  like- 
wise some  fat  about  the  point  of  it,  and  being  placed  between  the  eye  and 
an  exceedingly  smooth  and  polished  bone,  and  being  pressed  upon  by  the 
eye  as  it  is  violently  drawn  back,  shoots  out  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning, 
and,  guided  by  the  eyelids,  projects  over  the  eye,  and  thus  carries  olf  the 
offending  matter. 

In  what  way  shall  we  draw  the  haw  back  again  without  muscular  action  1 
Another  principle  is  called  into  play,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken, 
and  of  which  we  shall  have  much  to  say,  elasticity.  It  is  that  principle  by 
which  a  body  yields  to  a  certain  force  impressed  upon  it,  and  returns  to  its 
former  state  as  soon  as  that  force  is  removed.  It  is  that  by  which  the  liga- 
ment of  the  neck  (p.  68),  while  it  supports  the  head,  enables  the  horse  to 
graze, — by  which  tlie  heart  expands  after  closing  on  and  propelling  forward 
llie  blood  in  its  ventricles — by  which  the  artery  contracts  on  the  blood  thai 
has  distended  ft,  and  by  which  many  of  the  most  important  functions  of  life 
are  influenced  or  governed.  This  muscle  ceases  to  act.  The  eye  resumes 
its  natural  situation  in  the  orbit.  There  is  room  for  the  fatty  matter  to  return 
to  its  place,  and  it  immediately  returns  by  the  elasticity  of  the  membrane 
by  which  it  is  covered  ;  and  it  draws  after  it  this  cartilage  with  which  it 
is  connected,  and  the  return  is  as  rapid  as  the  projection. 

The  old  farriers  strangely  misunderstood  the  nature  and  design  of  the 
haw,  and  many  of  the  present  day  do  not  seem  to  be  much  better  informed. 
When  from  sympathy  with  other  parts  of  the  eye  labouring  under  inflam 
mation,  and  becoming  itself  inflamed,  and  increased  in  bulk,  and  the  neigh 
bouring  parts  likewise  thickened,  it  was  either  forced  out  of  its  place,  or 
voluntarily  protruded  to  defend  the  eye  fmn  the  action  of  light,  and  could 
not  return,  they  mistook  it  for  some  injurious  excrescence  or  tumour,  and 
proceeded  to  cut  it  out.  The  ^'■haw  in  the  eyes,''  is  a  disease  well  known 
to  the  majority  of  grooms,  and  this  sad  remedy  for  it  is  deemed  the  on'v 
cure.  It  is  a  barbarous  practice,  and  if  they  were  compelled  to  walk  half 
a  dozen  miles  in  a  thick  dust,  and  without  being  permitted  to  wipe  or  to 
cleanse  the  eye,  they  would  feel  the  torture  to  which  they  doom  this  noble 
animal,  when  afterwards  employed  in  their  service.  A  little  patience  having 
been  exercised,  and  a  few  cooling  applications  made  to  the  eye  while  the 
inflammation  lasted,  and,  afterwards,  some  mild  astringent  ones,  and  other 
proper  ineans  employed,  the  tumour  would  have  disappeared,  the  haw 
would  have  returned  to  its  place,  and  the  animal  would  iiave  discharged  the 
duties  required  of  him,  without  inconvenience  to  himself,  instead  of  the 
agony  to  which  an  unguarded  and  unprotected  eye  must  frequently  expose 
him. 

The  loss  of  blood  occasioned  by  the  cutting  out  of  the  haw  may  fre- 
quently relieve  the  inflammation  of  the  eye  ;  and  the  evident  amendment 
which  follows,  induces  these  wise  men  to  believe  that  they  have  performed 
an  excellent  operation  ;  but  the  same  loss  of  blood,  by  scarification  of  the 
overloaded  vessels  of  the  conjunctiva,  would  be  equally  beneficial,  and  the 
animal  would  not  be  deprived  of  an  instrument  of  admirable  use  to  him. 

The  eye  is  of  a  globular  figure,  yet  not  a  perfect  globe.  It  is  rather 
composed  of  parts  of  two  globes.  The  half  of  the  one,  f,  smaller  and 
transparent  in  front,  and  of  the  other,  p,  larger,  and  the  coat  of  it  opaque 
behind.     We  shall  most  conveniently  begin  with  the  coats  of  the  eye. 


EXTERNAL  SUBSTANCE. 


89 


kB. 


d  e 
f 


h  h 

i 

k 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    EYE, 

WITH    AN    EXPLANATION    OF    THE    PEINCIPAL    ANATOMICAL    TERMS. 

A  supposed  object  viewed  by  the  animal,  and  an  inverted  imag-e  of  which,  a  A 

is  thrown  on  the  retina  at  the  back  of  the  eye. 
Points  where  the  rays,   iiaving-  passed  the  cornea  and  the  lens,  converg     by  the 

refractive  power  of  the  lens. 
Rays  proceedinjr  from  the  extremities  of  the  object  to  the  eye. 
The  cornea,  or  horny  and  transparent  part  of  the  eye,  covered  by  the  conjunctiva, 

uniting-  different  parts  together. 
The  crystalline  (crystal  or  glassy)  lens,  behind  the  pupil,  and  in  front  of  the  vitrooua 

humour. 
Muscles  of  the  eye. 
Optic  nerve,  or  nerve  of  sight. 
The  sclerotica  (hard  firm  coat)  covering  the  whole  of  the  eye,  except  the  portion  occu 

pied  by  the  cornea,  and  being-  a  seeming  prolongation  of  the  covering  of  thi 

optic  nerve. 
Tlic  choroides  (receptacle  or  covering),  or  choroid  coat,  covered  with  a  black  secro 

tion  or  paint. 
The  iris,  or  rainbow-coloured  circular  membrane,  under  the  cornea,  in  front  of  th<i 

eye;  and  on  which  the  colour  of  the  eye  depends.     The  duplicature  behind  is  the 

urea,  from  beinsr  coloured  like  a  grape.     The  opening  in  tlie  centre  is  the  pupil. 
The  ciliary  (hair-like)  processes. 
The  retina,  or  net-like  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  spread  over  the  whole  of  the 

choroides  as  far  as  the  lens. 
The  vitreous  (glass-like)  humour  filling  the  whole  of  the  cavity  of  the  eye  behind 

the  lens. 
The  aqueous  (water-like)  humour  filling  the  space  between  the  cornea  and  the  lens 


The  conjitdha,  f,  is  that  membrane  which  lines  the  lids,  and  covers  tha 
fore  part  of  the  eye.  it  covers  all  that  we  can  see  or  feel  of  the  eye,  and 
even  its  transparent  part.  It  is  itself  transparent,  and  transmits  the  colour 
of  the  parts  beneath.  It  is  very  susceptible  of  inflammation,  during  which 
the  lining  of  the  lid  will  become  intensely  red,  and  the  white  of  the  eye  will 
be  first  streaked  with  red  vessels,  and  then  covered  with  a  complete  mesh 
of  them,  and  the  cornea  will  become  cloudy  and  opaque.  It  is  the  seat  of 
various  diseases,  and  particularly  in  it  commences  the  sad  inflammation  of 
the  horse's  eye,  which  bids  defiance  to  the  veterinary  surgeon's  skill,  and, 
almost  invariably,  terminates  in  blindness. 

The  examination  of  the  conjunctiva,  by  turning  down  the  lid,  will  enable 
us  to  form  an  accurate  judgment  of  the  degree  of  inflammation  which  exists 
in  the  eye.  Horsemen  and  farriers,  however,  seem  to  think  that  it  likewise 
indicates  the  degree  of  inflammation  in  almost  every  other  part,  or,  at  least, 
of  the  general  fever  which  may  accompany  local  inflammation.  There  is 
a  part  which  much  more  clearly  indicateo  mis,  and  especially  if  the  general 
disturbance  be  accompanied  or  produced  by  any  affection  of  the  lungs — a 


90  THE  HORSE. 

part  which  will  rarely  deceive,  and  which  is  more  easily  got  at,  viz :  the 
membrane  lining  the  nose.  If  the  edge  of  the  nostril  be  lifted  up,  the 
colour  of  liie  nostril  will  faithfully  indicate  the  degree  of  chest  aflection,  and 
of  general  inflammation  or  fever. 

Covering  the  back  part  of  tlie  eye,  and,  indeed,  four-fifths  of  the  globe 
of  the  oyc,  is  the  sclerotica,  k.  It  is  an  exceedingly  strong  membrane, 
composed  of  fibres  interweaving  with  each  otber,  and  almost  defying  the 
jjussibility  of  separation.  An  organ  so  important  and  delicate  as  the  eye, 
V2(.juircs  secure  protection. 

This  is  a  highly  elastic  membrane.  It  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  so, 
u  hen  \vc  consider  that  the  eye  is  surrounded  bv  several,  and  very  power- 
ful  muscles,  which  must  temporarily,  and  even  for  the  |)urposes  of  vision, 
alter  its  shape.  The  elasticity  of  the  sclerotica  is  usefully  e.xliibited  by  its 
causing  the  globe  of  the  eye  to  resume  its  former  and  natural  shape,  as  soon 
as  the  action  of  the  muscle  ceases. 

The  sclerotica  has  very  few  blood-vessels;  is  scarcely  sensible;  and  its 
diseases,  except  when  it  participates  in  general  disturbance  or  disorganiza. 
tion,  are  rarely  brought  under  our  notice.  We  therefore  pass  on  to  the 
"ornea. 

The  cornea  is,  or  we  should  wish  it  to  be,  the  only  visible  part  of  the 
horse's  eye,  for  we  repeat,  that  the  exhibition  of  much  white  about  it  is  a 
symptom  of  wickedness.  The  cornea  fills  up  the  vacuity  which  is  left  by 
the  sclerotica,  in  the  fore  part  of  the  eye,  and  although  closely  united  to 
the  sclerotica,  may  be  separated  from  it,  and  will  drop  out  like  a  watch- 
glass.  It  is  not  round,  but  wider  from  side  to  side  than  from  top  to  bot- 
tom ;  and  the  curve  rather  broader  towards  the  inner  than  the  outer  corner 
of  the  eye,  so  that  the  near  eye  may  be  known  from  the  otf,  after  it  is  taken 
from  the  head. 

The  convexity  or  projection  of  the  cornea  is  a  point  of  considerable 
importance.  The  prominence  of  th.e  eye  certainly  adds  much  to  the  beauty 
of  the  animal,  but  we  shall  see  presently,  when  we  consider  the  eye  as  the 
organ  of  sight,  that  by  being  too  prominent,  the  rays  of  light  may  be  ren- 
dered too  convergent,  and  the  vision  indistinct ;  or,  if  the  cornea  be  small 
and  flat,  the  rays  may  not  be  convergent  enough,  and  perfect  vision  de- 
stroyed ;  and  in  either  case,  the  horse  may  unpleasantly  start,  or  suddetdy 
and  dangerously  turn  round.  An  eye  neither  too  prominent  nor  too  flat 
will  be  nearest  to  perfection. 

It  ought  to  be  perfectly  transparent,  and  any  cloudiness  or  opacity  is  the 
consequence  of  disease.  It  is  an  exceedingly  firm  and  dense  mcmbraric, 
and  can  scarcely  be  pierced  by  the  sharpest  instrument.  The  cornea  is 
composed  of  many  different  plates,  laid  over  one  another,  and.  between 
each,  at  least  in  a  state  of  health,  is  a  fluid,  which  is  the  cause  of  its  trans- 
parency ;  and  the  evaporation  of  which,  after  death,  produces  the  leaden  or 
glazed  appearance  of  the  eye.  When  it  appears  to  be  opaque,  it  is  not 
often,  and  never  at  first,  that  the  cornea  is  clianged.  It  is  the  conjunctiva, 
the  membrane  that  spreads  over  it,  that  now  carries  through  its  numerous 
vessels  white  blood  instead  of  tiiat  which  is  perfectly  pellucid  or  clear; 
or  there  is  a  secretion  of  a  milky  fluid,  over  or  through  the  conjunctiva, 
leaving  the  cornea  beneath  unaffected.  If,  however,  the  inflammation  of 
tlie  conjunctiva  continues,  a  thick  fluid  is  at  length  thrown  out,  between 
the  plates  of  the  cornea,  and  the  cloudiness  is  converted  into  pei  feet 
opacity. 

Tliere  is  nothing  whiih  deserves  so  much  attention  from  the  purchaser 
of  a  horse,  as  the  perfect  transparency  of  the  cornea  over  the  whole  of  ita 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  91 

surface.  The  eye  should  be  exiimined  for  this  purpose,  both  in  front  and 
with  the  thee  of  the  examiner  close  to  the  cheek  of  the  horse,  under  and 
behind  the  eye.  The  latter  method  of  looking  through  the  cornea  is  the 
most  satisfactory,  so  far  as  the  transjjarency  of  that  part  of  the  eye  is  con 
cerned.  During  this  examination,  the  horse  should  not  be  in  the  open  air, 
but  in  the  stable,  standing  in  the  door-way  and  a  little  within  the  door. 
If  any  small,  faint,  whitish  lines  appear  to  cross  the  cornea,  or  spread  over 
any  part  of  it,  they  are  assuredly  the  remains  of  previous  inflammation  ;  or, 
although  the  centre  and  bulk  of  the  cornea  should  be  perfectly  clear,  yet 
if  round  the  edge  of  it,  where  it  unites  with  the  sclerotica,  there  should  be 
a  narrow  ring  or  circle  of  haziness,  the  conclusion  is  equally  true,  but  the 
inflammation  occurred  at  a  more  distant  period.  Whether,  however,  the 
inflammation  has  lately  existed,  or  several  weeks  or  months  have  elapsed 
since  it  was  subdued,  there  is  every  probability  that  it  will  recur. 

There  is  one  little  caution  to  be  added.  Tiie  cornea  in  its  natural  state 
is  not  only  a  beautiful  transparent  body,  but  it  reflects,  even  in  proportion 
to  its  transparency,  many  of  the  rays  which  fall  upon  it,  and,  if  there  be  a 
white  object  immediately  before  the  eye,  as  a  very  light  waistcoat  or  much 
display  of  a  wliite  neckcloth,  the  reflection  may  puzzle  an  experienced 
observer,  and  has  misled  the  careless  one.  The  coat  should  be  buttoned 
lip  and  the  white  cravat  carefully  concealed. 

Within  the  sclerotica,  and  connected  with  it  by  innumerable  minute  fibres 
and  vessels,  is  the  choroid  cnaf,  I.  It  is  a  very  delicate  membrane,  and 
extends  over  the  whole  of  tlie  internal  part  of  the  eye,  from  the  optic  nerve 
to  the  cornea.  It  secretes  a  dark-coloured  substance  or  paint,  by  which  it 
is  covei'ed  ;  the  intention  of  which,  like  the  inside  of  our  telescopes  and 
microscopes,  has  been  supposed  to  be,  to  absorb  any  stray  rays  of  light  which 
might  dazzle  and  confuse.  The  black  paint,  pigmenlum  nigrum,  seems  per- 
fectly  to  discharge  this  function  in  the  human  eye.  It  is  placed  immediately 
under  the  retina  or  expansion  of  tiie  optic  nerve.  The  rays  of  light  fall  on 
the  retina,  and,  penetrating  its  delicate  substance,  are  immediately  absorbed 
or  destroyed  by  the  black  covering  of  the  choroides  underneath.  For  the 
perfection  of  many  of  his  best  pleasures,  and  particularly  of  his  intellectual 
powers,  man  wants  the  vivid  impression  which  will  be  caused  by  the 
admission  of  the  rays  of  light  into  a  perfectly  dark  chamber;  and  when  the 
light  of  the  sun  begins  to  fail,  his  superior  intelligence  has  enabled  him  to 
discover  various  methods  of  substituting  an  artificial  day  after  the  natural 
one  has  closed.  Other  animals,  without  this  power  of  kindling  another, 
although  inferior  light,  have  far  more  to  do  with  the  night  than  we  have. 
Many  of  them  sleep  through  the  glare  of  day,  and  awake  and  are  busy 
during  the  period  of  darkness.  Our  servant  the  ox  occupies  some  hours 
of  the  night  in  grazing;  the  sheep  does  so  when  not  folded  in  his  pen; 
and  the  horse,  worked  during  the  day  for  our  convenience  and  profit,  has 
often  little  more  than  the  period  of  night  alloted  to  him  for  nourishment 
and  repose.  Then  it  is  necessary  that,  by  some  peculiar  and  excellent 
contrivance,  these  hours  of  comparative  or  total  darkness  to  us  should 
be  partially,  yet  sufficicntlv,  illuminated  for  them  ;  and,  therefore,  in  the 
norse,  the  dark  brown  or  black  coat  of  the  choroides  does  not  extend  over 
'he  whole  of  the  internal  part  of  the  eye;  or,  rather,  it  is  not  found  on  any 
part  on  which  the  rays  proceeding  from  the  objects  could  fall.  It  is  not 
found  in  any  part  of  what  may  be  called  the  field  of  vision  ;  but,  in  its 
place,  a  bright,  variegated  green  is  spread,  and  more  over  the  upper  part 
than  the  lower,  because  the  animal's  food,  and  the  objects  which  it  is  oi 
consequence  for  him  to  notice,  are  usually  below  the  level  of  his  head 


92  THE  HORSE. 

tlius.  by  suffering  the  impression  to  remain  longer  on  the  retina,  or  bj 
some  portion  of  light  reflected  from  tiiis  variegated  bed  on  which  tho 
retjna  reposes,  or  in  some  other  iiipxplicaijle  but  efficient  way,  enabling  tiie 
animal,  even  m  comparative  darkness,  to  j)ossess  a  power  of  vision  equal  to 
his  wants. 

The  reader  may  see  in  the  dusk,  or  even  when  duskiness  is  fast  yielding 
to  utter  darkness,  the  beautiful  spa-grooii  reflection  from  the  eye  of  the  horse. 
It  is  that  lucid,  variegated  carpet  of  which  we  are  now  speaking. 

Who  is  unaware  that,  in  the  fading  glimmering  of  the  evening,  and  even 
in  the  darker  shades  of  night,  his  horse  can  see  surrounding  objects  miicli 
better  tlian  his  rider?  and  who,  resigning  himself  to  the  guidance  of  tliat 
sagacious  and  faithful  animal,  has  not  been  carried  in  safety  to  his  journey's 
end,  when  he  would  otherwise  have  been  bewildered  ? 

If  our  reader  has  not  seen  this  beautiful  pigment  in  the  eye  of  the  horse, 
we  would  entreat  him  to  take  the  earliest  opportunity  of  examining  it,  and 
he  will  be  convinced  what  care  that  Being,  who  gave  all  things  life,  has 
taken  that  each  shall  be  fitted  for  his  situation.  The  horse  has  not  the 
intelligence  of  man,  and  may  not  want,  for  any  purpose  of  pleasure  or 
improvement,  the  vivid  picture  of  surrounding  objects,  which  the  retina  of 
tiie  human  being  presents.  A  thousand  minute,  but  exquisite,  beauties 
would  be  lost  upon  him.  He  has  not  the  faculty  to  appreciate,  or  to 
profit  by  them.  If,  therefore,  his  sense  of  vision  may  not  be  so  strong 
during  the  day,  it  is  made  up  to  him  by  the  increased  power  of  vision  in 
the  dark. 

Perfectly  white  and  cream-coloured  horses  have  a  peculiar  appearance 
of  the  eyes:  the  pupil  is  red  instead  of  i)lack.  Tliey  have  no  black  paint 
or  brilliant  carpet.  It  is  liie  choroid  coat  itself  whicli  we  see  in  them,  and 
not  its  covering;  and  tiie  red  appearance  is  caused  by  the  numerous  blood- 
vessels which  are  found  on  every  part  of  that  coat. 

When  we  come  to  treat  of  other  domestic  animals,  we  shall  tell  how  this 
carpet  is  varied  in  colour,  to  suit  tiie  situation  and  necessity  of  eacii.  In 
the  ox,  it  is  of  a  dark  green.  He  has  not  many  enemies  to  fear,  nor  much 
(lilTiculty  in  searching  tor  nourishment,  and  the  colour  of  the  eye  is  adapted 
to  his  food.  In  the  cat,  and  all  his  varieties,  it  is  yellow.  We  have  heard 
of  the  eyes  of  the  lion  appearing  like  two  flaming  torches  in  the  night.  It 
is  the  reflection  of  the  little  light  about  him,  concentrated  on  the  yellow 
carpet.  There  are  few  of  our  readers  who  have  not  seen  the  same  singular 
glare  from  the  eyes  of  the  domestic  cat.  In  the  wolf,  and  likewise  in  llie 
dog,  who,  in  his  wild  state,  prowls  chiefly  at  night,  it  is  grey.  In  the  poor, 
unjustly  persecuted  badger,  who  scarcely  dares  to  crawl  forth  at  night, 
although  sheltered  by  the  thickest  darkness,  it  is  white  ;  and  the  ferret,  who 
is  destined  to  hunt  his  prey  through  all  its  winding  retreats,  and  in  what 
would  be  to  us  absolute  darkness,  has  no  paint  on  the  choroides. 

Tracing  the  choroides  towards  the  fore  part  of  the  eye,  we  perceive  that 
it  is  reflected  from  the  side  to  the  edge  of  the  lens,  n,  and  has  the  appear, 
ance  of  several  plaits  or  folds:  they  are  actually  foldings  of  the  membrane. 
It  i3  not  diminished  in  size,  but  it  has  less  space  to  cover,  and,  therefore, 
there  nmst  be  these  duplicatures  or  plaits:  they  are  very  usefully  employed 
in  the  place  in  which  we  find  them:  they  prevent  the  passage  of  any  ravs 
of  light  on  the  outside  of  the  lens,  and  win'ch,  proceeding  forward  in  various 
directions,  and  uncondensed  by  the  power  of  the  lens,  would  render  vision 
confused  or  imperfect.  These  folds  of  the  choroides  are  called  the  ciliary 
processes. 

Of  ihe  last  and  innermost  coat  of  the  eye,  the  retina,  for  which  all  the 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  93 

otliei's  were  constructed,  we  shall  be  better  able  to  speak  whcr-  we  liave 
explained  the  contents  of"  the  eye. 

Within  the  cornea,  and  occupying  the  fore  part  of"  the  eye,  is  the  aqaeouit 
humour,  p,  so  termed  from  its  resemblance  to  pure  water.  It  is  tiiat  by 
which  the  cornea  is  preserved  in  its  protuberant  and  rounded  form.  It 
extends  to  the  crystalline  lens,  q,  and  therefore  a  portion  of  it,  although  a 
very  small  one,  is  behind  the  iris  (m,  p.  89).  Floating  in  this  fluid  is  a  mem- 
brane, with  an  oblong  aperture,  called  the  iris.  It  is  that  whicli  givca 
colour  to  the  eye.  The  human  eye  is  said  to  be  black,  or  iiazel,  or  blue, 
according  to  the  colour  of  this  membrane  or  curtain  ;  and  it  is  called  the 
iris,  or  rainbow,  from  its  beautiful  intermingling  hues.  The  colour  varies 
but  little  in  the  horse,  and  always  bears  some  analogy  to  that  of  the  skin. 
We  rarely  see  it  lighter  than  a  hazel  or  darker  than  a  brown.  The  spark- 
ling black  of  the  human  being  is  never  found.  Horses  perfectly  white,  or 
cream-coloured,  have  the  iris  white  and  the  pupil  red.  When  horses  of 
other  colours,  which  are  usually  pied,  have  a  white  iris  and  a  black  pupil, 
they  are  said  to  be  wall-eyed.  Vulgar  opinion  has  decided  that  a  wall-eyed 
horse  is  never  subject  to  blindness,  but  this  we  believe  to  be  altogether 
erroneous.  There  is  no  ditrerence  of  structure  which  can  produce  tliis 
exemption ;  but  the  wall-eyed  horse,  from  this  singular  and  unpleasant 
appearance,  and  his  frequent  want  of  breeding,  may  not  be  exposed  to  many 
of  the  usual  causes  of  inflammation. 

The  aperture  in  the  iris  is  termed  the  pupil,  and  through  it  light  passes 
to  the  inner  chamber  of  the  eye.  The  pupil  is  oblong,  and  variable  in  size. 
It  varies  with  tiie  intensity  or  degree  of  light  which  falls  upon  the  eye.  In 
a  dark  stable,  the  pupil  is  expanded  to  admit  a  great  proportion  of  the  light 
which  falls  upon  the  cornea ;  but  when  the  horse  is  brought  towards  the 
door  of  the  stable,  and  more  light  is  thrown  upon  the  eye,  the  pupil  con- 
tracts,  in  order  to  keep  out  that  extra  quantity  which  would  be  painful  to 
the  animal  and  injurious  to  vision.  When  opposed  directly  to  the  sun,  the 
aperture  will  almost  close. 

This  alteration  of  form  in  the  pupil  is  effected  by  the  muscular  fibres 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  iris.  When  these  fibres  contract, 
it  is  plain  that  the  pupil  must  enlarge.  The  membrane  itself  must  be  drawn 
into  less  compass,  and  therefore  tlie  aperture  in  the  centre  must  be  greater. 
When  the  fibres  are  relaxed,  the  pupil  must  proportioiiably  diminish.  The 
motions  of  the  iris  are  not  at  all  under  the  control  of  the  will,  nor  is  the  ani- 
mal sensible  of  them:  they  are  produced  by  sympathy  with  the  state  of  the 
retina.  When  a  quantity  of  light,  sufficient  to  dazzle  or  give  pam,  falls 
upon  the  retina,  it  is  exhausted  ;  the  fibres  of  the  iris  sympathize  with  it, 
and  relax,  and  the  curtain  falls.  When  a  deficient  portion  of  light  reaches 
the  retina,  and  vision  is  indistinct,  we  are  conscious  of  an  apparent  effort  to 
bring  the  object  clearly  into  view;  the  fibres  then  contract,  and  the  aper- 
ture enlarges,  and  more  liglit  is  admitted. 

This  dilatation  or  contraction  of  tiie  pupil  gives  a  useful  method  of 
ascertaining  the  existence  of  blindness  in  one  eye  or  in  both.  There  is  a 
description  of  blindness,  which  a  close  examination  of  the  eye,  even  by 
a  person  accustomed  to  horses,  will  not  always  detect.  The  cornea  and 
crystalline  lens  remain  perfectly  transparent,  but  the  retina  is  palsied,  and 
is  not  affected  by  light;  and  good  judges  have  been  deceived  when  ijlind- 
ness  of  this  description  has  been  confined  to  one  eye.  A  horse  blind  in 
boch  eyes  will  usually  have  his  ears  in  constant  and  rapid  motion,  directing 
tliom  in  quick  succession  to  every  quarter;  he  will  likewise  hang  back  in 
lis  halter  in  a  peculiar  way ;  and  will  lift  his  feet  high,  as  if  he  were  stepping 


94  THE  HORSE. 

Dvcr  some  obstacle,  when  there  is  actually  nothing  to  obstruct  his  passage; 
•ami  there  will  be  an  evident  uncertainty  in  tlie  putting  down  of  his  teet : 
•hese  things,  however,  have  been  overlooked  by  tiie  careless  and  inexpert, 
and  a  blind  horse  has  been  bought  as  a  sound  one.  In  blindness  of  one 
eye,  little  or  nothing  of  tiiis  characteristic  gait  or  manner  can  be  perceived  ; 
yet,  although  a  one-eyed  horse  may  not  be  absolutely  condemned  for  the 
common  business  of  the  carriage  or  the  road,  he  is  generally  worthless  as 
a  hunter,  for  he  cannot  measure  his  distances,  an<l  will  run  into  his  leaps.* 
Many  a  sportsman,  puzzled  and  angry  at  the  sudden  blundering  of  his 
horse,  or  injured  by  one  or  more  stunning  falls,  have  found  a  very  natural, 
although  unexpected  explanation  of  it  in  the  blindness  of  one  eye,  and  that 
perhaps  produced  through  his  own  fault,  by  overriding  his  willing  and  valu- 
able beast,  and  causing  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  eye,  wbich  proveil 
fatal  to  the  delicate  texture  of  the  retina.  Even  for  the  carriage  or  the  road, 
he  is,  however,  sadly  deteriorated  ;  for,  his  eyes  being  placed  laterally,  his 
field  of  observation  must  be  materially  lessened. 

Let  the  size  of  both  pupils  be  carefully  noticed  before  the  horse  is  removed 
from  the  stable ;  and,  as  he  is  led  to  the  door,  observe  whether  they  both 
contract,  and  equally  so,  with  the  increase  of  light.  If  the  horse  should  be 
first  seen  in  the  open  air,  let  it  be  observed  whether  the  pupils  are  precisely 
of  the  same  .size  ;  then  let  the  hand  be  placed  over  each  eye  alternately, 
and  held  there  for  a  little  while,  and  let  it  be  observed  whether  the  pupil 
dilates  with  the  abstraction  of  light,  and  equally  dilates  in  each  eye. 

Hanging  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  pupil  of  the  horse,  are  found  two  or 
three  round  black  bodies,  as  large  as  millet-seeds.  When  the  horse  is  sud- 
denly  brought  into  an  intense  light,  and  the  pupil  is  closed,  these  bodies 
present  a  singular  appearance,  being  squeezed  out  from  between  the  edges 
of  the  iris.  An  equal  number,  but  much  smaller,  are  attached  to  the  edge 
of  the  lower  portion  of  the  iris.  Their  general  use  is  probably  to  intercept 
portions  of  light  which  would  be  troublesome  or  injurious;  but  their  prin- 
cipal function  is  accomplished  during  the  act  of  grazing.  They  are  larger 
on  the  upper  edge  of  the  iris,  and  are  placed  on  the  outer  side  of  the  pupil, 
evidently  to  discharge  the  same  function  which  we  have  attributed  to  the 
eyelashes,  to  obstruct  the  light  in  those  directions  in  which  it  would  come 
with  greatest  force,  both  from  above  and  even  from  below,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  field  of  view  is  perfectly  open,  so  far  as  it  regards  the  pasture  on 
which  the  horse  is  grazing. 

Our  cut,  m,  gives  a  duplicature  of  the  iris,  or  the  back  surface  of  it. 
This  is  called  the  uvea,  and  it  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  black  mucus, 
to  arrest  the  rays  of  light,  and  to  prevent  them  from  entering  the  eye  in 
any  other  way  than  through  the  pupil.  The  colour  of  the  iris  is,  in  some 
uid<nov/n  way,  connected  with  this  black  paint  behind.  Wall-eyed  horseSj 
whose  iris  is  white,  have  no  uvea. 

We  now  arrive  at  a  body  on  which  all  the  important  uses  of  the  eye 
mainly  depend,  the  crystalline  lens,  g,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a 
piece  of  crystal  or  transparent  glass.  It  is  of  a  thick  jelly-like  consistence, 
thicker  and  firmer  towards  the  centre,  and  convex  on  each  side,  but  more 

*  Mr.  W.  Percivall,  however,  in  his  excellent  "  Lectures  on  Veterinary  An,"  vol.  iii. 
p.  201,  says  : — "  The  loss  of  one  eye  does  not  enfeeble  sight,  because  the  other  acquires 
g-reaier  enerery,  though  it  nuuli  contracts  tlie  field  of  vision.  It  is  said  to  render  the 
conception  erring;  and  the  ca.^c  of  mis-judgment  of  di.-tances  is  the  one  commonly 
brought  forward  to  show  this.  All  I  can  say  on  this  point  is,  that  tlie  best  hunter  I  ever 
possessed — a  horse  gifted  with  extraordinary  powers  for  leaping — was  a  one-eyed  hor^e; 
and  this  animal  carried  me  through  a  hunting  season,  without  to  my  recollection  makinp 
one  single  blunder  in  leaping." 


EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE.  93 

convex  on  the  inner  than  the  outer  side.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  deliciite  tran.s 
parent  bag  or  capsule,  and  is  placed  between  the  aqueous  and  the  vitreous 
humours,  and  received  into  a  hollow  in  the  vitreous  humour  with  which  it 
exactly  corresponds.  It  has,  from  its  density,  and  its  double  convexity, 
the  chief  concern  in  conveying  the  rays  of  light  which  pass  into  the  pupil. 

The  lens  is  very  apt  to  be  affected  from  long  or  violent  inflammation  of 
the  conjunctiva,  and  either  its  capsule  becomes  cloudy,  and  imperfectly 
transmits  the  light,  or  the  substance  of  the  lens  becomes  opaque.  The 
examination  of  the  horse,  with  a  view  to  detect  this,  must  either  be  in  the 
shade,  or  at  a  stable-door,  where  the  light  shall  fall  on  the  horse  from 
above  and  in  front;  and  in  conducting  this  examination  we  would  more 
particularly  caution  the  intended  purchaser  against  a  superfluity  of  white 
about  his  neck.  Holding  the  head  of  the  horse  a  little  up,  and  the  light 
coming  in  the  direction  which  we  have  described,  the  condition  of  the  lens 
will  at  once  be  evident.  The  confirmed  cataract,  or  the  opaque  lens  of 
long  standing,  will  exhibit  a  pearly  appearance,  which  cannot  be  mistaken, 
and  will  frequently  be  attended  with  a  change  of  form,  a  portion  of  the  lens 
being  forced  forwards  into  the  pupil.  Although  the  disease  may  not  have 
proceeded  as  far  as  this,  yet  if  tiiere  be  the  slightest  cloudiness  of  the  lens, 
either  generally,  or  in  the  form  of  a  minute  spot  in  the  centre,  and  with  or 
without  lines  radiating  from  that  spot,  the  horse  is  to  be  condemned;  for  in 
ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  the  disease  will  proceed,  and  cataract, 
or  complete  opacity  of  the  lens,  and  absolute  blindness,  will  be  the  result. 

Cataract  in  the  human  being  may,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  be 
remedied.  The  opaque  lens  may  be  extracted,  or  it  may  be  forced  into 
the  vitreous  liumours,  and  there  existing  as  a  foreign  body  it  will  soon  be 
absorbed  and  disappear.  Tiiese  operations  are  impossible  in  the  horse,  for 
in  the  first  place  there  is  a  muscle  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
to  be  presently  described,  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  and  of  such  power  as 
generally  to  draw  back  the  eye  too  far  into  its  socket  for  the  surgeon  co  be 
enabled  to  make  his  incision  ;  and,  could  the  incision  be  made,  the  action 
of  this  muscle  would  force  out  the  greater  part  of  the  contents  of  the  eye, 
and  this  organ  would  almost  waste  away.  If,  however,  the  opaque  lens 
could  be  withdrawn  or  depressed,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  were  not 
otherwise  injured,  the  operation  would  be  totally  useless,  for  we  could  not 
make  the  horse  wear  those  spectacles,  whose  converging  power  might 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  the  lens. 

Behind  the  lens,  and  occupying  four-fifths  of  the  cavity  of  the  eye,  is  the 
vitreous  humour  (glassy,  or  resembling  glass).  It  seems,  when  first  taken 
from  the  eye,  to  be  of  the  consistence  of  a  jelly,  of  beautiful  transparency ; 
but  if  it  is  punctured,  a  fluid  escapes  from  it  as  limpid  and  as  thin  as  water, 
and  when  this  has  been  suffered  completely  to  ooze  out,  a  mass  of  mem. 
braneous  bags  or  cells  remains.  The  vitreous  humour  then  consists  of  a 
M'atery  fluid  contained  in  these  cells,  but  the  fluid  and  the  cells  ibrm  a  body 
of  considerably  greater  density  than  the  aqueous  fluid  in  the  front  of  the  eye. 

Last  of  all,  between  the  vitreous  humour  and  the  cJwroid  coat,  is  the  retina, 
0,  or  net-like  membrane.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  substance,  g,  of  the 
opiic  nerve.  When  that  nerve  has  reached  the  back  of  the  eye,  and 
penetrated  through  the  sclerotic  and  choroid  coats,  it  first  enlarges  into  a 
little  white  prominence,  and  from  that  proceed  radiations  or  expansions 
of  nervous  matter,  which  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  choroid  coat,  and 
form  the  third  investment  of  the  eye.  The  membrane  by  which  this 
nervous  nulp  is  supported,  is  so  exceedingly  fine  and  delicate,  that  it  will 
tear  with  the  sliirhtest  touch,  and  break  even  with  its  own  weight.     The 


'JQ 


THE  HORSE. 


mimbrane  and  the  pulp  are  perfectly  transparent  in  the  living  animal.  The 
pupil  appears  to  be  black,  because  in  the  day  lime  it  imperfectly  reflects 
the  colour  of  the  choroid  coat  beneath  ;  in  the  dusk  it  is  greenish,  because, 
tlie  glare  of  day  being  removed,  the  actual  green  of  the  paint  appears. 

On  this  expansion  of  nervous  pulp,  the  rays  of  light  from  sui  rounding 
objects,  condensed  by  the  lens  and  the  humours,  fall,  and  producing  a 
certain  image  corresponding  with  these  objects,  the  animal  is  conscious  of 
their  existence  and  presence. 

Light  consists  of  particles,  which,  proceeding  from  the  sun  or  other 
luminous  bodies,  fall  on  different  objects,  and  being  again  reflected  from 
them,  and  entering  the  eye,  render  these  objects  visible.  If  we  are  in  a 
dark  room,  which  we  know  to  be  filled  with  furniture,  we  see  it  not,  and 
were  it  not  for  our  previous  knowledge  of  it,  or  did  we  not  touch  it,  we 
should  not  be  conscious  of  its  existence  ;  but  if  a  candle  be  brought  into 
the  room,  or  if  one  of  the  shutters  be  opened,  the  light  from  the  candle, 
or  that  admitted  through  the  window,  falls  upon  the  different  articles  of 
furniture,  and  a  portion  of  it  being  reflected  from  them,  and  reflected  in 
every  direction,  some  of  the  light  enters  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  we  see 
the  objects  around  us. 

It  proceeds  from  these  objects  to  us  in  straight  lines,  and  except  it  were 
impeded,  or  driven,  or  drawn  out  of  its  course  by  some  body,  it  would 
continue  to  travel  on  for  ever  in  straight  lines.  It  passes  through  some 
bodies  with  perfect  ease,  as  glass,  and  crystal,  and  water,  but  it  is 
obstructed  in  its  passage  by  others,  as  metals  and  wood.  These  substances 
through  which  it  readily  passes  are  said  to  be  iransjjareni :  those  by  which 
its  course  is  arrested  are  called  opaque.  It  has  an  attraction  for  all  bodies, 
stronger  for  some  than  for  others.  By  the  opaque  body  the  greater  part 
of  it  is  absorbed  ;  and  although  it  passes  through  the  transparent  body,  it 
feels  and  is  affected  by  the  attraction  of  that  body.  It  is  bent  out  of  its 
way,  although  not  detained.  This  is  called  the  refraction  of  liglit ;  and  it 
is  on  the  knowledge  of  this  simple  fact  that  all  our  optical  instruments  are 
constructed,  and  that  we  are  enabled  to  explain  the  wonderful  construction 
of  the  eye. 

This  little  figure  will  make  it  sufficiently  evident.     A  ray  of  liglU,  a, 


shall  fall  on  a  smooth  or  level  piece  of  glass,  in  the  direction  a  h,  and  that 
course,  if  it  were  not  acted  upon  by  the  glass,  it  would  pursue.  But  ex- 
perience  teaches  us  that  it  does  not.  It  no  sooner  enters  the  glass,  than  it 
is  bent  out  of  its  original  course,  and  takes  the  direction  d.  It  had  been 
Acted  upon  by  two  forces,  the  first  impulse  in  the  direction  a  b,  and  t'>« 


THE  EVE.  97 

attraction  of  the  glass,  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  as  it  approached  a, 
and,  obeying  both  forces,  it  took  a  new  path,  y,  between  the  two  forces,  and 
more  towards  a  line,  c,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  glass. 
This  new  path  it  continued  to  pursue,  until  it  had  penetrated  through  the 
glass;  and  then,  being  about  to  quit  the  glass,  it  was  once  more  acted 
upon  by  two  forces; — this  combined  impulse  in  an  oblique  direction,  and 
the  attraction  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  glass  in  a  perpendicular  one  ; — 
and  as  before,  obeying  both,  it  again  traversed  a  new  path,  e,  between  both 
forces,  and  in  a  direction  from  the  perpendicular. 

The  degree  and  kind  of  deviation  from  the  original  line  will  depend  on 
the  difference  in  density  between  the  air  and  the  glass,  or  water,  or  what- 
ever substance  may  be  used,  and  likewise  on  the  surface  of  the  refracting 
body.  Passing  through  a  transparent  substance,  with  a  plain  and  level 
surface  above  and  below,  the  rays  will  be  bent  out  of  their  first  direction, 
but  will  continue  parallel  to  each  other.  Passing  through  a  concave  glass 
(a  glass  hollowed  on  one  or  both  sides),  the  rays  will  diverge  or  separate ; 
and  traversing  a  convex  one  (rounded  on  one  or  both  sides),  they  will 
converge  or  approach  each  other,  and  tend  to  a  point ;  and  llie  degree  of 
convergence  or  divergence  will  depend  on  the  degree  of  convexity  or 
concavity. 

Let  us  apply  this  to  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  {vide  p.  89). 
We  have  spoken  of  the  cornea,  f,  and  the  aqueous  humour,  q,  and  the 
crystalline  lens,  g,  and  the  vicreous  humour,  /t;  but  although  possessed  of 
different  refractive  powers,  according  to  their  form  and  density,  (and  the 
cornea  from  its  convexity,  and  the  crystalline  lens  from  its  density,  being 
the  principal  agents),  they  are  so  fitted  to  each  other,  that  we  may  consider 
them  as  composing  one  exceedingly  convex  lens,  and  of  such  power,  that 
the  rays  entering  the  pupil,  ?«,  are  brought  to  a  point  within  the  very  sub- 
stance  of  the  lens. 

The  place  of  distinct  vision,  hov/ever,  will  not  be  at  this  point,  but  a 
little  way  behind.  If  the  glass  of  a  spectacle,  such  as  those  generally 
worn  by  old  people,  be  held  between  a  candle  and  a  piece  of  paper,  the 
rays  of  light  will  converge  by  the  convexity  of  the  glass,  and  be  brought  to 
a  very  small  surface  or  point  on  the  paper;  but  on  that  point,  there  will  be 
no  distinct  picture  of  the  candle,  and  the  paper  must  be  gradually  removed 
from  the  light,  until  a  distance  be  found  at  which  the  image  of  the  candle 
will  be  seen  most  vivid  and  distinct,  although  inverted.  So  (see  the  cut, 
p.  89)  the  retina  which  is  spread  over  the  internal  coat  of  the  eye  is  placed 
at  a  little  distance  behind  the  point  where  the  rays  meet  and  cross.  If 
the  eye  be  too  convex,  and  its  converging  power  too  great,  the  rays  will 
cross  too  soon,  and  the  image  will  be  formed,  brightest  and  best,  before 
ihey  reach  the  retina,  and  the  vision  or  sight  will  be  imperfect  and  obscuie.  , 
If  the  eye  is  not  sufficiently  convex,  and  consequently  does  not  possess 
converging  power  enough,  the  rays  will  not  cross  until  they  are  too  near 
the  retina,  and  the  picture  would  be  most  luminous  and  distinct  behind 
the  retina;  and  thus,  likewise,  the  sight  would  be  imperfect  and  obscure.* 

*  "In  considering- vision  as  achieved  by  means  of  an  imaire  formed  at  the  bottom  ol 
the  eye,  we  can  never  reflect  without  wonder  on  the  smallness,  yet  correcincps  of  the 
picvure,  the  subiilty  of  the  touch,  and  tlie  fineness  of  the  lines.  A  landscape  of  live  oi 
six  square  legrues  is  broug-ht  into  a  space  of  lialf  an  inch  in  diameter;  yet  the  multitude 
of  objects  which  it  contains  are  all  preserved,  are  all  discriminated  in  their  -..lasmitudes, 
positions,  fig-ures,  colours.  A  stage-coach  passing-  at  its  ordinary  speed,  for  se^-eral  min- 
vitea,  passes  in  the  eye  only  over  one-twelfth  of  an  inch,  yet  is  tlie  chang-e  of  place  in  the 
linage  distinctly  perceived  thruug-houi  its  whole  progress." — Paley's  Nal.  Theology,  p.  32. 


!)H 


THE  HORSE. 


We  are  cf  course  unable  to  ascertain  when  the  horse  experiences  eithel 
of  these  kinds  of  indistinct  vision,  nor  are  we  able  to  offer  any  remedy  for 
them:  but  noliiing  can  be  more  certain  than  that  his  sight  is  frequently 
very  imperfect  from  one  of  these  causes.  There  is  a  shying,  often  the 
result  of  cowardice  or  playfulness,  or  want  of  work  ;  but  at  otiier  times 
proving,  beyond  contradiction,  a  defect  of  sight.  A  horse  will  manifestly 
mistake  the  nature  of  the  object  before  him  ;  he  will  run  against  that 
which  he  should  have  seen  :  or  he  will  be  terrified  by  a  tree  or  bird,  which 
should  not  liavc  caused  alarm. 

This  defect  of  sight  is  more  dangerous  than  blindness.  A  blind  horse 
will  resign  himself  to  the  guidance  of  his  rider  or  driver;  but  against  the 
nusconception  and  starting  of  a  shying  horse  there  is  no  defence.  That 
horses  grow  shy  as  they  grow  old,  no  one  accustomed  to  them  will  deny ; 
and  no  intelligent  person  will  be  slow  in  attributing  it  to  the  right  cause — 
a  decay  in  the  organ  of  vision, — a  loss  of  convexity  in  the  eye,  lessening 
the  convergency  of  the  rays,  and  throwing  the  perfect  image  beyond,  and 
not  on  the  retina.  There  is  a  striking  difference  in  the  convexity  of  the 
cornea  in  the  coll  and  the  old  horse ;  and  both  of  them,  probably,  may 
shy  from  opposite  causes ;  the  one  from  a  cornea  too  prominent,  and  the 
other  from  one  too  flat.  We  do  not  think  that,  in  the  usual  examination 
of  the  horse  previous  to  purchase,  sufficient  attention  is  paid  to  the  con- 
vexity  of  the  cornea. 

The  remedy  for  siiying  will  be  considered  when  we  speak  of  the  vices 
of  horses. 

There  is  a  provision  yet  wanting.  The  horse  has  a  very  extended  field 
of  view,  but  man)'-  persons  are  not  perhaps  aware  how  little  of  it  he  can 
command  at  a  time.  There  is  not  one  of  our  readers  who  can  make  out  a 
single  line  of  our  treatise  without  changing  the  direction  of  the  eye.  It  is 
curious  to  follow  the  motion  of  the  eyes  of  a  rapid  reader.  To  move  the 
iiead  and  neck  in  order  to  adapt  the  eye  to  the  whole  scene  before  us, 
would  be  awkward  and  fatiguing,  and  Nature  has  adopted  a  simpler  and 
better  method.  She  has  given  no  fewer  than  seven  muscles  to  the  horse,  to 
turn  this  little  but  important  organ  ;  and  that  they  might  act  with  sufficient 
power  and  quickness,  no  less  than  six  nerves  are  directed  to  the  muscles  of 
the  eye  generally,  or  to  particular  muscles  ;  and  the  eye  rests  on  a  mass  of 
fat,  that  it  may  be  turned  with  little  exertion  of  power,  and  without  friction. 


MUSCLES  OF  THE  EYE. 


There  are  four  straight  muscles,  three  of  which  are  represented  in  our  cm, 
rf,  e,  and  f,  rising  from  the  back  of  the  orbit,  and  inserted  into  the  ball  of 
the  eye,  opposite  to  each  other,  and  at  equal  distances  from  each  other. 
One,  d,  runs  to  the  upper  part  of  the  eye,  just  behind  the  transparent  and 
visible  portion  of  it,  and  its  ofTice  is  clearly  to  raise  the  eye.     When  it  «;on 


MUSCLES  OF  THE  EYE.  9() 

tracts,  the  eye  must  be  drawn  upward.  Another,  y,  s  inserted  exactly 
opposite  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  eye  ;  and  its  office  is  as  clearly  to  dejiress  l.ie 
eye,  or  enable  the  animal  to  look  downwards.  A  third,  e,  is  inserted  at  tne 
outer  corner,  and  by  means  of  it  the  eye  is  turned  outward,  and,  from  tiie 
situation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse,  considerably  backward  ;  and  the  fourth  is 
inserted  at  the  inner  corner,  turning  the  eye  inward.  They  can  thus  rotate 
or  turn  the  eye  in  any  direction  the  animal  wishes.  If  the  upper  and  outer 
muscles  are  called  into  action,  the  horse  looks  upward  and  outward,  and 
more  upward  than  outward  in  proportion  as  the  upper  muscle  acts,  at  the 
will  of  the  animal,  more  powerfully  than  the  outer  ;  and  thus,  by  the  action 
of  one  of  them,  or  the  combined  action  of  any  two  of  them,  the  eye  may 
he  immediately  and  accurately  directed  to  every  point. 

These  muscles,  however,  have  another  duty  to  discharge.  They  support 
the  eye  in  its  place.  In  the  usual  position  of  the  head  of  the  horse,  they 
must  be  to  a  certain  degree  employed  for  this  purpose ;  but  when  he  is 
grazing  or  feeding,  the  principal  weight  of  the  eye  rests  upon  them  ;  and 
then,  lest  from  this  slanting  and  downward  position  of  the  head,  when  the 
horse  is  so  often  and  so  long  employed  in  feeding,  they  should  be  fatigued, 
another  muscle  is  added,  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  called  the  retractor 
{(Ircncer-hack),  or  the  suspensorius  [suspensory)  muscle,  g.  It  arises  from 
the  edge  of  the  foramen  or  hole  through  which  the  optic  nerve  enters  the 
orbit — surrounds  the  nerve  as  it  proceeds  forward,  and  then,  partially 
dividing  into  four  parts,  is  attached  to  the  back  part  of  the  eye.  Its  office 
is  evidently  to  support  the  eye  generally,  or,  when  it  is  suddenly  called  into 
powerful  action,  and  assisted  by  the  straight  muscles,  it  draws  the  eye  back 
out  of  the  reach  of  threatening  danger,  and  in  the  act  of  drawing  it  back 
causes  the  haw  to  protrude  in  the  manner  which  we  have  already  described, 
as  an  additional  defence. 

The  power  of  this  muscle  is  very  great.  It  has  been  proved,  in  attempted 
operations  for  cataract,  to  exert  a  force  equal  to  more  than  twenty  pounds; 
and  it  renders  an  operation  on  the  eye  almost  impossible.  It  is  an  admira- 
ble  substitute  for  the  want  of  hands,  to  defend  the  eye  from  many  things 
that  would  injure  it;  and,  being  partially  separated  into  four  divisions,  it  is 
also  enabled  to  assist  the  straight  muscles  in  turning  the  eye. 

These  muscles  discharge  another  and  a  most  important  office.  If  we 
examine  near  and  distant  objects  through  a  telescope,  we  must  alter  the 
focus,  i.  e.  we  must  increase  or  diminish  the  length  of  the  lube.  We  must 
shorten  it  a  li^le  when  we  examine  distant  objects,  because  ihe  rays  coming 
to  us  from  them,  in  a  less  divergent  direction,  are  sooner  brought  to  a  point 
by  the  power  of  the  lens ;  so  the  straight  and  retractor  muscles  drawing 
back  the  eye,  and  forcing  it  upon  the  substance  behind,  and  thus  in  a  slight 
degree  flattening  it,  bring  the  lens  nearer  to  the  retina,  and  adapt  the  eye 
to  the  observation  of  distant  objects. 

Stilly  however,  being  employed  in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  eye,  these 
muscles  might  not  be  able  to  turn  it  so  rapidly  and  so  extensively  as  the 
wishes  or  wants  of  the  animal  might  require  ;  therefore,  two  other  muscles 
are  given,  which  are  used  solely  in  turning  the  eye.  They  are  called 
oblique  muscles,  because  their  course  is  obliquely  across  the  eye.  Tlie 
upper  one  is  most  curiously  constructed,  o,  h.  It  comes  from  the  back  part 
of  the  orbit,  and  takes  a  direction  upward  and  toward  the  inner  side,  and 
there,  just  under  the  ridge  of  the  orbit,  it  passes  through  a  perfect  meclian- 
Jcal  pulley,  and,  turning  round,  proceeds  across  the  eye,  and  is  inserted 
rather  beyond  the  middle  of  thj  eye,  towards  the  ou.er  side.  Thus  the 
globe    -)f  the  eye   is  evidently  directed  inward  and  upward.     Something 


100  THE  HORSE. 

nioro;  however,  is  accomplished  by  this  singular  mechanism.  The  eye  is 
naturally  deep  in  the  "orbit,  that  it  may  be  more  perfectly  defended;  but  it 
may  be  necessary,  occasionally,  to  bring  tiie  eye  forward,  and  enlarge  the 
field  of  vision.  The  eye  is  actually  protruded  under  the  influence  of  fear: 
not  only  are  the  lids  opened  more  widely,  but  the  eye  is  brought  more  for- 
ward. How  can  this  jwssibly  be  accomplished  ?  There  are  no  muscles 
anterior  to,  or  before  the  eye — there  is  no  place  for  their  insertion.  The 
object  is  readily  etfccted  IJy  this  singular  pulley,  h,  c.  By  the  power  of 
this  muscle,  the  troch/caris,  or  pulley-muscle,  and  the  straight  muscles  at 
the  same  time  not  opposing  it,  or  only  regulating  the  direction  of  the  eye, 
it  is  really  brought  somewhat  forward.  The  lower  oblique  muscle  rises 
just  within  the  lachrymal  bone  (/,  p.  66),  and,  {)roceeding  across  the  eye, 
is  fixed  into  the  part  of  the  sclerotica,  op])osite  to  the  other  oblique  muscle, 
and  it  turns  llie  eye  in  an  opposite  direction,  assisting,  however,  the  uj)per 
oblique,  in  bringing  the  eye  forward  from  its  socket. 


CHAPTER    VJI. 


TNJURIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  SKULL— THE  BRAIN— THE  EARS— 
AND  THE  EYES. 

We  have  now  arrived  at  a  convenient  resting-place  in  our  somewhat  dry, 
but  necessary  description  of  the  structure  of  the  horse,  and  we  willingly 
turn  to  more  practical  matter.  We  will  consider  the  injuries  and  diseases 
of  the  parts  we  have  surveyed.  In  entering,  however,  on  this  division  of 
our  work,  we  would  premise,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  give  the  farmer 
such  an  account  of  the  nature  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  horses  as 
will  enable  him  with  safety  to  practise  for  himself,  e.xccpt  in  the  commonest 
cases.  The  causes  of  most  diseases  are  so  obscure,  their  symptoms  so 
variable,  and  their  connexion  with  other  maladies  so  complicated  and  mys- 
terious, that  a  life  devoted  to  professional  study  will  alone  qualify  a  man  to 
become  a  judicious  and  successful  practitioner  on  the  diseases  of  the  horse 
and  other  domestic  animals.  Our  object  will  be  to  communicate  suflicient 
instruction  to  the  farmer,  to  enable  him  to  act  with  promptness  and  judg- 
ment when  he  cannot  obtain  professional  assistance — to  qualify  him  to  form 
a  satisfactory  opinion  of  the  skill  of  the  veterinary  surgeon  whom  he  may 
employ,  and,  more  especially,  to  divest  himself  of  those  strange  and  absurd 
prejudices  which,  in  a  variety  of  cases,  not  only  produce  and  prolong  dls. 
ease,  but  bring  it  to  a  fatal  termination. 

FRACTURE. 

We  have  described  the  cavity  of  the  skull  of  the  horse  as  being  so 
defended  by  the  hardness  of  the  parietal  bones,  and  those  bones  as  so  covered 
by  a  mass  of  muscle,  and  protected  above  by  an  additional  layer  of  bone, 
and  the  occipital  bone  as  so  exceedingly  thick  (see  cut,  p.  68),  that  a  frac 
TURE  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  is  almost  impossible.  It  can  only  occur  from 
brutal  violence,  except  that,  when  a  horse  falls  in  the  act  of  rearing,  the 
occipital  bone  is  sometimes  fractured  ;  when  he  falls  forward,  and  the  head 
comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  the  muzzle  or  jaws  will  receive  the 
principal  or  whole  force  of  the  blow.  When,  however,  fracture  of  the  skuP 
docs  occur,  it  is  almost  invariably  fatal.     A  blow  of  sufTicient  violence  to 


MEGRIMS.  101 

Drenk  these  bones,  must  likewise  irreparably  injure  the  delicate  and  import- 
ant organ  which  they  protect. 

The  ridge,  or  outer  and  upper  part  of  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  is  occasion- 
ally fractured.  It  happens  from  falling,  or  much  oftener  from  violent  blows. 
The  slightest  examination  will  detect  the  loosened  pieces,  but  a  protessiona\ 
man  alone  can  here  render  effectual  assistance.  All,  however,  that  he  can  do 
will  be  gently  to  replace  tlie  parts  in  their  natural  situation,  and  contrive  to 
confine  them  there  by  adhesive  plasters  ;  to  obviate  inflammation  by  bleed- 
ing, physic,  and  low  diet,  and  leave  the  rest  to  nature. 

We  proceed  then  to  the  diseases  of  the  head,  and  the  first  of  these  is 
PRESSURE  ON  THE  BRAIN.  This  may  be  produced  by  some  fluid  thrown 
out  between  the  membranes,  or  occupying  and  distending  the  ventricles  of 
the  brain.  In  the  grown  horse  this  rarely  occurs,  but  it  is  well  known  to 
breeders  as  an  occasional  disease  of  the  foal,  under  the  name  of  "  water  in 
the  head."  The  head  is  either  very  much  enlarged,  or  strangely  deformed, 
or  both  ;  and  the  animal  dies  either  in  the  act  of  foaling,  or  a  few  days 
after  the  birth. 

MEGRIMS. 

There  is  another  kind  of  pressure  on  the  brain,  resulting  from  an  unu- 
sual determination  or  flow  of  blood  to  it.  This  organ  requires  a  large 
supply  of  blood  to  enable  it  to  discharge  its  important  functions.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  ten  times  more  blood  flows  through  the  brain  than  through  any 
other  part  of  the  frame  of  equal  bulk.  Nature,  in  tlie  horse  more  than  in 
many  other  animals,  has  made  some  admirable  provision  to  cause  this  great 
quantity  of  blood  to  flow  into  the  brain  without  much  velocity,  and  thereby 
to  lessen  the  risk  of  suddenly  overloading  iter  rupturing  its  vessels.  The 
arteries  pursue  their  course  to  the  brain  in  a  strangely  winding  and  circuit- 
ous manner;  and  they  enter  the  skull  through  bony  holes  which  will  admit 
of  the  enlargement  of  the  vessel  only  to  a  very  limited  extent :  yet,  from 
various  causes,  of  which  the  most  common  is  violent  exercise  in  a  hot  day, 
and  the  horse  being  fat  and  full  of  blood,  more  than  the  usual  quantity  will 
be  sent  to  the  head: — or  from  some  negligence  about  the  harness,  as  the 
collar  being  too  small,  or  the  curb-rein  too  tight,  the  blood  will  be  prevented 
from  returning  fiom  the  head  :  and  thus  the  larger  vessels  of  the  brain  will 
be  too  long  and  injuriously  distended,  and,  what  is  of  more  consequence, 
the  small  vessels  which  run  through  the  substance  of  the  brain  will  be 
enlarged,  and  the  bulk  of  the  brain  will  be  increased,  and  it  will  press  upon 
the  origins  of  the  nerves,  and  produce,  almost  without  warning,  loss  of 
power  and  consciousness. 

The  mildest  affection  of  this  kind  is  known  by  the  name  of  Megrims.  ■  It 
comparatively  rarely  happens  when  the  horse  is  ridden;  but  should  he  be 
driven,  and,  perhaps,  rather  quickly,  he  may  perform  a  part  of  his  journey 
with  his  usual  cheerfulness  and  ease,  when  air  at  once  he  will  stop,  shake 
his  head,  be  evidently  giddy,  and  half  unconscious.  In  a  minute  or  two 
this  will  pass  over,  and  he  will  go  on  again  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

Frequently,  however,  the  attack  will  be  of  a  more  serious  nature.  He 
will  fall  without  the  slightest  warning,  or  suddenly  run  round  once  or  twice, 
and  then  fall.  He  will  either  lie  in  a  state  of  complete  insensibility,  or 
struggle  with  the  utmost  violence.  In  five  or  ten  minutes  he  will  begin 
gradually  to  come  to  himself;  he  will  get  up,  and  proceed  on  his  journey, 
yet  somewhat  dull,  and  evidently  affected  and  exhausted  by  what  had  hap- 
pened, although  not  seriously  or  permanently  ill. 

This  is  a  verv  dan";crous  disease — danirerous  to  the  horse,   which  will 


\(,2  THE   HORSE. 

occasionally  die  m  the  spot,  and  peculiarly  dangerous  to  those  who  drivf 
nim,  for  tlioie  will  frequently  be  no  warning  or  opportunity  to  escape.  It 
likewise  linppens,  that  whether  the  vessels  have  been  weakened  by  this  vio- 
lent distension,  and  afterwards  offer  less  resistance  to  the  flow  of  blood,  or. 
whatever  be  the  cause,  a  horse  that  has  once  been  attacked  l)y  megrims  is 
very  subject  to  a  return  of  the  complaint.  No  prudent  man  will  drive  a 
horse  that  has  had  a  second  attack,  especially  if,  in  the  intermediate  time, 
he  has  taken  proper  means  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  fit. 

At  the  moment  of  attack,  a  person  who  is  able  to  bleed  should  take  three 
or  four  quarts  of  blood  from  the  neck  ;  or  any  one  can  cut  the  barr  of  the 
palate  in  the  manner  explained  where  we  describe  the  palate,  and  whence  a 
considerable  and  sufficient  quantity  of  blood  may  be  readily  obtained.  The 
driver  should  pat  and  soothe  the  animal,  and  carefully  examine  the  harness, 
and  pursue  his  journey  as  gently  as  circumstances  will  permit.  When  he 
gets  home,  a  dose  of  physic*  should  be  administered,  if  the  horse  can  be 
spared,  and  the  quantity  of  dry  food  lessened,  and  mashes  given,  or  green 
meat,  or  the  horse  should  be  turned  out  at  night,  or  turned  out  altogether 
for  two  or  three  months. 

ArOPLEXY. 

The  attack  sometimes  assumes  a  still  more  violent  form.  The  horse  falls 
and  dies  at  once.  It  then  ratiier  resembles,  or  is  the  same  with  apoplexy  in 
the  human  being.  To  this  more  serious  form  of  the  disease  he  is  subject 
in  the  stable,  and  even  at  pasture  ;  but  there  is  generally  some  warning. 
He  will  be  seen  with  the  head  low,  extended  almost  to  the  ground,  and 
supported  against  the  manger.  He  staggers  as  he  stands.  If  moved,  he 
appears  as  if  he  would  fall.  His  sight  and  hearing  are  evidently  affected. 
This  is  not  mad-staggers,  for  no  inflammation  of  the  brain  is  found  ;  nor 
stomach-staggers,  for  there  is  no  distension  of  the  stomach.  The  horse 
will  continue  in  this  way  from  one  hour  to  twelve.  He  then  falls  ; — 
grinds  his  teeth; — his'eyes  are  open,  protruded,  and  fixed — the  pupil  is 
dilated; — there  are  twitchincs  about  the  frame  ; — the  muzzle  is  cold  ; — 
the  vein  of  the  neck  is  evidently  swelled; — he  is  unable  to  swallow  ; — the 
drmk  is  returned  by  the  nostril  or  the  mouth,  and  the  dung  often  voided 
in\olnntarily  ; — the  twitchings  increase  to  strong  convulsions,  and  death 
speedily  closes  the  scene. 

Jf  there  be  time  for  medical  treatment,  the  course  to  be  pursued  is  plain 
enough.  Weed  copiously  ;•]■ — take  at  once  eight  or  ten  quarts.  Bleed  from 
a  vein  in  preference  to  an  artery,  for  an  artery  which  supplies  the  brain 
cannot  be  got  at.  Bleed  from  the  jugular  or  common  neck- vein,  for  that 
returns  the  blood  from  the  brain,  and  a  large  quantity  rapidly  drawn  from 
this  vein  may  possibly  give  relief.  Next  back-rake,  or  remove  the  dung 
from  the  lower  intestine  with  the  hand,  and  give  a  dose  of  physic  :  but  the 
case  is  usually  hopeless,  and  the  most  decisive  and  skilful  treatment  alone 
can  avail.  We  decidedly  object  to  two  methods  of  cure  adopted  by  some 
farriers,  and  farmers  too.  The  first  is  to  blow  pepper  (and  Cayenne  pep- 
per if  they  can  get  it)  up  the  nostrils  of  the  horse.  The  violent  sneezing 
that  will  be  produced,  if  the  animal  is  not  too  insensible,  must  probably,  or 
almost  certainly,  rupture  some  of  the  vessels  already  over-distended.  The 
other  practice  is  to  give  spices  and  bark  to  rouse  the  animal.     The  etlect 

♦  By  pliysic,  whenever  the  word  occurs  in  this  Treatise,  we  mean  ptirg-ative  inedicine 
t  Full  directions  for  bleeding-  will  be  g-iven  when  we  describe  the  various  operation* 
which  it  may  be  neceasary  to  perform  on  the  horsse. 


STOMACH-STAGGERS.  J  03 

of  these  would  be  to  quicken  the  circulation,  and  to  send  yet  mo-e  blood  to 
that  organ  which  already  had  a  great  deal  too  much. 

STOMACH-STAGGERS. 

A  disease  not  much  unlike  this  is  known  under  the  name  of  Staggers. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  it — the  sleepy  or  stomach-staggers,  and  the  mad- 
staggers ;  frequently,  iiowever,  they  are  only  dilFerent  stages  of  the  same 
disease,  or  varying  with  the  cause  that  produced  them.  In  Stomach-Stag- 
gers the  horse  stands  dull,  sleepy,  staggering  ;  when  roused,  he  looks 
vacantly  around  him  ;  perhaps  seizes  a  lock  of  hay,  and  dozes  again  with 
It  in  his  mouth  ;  at  length  he  drops  and  dies :  or  the  sleepiness  passes  olf, 
and  delirium  comes  on,  when  he  falls,  rises  again,  drops,  beats  himself 
about,  and  dies  in  convulsions.  The  cause  of  tliis  is  sutiicienlly  evident ; 
and  the  disease  never  occurs,  except  by  the  fault  of  those  who  have  the 
management  of  the  horse.  It  arises  from  over-feeding.  The  horse  has 
been  permitted  to  get  at  a  too  great  quantity  of  food,  or  food  of  an  improper 
nature.  When  he  has  been  kept  for  some  hours  without  eating,  and  has 
been  worked  hard,  and  has  become  thoroughly  hungry,  he  falls  ravenously 
upon  every  kind  of  food  he  can  get  at;  swallowing  it  faster  than  his  small 
stomach  can  digest  it ;  and  no  water  being  given  to  soften  it,  and  to  hasten 
its  passage,  the  stomach  becomes  crammed,  and  having  been  previously 
exhausted  by  long  lasting,  is  unable  to  contract  upon  its  contents.  The  food 
soon  begins  to  ferment  and  to  swell,  causing  great  distension ;  the  brain 
sympathizes  with  tliis  overloaded  organ,  and  staggers  are  produced.  We 
can  easily  imagine  this,  when  we  remember  the  sad  headaches  occasionally 
arising  from  an  overfdled  or  disordered  stomach.  Sometimes  the  stomach 
is  ruptured. 

We  have  little  to  say  of  the  treatment  of  the  disease  so  far  as  medicine 
iS  concerned,  except  that  as  it  is  almost  or  quite  impossible  for  the  person 
most  accustomed  to  horses  to  distinguish  between  the  early  stage  of  sto- 
mach and  mad  staggers  (distension  of  the  stomach,  and  inflammation  of 
the  brain),  we  should  be  most  diligent  and  minute  in  our  inquiry  into  the 
history  of  the  horse  for  the  preceding  twenty-four  hours — whether  he  could 
have  got  at  an  undue  quantity  of  food,  or  had  been  worked  hard  and  kept 
long  fasting.  Some  say  that  there  is  a  yellowness  of  the  eye,  and  twitch- 
ings  about  the  breast  in  the  early  stage  of  sleepy  or  stomach-staggers.  We 
have  seen  a  great  many  cases  of  stomach-staggers  without  this  yellowish- 
ness,  or  these  catchings,  and  we  believe  that  no  one  can  certainly  distin- 
guish between  the  two,  and  that  we  must  be  guided  entirely  by  the  history 
of  the  case. 

Bleed  very  largely  ; — that  cannot  do  harm,  and  in  mad  staggers  is  indis- 
pensable. Give  a  good  dose  of  physic — that  also  cannot  do  harm,  although 
in  stomach-staggers  it  cannot  do  much  good,  for  it  can  scarcely  find  its  way 
into  the  over-distended  stomach,  and  it  certainly  cannot  find  its  way  through 
it.  Keeping  the  horse  from  ail  food  will  be  a  very  proper  proceeding, 
whichever  be  the  disease. 

Some  good  judges  have  affirmed  that  a  horse  was  never  cured  of  stomach- 
staggers.  It  was  formerly  a  very  difficult  thing,  but  the  stomach-pump  has 
done  wonders  in  cases  of  poisoning  in  the  human  being,  and,  by  means  of  a 
larger  and  somewhat  altered  pump,  (which  every  veterinary  surgeon,  and, 
we  think,  every  large  proprietor  of  horses,  should  have  on  his  premises,} 
.his  enormous  mass  of  food  n-ay,  without  difficulty,  be  washed  out. 

If,  however,  we  can  say  but  lillle  of  the  treatment  of  stomach-staggers, 
we  have  much  to  say  of  its  prevention.     It  attacks  old  horses  oflener  than 


J  04  THE  HORSE. 

others,  and  horses  that  have  been  hardly  worked,  or  that  have  been  workea 
for  many  hours  without  food.  Let  no  farmer  delude  himself  with  the  idea 
that  it  is  contagious.  If  his  horses  have  occasionally  slight  fits  of  the 
staggers,  or  if  the  disease  carries  off  several  of  .them,  he  may  be  assured 
that  there  is  something  wrong  in  his  management.  One  horse  may  get  at 
the  corn-bin,  and  cram  himself  to  bursting;  but  if  several  are  attacked, 
it  is  time  for  him  to  look  about  him.  The  cause  will  generally  bo  found 
to  be,  too  voracious  feeding ;  too  much  food  given  at  once,  and  perhaps 
without  water,  after  hard  work  and  long  fasting.  Nothing  is  lost  by  the 
habitual  use  of  the  nose-bag,  and  a  more  equal  division  of  the  hours  of 
labour  and  the  times  of  feeding.  Some  careless  and  thoughtless  people 
suffer  their  horses  to  go  from  morning  to  night  without  being  fed,  and  then 
they  wonder  if  sometimes  the  horses  hang  their  heads,  and  di-oop,  and  can- 
not work.  No  horse  should  be  worked  more  than'  four  or  five  hours  without 
being  baited. 

There  is  one  consequence  of  this  improper  treatment,  of  which  persons 
do  not  appear  to  be  aware,  although  they  suffer  severely  from  it.  A  horse 
that  has  frequont  half-attacks  of  the  staggers  very  often  goes  blind.  It  is 
not  the  common  blindness  from  cataract,  but  a  peculiarly  glassy  appearance 
of  the  eye.  If  the  history  of  these  blind  horses  could  be  told,  it  would  be 
found  that  they  had  been  subject  to  fits  of  drooping  and  dullness,  and  these 
produced  by  absurd  management  respecting  labour  and  food. 

Staggers  have  been  known  to  occur  when  the  animal  was  at  grass  ;  but 
this  usually  happens  in  poor,  hard-worked,  half-starved  animals,  and  soon 
after  they  have  been  turned  out,  eitlior  in  rich  pasture,  or  in  a  salt  marsh, 
and  in  hot  weather. 

There  are,  however,  few  diseases  of  the  horse  that  are  not  occasionally 
epidemic,  or  produced  by  some  infiuence  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the  nature 
of  which  we  are  ignorant ;  and  stomach-staggers  sometimes  prevails  in  par- 
ticular districts,  where  there  is  nothing  remarkably  wrong  in  the  treatment 
of  the  horse.  There  is  at  that  time  something  in  the  atmosphere  which 
weakens  the  stomach,  and  disposes  it  to  indigestion,  and  causes  a  little  error 
in  feeding  to  be  dangerous,  or  produces  considerable  disease  under  the  com- 
mon circumstances  of  feeding.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  proprietors  of 
horses  siiould  be  particularly  on  their  guard,  for  in  most  horses  which  then 
die,  the  distended  stomach  will  be  observed,  and  will  be  the  actual  cause 
of  death.  It  is  very  possible  that,  at  certain  seasons,  some  poisonous  plants 
may  prevail,  or  that  the  hay  may  not  be  so  nutritive  or  digestible,  and  thus 
the  stomach  may  be  weakened.  The  farmer  will  weigh  all  these  things  in 
his  mind,  and  act  accordingly. 

MAD-STAGGERS. 

Mad-Staggers  (inflammation  of  the  brain,  brain  fever)  can,  as  we  have 
said,  be  at  first  with  difficulty  distinguished  from  the  sleepy,  or  stomach- 
staggers;  but,  after  a  while,  the  horse  suddenly  begins  to  heave  at  the 
flanks; — his  nostrils  expand; — his  eyes  unclose; — he  has  a  wild  and 
vacant  stare,  and  delirium  comes  rapidly  on.  He  dashes  himself  furiously 
about ;  there  is  no  disposition  to  do  mischief,  but  his  motions  are  sudden 
and  violent,  and  accompanied  by  perfect  unconsciousness;  and  he  becomes 
a  terrifying  and  dangerous  animal.  This  continues  either  until  his  forme- 
stupor  returns,  or  he  has,  literally  worn   himself  out  in   frightful  struggles. 

Tiiere  are  only  two  diseases  with  which  it  can  be  confounded,  and  from 
both  of  them  it  is  very  readilv  distinguished,  viz:  colic  and  madness.  In 
colic  the  horse  rises  and  falls,  but  not  with  so  much  violence  ;   he  sometimes 


TETANUS,   OR  LOCKED-JAW.  J  Oft 

plunges,  but  he  more  often  rolls  himself  about ;  he  looks  frequently  at  iii» 
flanks  v\  it.i  an  expression  of  pain,  and  he  is  conscious. 

In  madness  there  may  be  more  or  less  violence ;  there  is  sometimes  a 
determination  to  do  mischief;   and  there  is  always  consciousness. 

Over-exertion  when  the  horse  is  too  fat  or  full  of  blood,  or  especially  during 
hot  weather,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  inflammation  of  the  brain  ;  but  what- 
ever  will  produce  general  fever,  may  be  the  cause  of  mad-staggers. 

The  treatment  adopted  by  tlie  best  practitioners  is  too  often  unsuccess- 
ful. The  horse  sliould  be  bled  until  he  faints  or  drops  ;  or  if  he  be  down, 
until  he  is  evidently  faint  and  weak.  Both  the  neck-veins  should  be 
opened  at  once,  and  the  fullness  of  the  stream,  or  the  quickness  with  which 
it  is  taken,  is  almost  as  important  as  the  quantity.  Physic  should  then  be 
given.  The  purge  that  acts  most  quickly  is  the  best,  and  that  is  the  croton 
nut,  powdered  at  the  Ihne,  and  given  in  a  drink,  in  the  dose  of  a  half 
drachm,  and  followed  by  smaller  doses  of  ten  grains  each,  every  six  hours, 
with  plenty  of  injections  of  warm  soap  and  water,  until  the  bowels  are  well 
opened.  If  the  croton  is  not  at  hand,  aloes  may  be  given,  but  dissolved  in 
hot  water — an  ounce  of  aloes  at  the  first  dose,  and  afterwards,  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  every  four  hours,  until  purging  is  produced.  This  being  ef- 
fected, those  medicines  should  be  given  which  have  a  tendency  to  lessen 
•Jie  force  of  the  circulation,  and  consequently,  the  determination  of  blood 
to  the  head.  The  most  powerful  of  these  are  the  foxglove,  and  the  tartar 
emetic,  in  doses  of  a  drachm  each,  three  or  four  times  in  the  day.  Helle- 
bore should  not  be  given  on  account  of  the  previously  too  great  determina- 
tion  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The  head  should  be  blistered,  but  rowels  and 
setons  give  useless  pain,  for  the  horse  is  either  cured  or  dead  before  they, 
perceptibly  begin  to  act. 

TETANUS,  OR  LOCKED-JAW. 

•  We  have  described  the  nerves  as  proceeding  from  the  brain  and  spinal' 
marrow,  and  conveying  the  power  of  feeling  and  motion  to  the  whole 
frame.  Tliis  power  may  best  be  conceived  by  considering  it  as  an  influence 
proceeding  from  the  brain  to  every  part.  In  a  state  of  health,  it  is  regu- 
larly and  uniformly  distributed  ;  but  it  is  much  afl^ected  by  disease.  It  may 
rush  on  violently  and  witliout  interruption,  and  we  have  cramp,  and  tetanus,. 
or  locked-jaw  :  or  the  stream  may  be  rapid,  but  with  considerable  suspen- 
sions, and  we  have  fits  ;  or  it  may  be  quite  suspended,  and  we  have  palsy. 
Tetanus  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  and  fatal  diseases  to  winch  the  horse 
is  subject.  It  is  called  the  Locked-Jaw,  because  the  muscles  of  the  jaw 
are  earliest  and  most  powerfully  affected.  Tetanus  is  a  constant  spasm  of 
all  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  particularly  of  the  neck,  the  spine,  and  the- 
head.  It  is  generally  slow  and  very  treacherous  in  its  attack.  The  horse 
for  a  day  or  two  does  not  appear  to  be  quite  well ;  he  does  not  feed  as  usual ;. 

f tartly  chews  his  food  and  drops  it;  and  gulps  his  water.  The  owner  at 
ength  finds  out  that  the  motion  of  the  jaws  is  considerably  limited,  and 
some  saliva  is  drivelling  from  the  mouth.  If  he  tries  the  mouth,  he  can 
open  it  only  a  very  little  way,  or  the  jaws  are  perfectly  and  rigidly  closed  ; 
p.nd  thus  the  only  time  in  Avhich  the  disease  could  have  been  successfully 
combated  is  lost.  We  have,  therefore,  given  a  cut  of  a  horse  labouring 
under  this  disease,  which  the  reader  will  do  well  carefully  to  examine  as  we 
proceed  with  the  symptoms,  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  recognise  it  in  it? 
very  earliest  stage;  at  the  moment  he  does  recognise  it,  he  will  do  well  to 
npply  for  the  very  best  advice  he  can  get.  Most  of  the  peculiarities  delin- 
H 


|0(^  THE  HORSR 

eated  in  tne  cut  wili  be  sufficiently  apparent  before   the  jaws  are  lockf^d, 
and  while  medicine  can  be  administered  with  tolerable  ease. 


The  jaws  are  unnaturally  tixed,  and  then  he  observes  that  there  is  a 
stiffness  of  the  neck,  a  difficuliy  in  bringing  the  head  round,  and  a  promi- 
nence, and  hardness,  and  unyieldingness  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  neck, 
with  an  unusual  protrusion  of  the  head.  It  next  occurs  that  the  poor  ani- 
mal cannot  bend  his  head.  The  retractor  muscle  (fig.  g,  p.  98)  is  aflected 
by  spasm,  and  the  eye  is  drawn  into  the  socket — squinting  outward — and 
the  haw  protruding  over  a  portion  of  it.  The  nostril  is  expanded,  the  ear 
erect,  and  the  countenance  anxious ; — the  back  and  loins  are  stiff,  and  if  he 
is  turned  in  his  stall,  the  whole  body  turns  at  once  like  an  unbending  piece 
of  wood.  The  muscles  of  the  belly  are  also  affected  by  spasm,  and  he  is 
tucked  up  (his  belly  contracted  and  drawn  up)  to  a  strange  degree.  The 
tail  is  erect,  and  constantly  quivering.  The  extremities  are  singularly 
fixed; — the  hind-legs  straddling  ; — the  fore-legs  projecting  forward  and  out- 
ward (as  some  one  has  aptly  described  it)  like  the  legs  of  a  stool.  The 
pulse  at  first  not  much  affected,  but  soon  becomes  quick,  and  small,  and 
irregular;  the  breathing  more  laborious  as  the  disease  proceeds,  and  the 
countenance  wild  and  haggard,  and  expressive  of  extreme  agony.  The 
pain  which  attends  the  cramp  of  one  limb  will  enable  us  to  judge  of  that 
which  must  accompany  universal  spasm.  If  a  person  goes  near  the  horse, 
or  touches  him  in  the  slightest  way,  although  he  may  be  unable  to  move, 
yet  the  sudden  quickening  of  the  pulse  M'ill  tell  wiiat  the  animal  feels 
and  fears.  So  the  disease  goes  on  for  nine  or  ten  days,  until  the  animal 
is  exhausted  by  the  expenditure  of  nervous  energy,  and  the  continuance 
of  torture. 

If,  from  strength  of  constitution  or  medical  treatment,  he  should  recover, 
the  first  favourable  symptom  is  a  slight  and  short  remission  of  the  spasm  ; 
the  time  of  remission  gradually  lengthening,  and  the  jaws  a  little  relax- 
ing ;  but  the  progress  of  cure  is  exceedingly  slow,  and  tbe  horse  is  left 
very  weak. 

Tetanus  is  evidently  an  affection  of  the  nerves.  A  small  fibre  of  some 
nerve  has  been  injured,  and  the  effect  of  that  injury  has  spread  to  the 
origin  of  the  nerve  ;  the  brain  has  become  affected,  and  universal  diseased 
action  speedily  follows.  Locked-jaw  generally  arises  from  a  wound,  and 
oftenest  a  wound  of  a  tendinous  or  ligamentous  part;  but  depending  not 


TETANUS,  OR  LOCKED-JAW.  \Q^ 

eitnei-  upon  the  extent  of  the  wound,  or  the  degree  of  inflammation  which 
may  be  excited.  The  time  of  tiie  attack  is  uncertain,  and  may  be  post- 
poned until  the  wound  is  nearly  or  quite  healed.  It  occasionally  foliows 
nicking,  docking,  cropping,  whether  well  or  ill  performed — wliether 
properly  attended  to  afterwards,  or  neglected.  It  has  been  traced  to  worms, 
and  particularly  to  hots  ;  but  we  do  not  think  that  there  is  any  proof  of 
this.  Exposure  to  cold  is  a  frequent  cause;  water  dropping  upiu  'he 
back  through  the  decayed  roof  of  a  stable;  or  the  storm  pelting  upon 
the  uncovered  and  shivering  animal,  while  the  thoughtless  owner  has 
sheltered  himself. 

The  rational  method  of  cure  would  seem  to  be,  first  to  remove  the  local 
cause  ; — but  this  will  seldom  avail  much.  The  irritation  is  become  general, 
and  the  spasmodic  action  constitutional.  The  habit  is  formed,  and  will 
continue.  It  is  well,  however,  to  endeavour  to  discover  the  local  cause. 
If  it  be  a  wound  in  the  foot,  let  it  be  touched  with  the  hot  iron  or  the  caustic, 
and  kept  open  with  digestive  ointment.  The  new  irritation  thus  produced, 
may  lessen  or  remove  the  old  one.  If  it  follows  nicking,  let  the  incision  be 
made  deeper,  and  stimulated  by  digestive  ointment; — and  if  it  arise  from 
docking,  let  the  operation  be  repeated  higher.  In  treating  the  constitu- 
tional disease,  efforts  must  be  made  to  tranquillize  the  system,  and  the  most 
powerful  agent  is  bleeding.  We  have  known  twenty  pounds  of  blood  taken 
at  once  and  with  manifest  advantage.  There  is  not  a  more  powerful  means 
of  allaying  general  irritation.  Temporary  relaxation  of  the  spasm  will  at 
least  follow,  and  that  will  give  the  opportunity  to  do  another  thing  in  order 
to  reduce  and  quiet  the  disturbed  system,  and  that  is,  to  give  physic.  Here 
again,  that  physic  is  best  which  is  speediest  in  operation,  and  will  lie  in  the 
smallest  compass.  The  croton  has  no  rival  in  this  respect.  The  first 
dose  should  be  half  a  drachm,  and  the  medicine  repeated  every  six  hours, 
in  doses  of  ten  grains,  until  it  operates.  The  bowels,  in  all  these  nervous 
afTections,  are  very  torpid,  and  there  is  little  danger  of  inflan^.mation  from 
an  over  dose  of  physic.  The  operation  of  the  physic  may  be  assisted  by 
frequent  injections,  each  containing  a  drachm  of  aloes  dissolved  in  warm 
water, — or,  by  means  of  the  pump,  to  which  we  referred  in  page  103,  whole 
pailfuls  of  warm  water,  or  very  thin  gruel,  may  be  thrown  up. 

Then,  as  it  is  a  diseased  action  of  the  nerves  proceeding  from  the  spinal 
marrow,  the  whole  of  the  spine  should  be  blistered — three  or  four  inches 
wide.  The  horse  should  be  placed  in  a  warm  stable,  yet  with  pure  air,  and 
should  be  clothed  with  two  or  three  additional  rugs,  or,  what  is  much  better, 
sheep-skins  warm  from  the  animal,  with  the  raw  side  inward  ;  and  changed 
as  soon  as  they  become  dry  or  putrid. 

Having  bled  largely,  and  physicked  and  blistered,  we  seek  for  other 
means  to  lull  the  irritation,  and  we  have  one  at  hand,  small  in  bulk  and 
potent  in  energy — opium.  Give  at  once  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  reduced  to 
powder,  and  made  into  a  drink  with  gruel,  or  in  a  small  ball,  (in  its  crude 
state  it  would  be  too  long  in  dissolving  in  the  stomach) :  and  give  an  addi- 
tional drachm  every  six  hours.  If  the  jaw  should  be  quite  fixed,  administer 
it  in  injections.  The  bowels  must  be  attended  to  during  the  exhibition 
of  the  opium,  and  aloes  given  in  small  doses,  to  keep  them  in  a  lax  state. 
Camphor  and  assafoetida  may  be  given  by  those  who  please ; — we  are  not 
aware  that  they  will  do  injury,  but  opium  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  vete- 
rinary practitioner. 

Great  caution  and  patience  are  requisite  in  administering  the  drinks, 
*br  the  elevating  of  the  head  seems  to  be  exceedingly  painful  to  the  horse. 
A.  ball  mav  be  divided  into  small  pieces,  and  with  a  piece  of  cane  or  whale- 


iO.S  THE  HORSE. 

bene  convoyed  to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  where  it  will  be  disso'veu, 
and  must  be  swallowed. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  strength  should  be  supported  by  nutritive  .ood. 
The  appetite  seldom  fails  in  this  disease  ;  and  it  is  painful  to  see  the  repeated 
eager  etiorts  of  tlie  poor  animal  to  allay  his  iiunger.  When  his  jaws  are 
most  firmly  fixed,  he  will  sometimes  be  able  to  suck  in  the  liquid  from  a 
moist  mash  ; — if  he  has  the  slightest  command  over  them,  he  will  contrive 
tc  swallow  the  greater  part  of  the  mash  :  and  should  there  be  room  to  intro- 
duce the  mouth  of  a  small  horn,  he  will  thankfully  take  as  much  gruel  as 
his  attendant  will  give  him.  Until  the  jaws  are  firmly  locked,  he  may  be 
suffered  to  have  hay,  although  he  should  only  chew  it  and  drop  it  from  the 
mouth  ;  for  this  action  of  tlie  muscles  of  tiie  jaws  may  delay  or  prevent 
their  total  closure.  Little  medicine  will  be  wanted  as  he  gets  better; 
nourishing  food,  not  too  liberally  administered,  will  constitute  the  best  tonic; 
and  should  the  weather  be  sufficiently  warm,  few  things  will  do  him  more 
good  than  to  turn  him  put  for  two  or  three  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
It  will  extend  the  muscles. of  his  neck,  and  bring  him  to  the  use  of  his  limbs. 

Against  one  mode  of  treatment  we  enter  our  protest,  from  its  cruelty  and 
its  inutility — the  application  of  cold.  Some  turn  the  animal  out  uncovered 
in  a  frosty  niglit.  We  have  no  faith  in  tlie  practice  of  this :  but  placing 
the  poor  iiorse  under  a  pump,  and  letting  the  water  flow  upon  his  spasmed 
limbs  for  hours  together,  or  dashing  it  violently  upon  him,  while  he  crouches 
and  groans  all  the  while,  is  both  cruel  and  useless. 

FITS,  OR  EPILEPSY. 

The  stream  of  nervous  influence  is  sometimes  rapid,  but  the  suspen- 
sions  are  considerable,  and  this  is  the  theory  of  Fits,  or  Epilepsy.  For- 
tunately the  horse  is  not  often  afllicted  with  this  disease,  altiiough  it  is 
not  unknown  to  the  breeder.  The  attack  is  sudden.  The  animal  stops; 
— trembles ; — looks  vacantly  around  him,  and  falls.  Occasionally  tlie 
convulsions  which  follow  are  slight ;  at  other  times  they  are  terrible.  The 
head  and  fore  part  of  the  horse  are  most  affected,  and  the  contortions  are 
most  singular.  In  a  few  minutes  the  convulsions  cease  ;  he  gets  up  ;  looks 
around  tiim  with  a  kind  of  stupid  astonishment;  shakes  his  ears;  urines; 
and  eats  or  drinks  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

The  only  hope  of  cure  consists  in  discovering  the  cause  of  the  fits ;  and 
an  experienced  practitioner  must  be  consulted,  if  the  animal  be  valuable; 
generally  speaking,  however,  the  cause  is  so  difficult  to  discover,  and  the 
habit  of  fits  is  so  soon  formed,  and  they  will  so  frequently  return,  even  at 
a  great  distance  of  time,  that  he  who  values  his  own  safety,  or  the  lives  of 
his  family,  will  cease  to  use  an  epileptic  horse. 

PALSY. 

The  stream  of  nervous  influence  is  sometimes  stopped,  and  thenc^ 
results  Palsy.  The  power  of  the  muscle  is  unimpaired,  but  the  nervous 
energy  is  deficient.  Palsy  in  the  horse  is  usually  confined  to  the  hinder 
limbs.  When  purging  has  been  too  suddenly  stopped,  he  becomes 
paralytic.  It  is  sometimes  the  consequence  of  violent  inflammation 
of  the  bowels.  It  is  produced  by  falls,  blows  on  the  loins,  injury 
*n  casting,  and  turning  in  a  narrow  stall.  In  these  latter  cases  the 
spine  has  been  evidently  injured.  Old  carriage-horses,  and  horses  of 
draught  of  every  kind,  although  not  absolutely  paralyzed,  have  often 
great  si iflhess  in  their  gait,  and  difliculty  of  turning.      Possibly  they  ran 


RABIES. 


109 


turn  one  way  and  not  the  other.  They  are  unwilling  to  lie  down,  from 
experience  of  the  difficulty  they  would  have  in  rising  again.  Tiiese  are 
evident  injuries  of  the  spine,  and  a  loss  of  some  of  the  joints  of  the  bins 
or  back,  and  are  without  remedy ;  and  so,  often,  is  palsy.  Bleeding, 
physicking,  antimonial  medicines,  and  stimulating  embrocations,  are  the 
most  likely  means  of  cure. 

RABIES,  OR  MADNESS. 

There  is  another  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  of  which  we  must 
speak — Rabies,  or  Madnkss — that  incurable  malady  which  results  from 
the  bite  of  a  rabid  or  mad  animal.  Tlie  poison  of  tlie  saliva  remains  in  the 
wound  for  an  uncertain  time,  varying  from  three  to  eight  weeks  in  the 
horse,  and  then  begins  to  produce  its  dreadful  effects  on  the  system.  The 
attack  of  rabies  (or  hydrophobia  as  it  is  commonly,  but  very  improperly 
called  in  the  horse  and  other  quadrupeds,  for  tliey  have  no  dread  of  water) 
is  usually  very  sudden.  The  animal  will  go  to  work  apparently  well :  all 
at  once  he  will  stop,  tremble,  heave,  paw,  stagger,  and  fall.  Almost  im- 
mediately he  will  rise  ;  draw  his  load  a  little  farther  ;  again  stop,  look  about 
him,  and  once  more  fall.  This  cannot  be  confounded  with  megrims, 
because  the  horse  is  perfectly  sensible.  The  sooner  he  is  led  home  the 
better,  for  the  progress  of  tlie  disease  is. most  rapid,  and  if  he  is  not  im- 
mediately destroyed,  he  sliould  be  slung,  for  sometimes  a  state  of  the 
highest  excitation  speedily  ensues.  The  horse  kicks  and  plunges  in  the 
most  violent  manner;  attempts  furiously  to  seize  and  bite  the  other  horses, 
or  his  attendants;  "and  will  level  with  the  ground  every  thing  before  him, 
'himself  sweating,  and  snorting,  and  ibaming,  aniidst  the  ruins."  In  both 
the  ferocious  and  the  harmless  variety  of  the  disease,  staggering  and  palsy 
of  the  hinder  extremities  soon  follow.  We  remember  to  have  seen  a  beauti- 
ful mare,  sitting  on  her  iiaunches,  and  unable  to  rise,  yet  pawing  furiously 
with  her  fore-feet,  and  striking  at  every  thing  within  her  reach.  The  thirst 
is  excessive,  and  the  act  of  swallowing  is  usually  performed  with  a  forced, 
gulping  effort,  and  the  head  is,  in  a  few  instances,  snatched  violently  from 
the  pail.     The  disease  rarely  extends  beyond  the  third  day. 

After  death  there  is  uniformly  found  inflammation  at  the  back  part  of 
the  mouth,  and  at  the  top  of  tlie  windpipe,  and  likewise  in  the  stomach, 
and  on  the  membrane  covering  the  lungs,  and  where  the  spinal  marrow  first 
comes  from  the  brain. 

When  the  disease  can  be  clearly  connected  with  a  previous  bite,  the 
sooner  the  animal  is  destroyed  the  better,  for  there  is  no  cure.  If  the 
symptoms  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  rabies,  although  no  bite  be 
suspected,  the  horse  should  at  least  be  slung,  and  the  medicine,  if  any  be 
administered,  given  in  the  form  of  a  drink,  and  with  the  hand  well  pro- 
tected;  because,  if  it  should  be  scratched  in  baHing  the  horse,  or  the 
skin  should  have  been  previously  broken,  the  saliva  of  the  animal  ia 
capable  of  communicating  the  disease.  Several  farriers  have  lost  their 
lives  from  being  bitten  or  scratched  in  the  act  of  administering  medicine 
to  a  rabid  horse. 

It  is  always  dangerous  to  encourage  dogs  much  about  the  stable,  and 
especially  if^  they  become  fond  of  the  horses,  and  are  in  the  habit  of  jump- 
ing up  and  licking  them.  The  corners  of  horses'  mouths  are  often  sore 
from  the  pressure  of  the  bit ;  and  when  a  coach-dog  in  a  gentleman's 
.stable — and  it  is  likely  to  happen  in  every  stable,  and  with  every  dog — 
becomes  rabid  and  dies,  the  horse  too  frequently  follows  him  at  no  great 
distance  of  time. 

If  a  horse  should  be  bitten  by  a  dog  under  suspicious  circumstances,  ha 


Jlo 


THE  HORSE. 


shoul.l  be  carefully  ex<amincd,  and  every  wound,  and  even  the  sliglitest 
scratch,  well  burned  with  lunar  caustic  (nitrate  of  silver),  and  tlie  scab 
should  be  removed  and  tiie  operation  repeated  on  the  third  day.  The  hot 
iron  does  not  answer  so  well,  and  other  caustics  are  not  so  manageable. 
In  the  spring  of  1827,  four  horses  were  bitten  near  Hyde  park,  by  a 
mad  dog.  To  one  of  tliem  the  lunar  caustic  was  severely  and  twice 
api)lied — he  lived.  The  red  hot  iron  was  unsparingly  used  on  the  others, 
and  they  died.  The  caustic  must  reach  every  part  of  the  wound.  At 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  month,  the  horse  may  be  considered  to  be 
safe. 

NEUROTOMY,  OR  CUTTING  THE  NERVE. 

To  enable  ihe  horse  to  accomplish  many  of  tlie  tasks  we  exact  from  hlni 
we  have  nailed  on  his  feet  an  iron  defence.  Without  the  shoe,  he  woul 
not  only  be  unable  to  travel  over  our  hard  roads,  but  he  would  speedily 
become  useless  to  us.  While,  however,  the  iron  protects  his  feet  from 
being  battered  and  bruised,  it  is  necessarily  inflexible.  It  cramps  and 
confines  the  hoof,  and,  without  great  care,  entails  on  our  valuable  servant 
disease  and  torture. 

Among  the  difierent  modes  of  palliating  or  removing  the  extreme  pain, 
veterinary  surgeons  have  lately  resorted  to  the  division  of  the  nerve  which 
goes  to  the  foot.  We  shall  now  perhaps  be  able  to  understand  the  reason 
and  the  effect  of  tlie  operation.  The  nerve  of  the  leg,  we  have  said,  is 
derived  from  the  union  of  several  of  the  spinal  nerves,  and  consequently  it 
is  a  nerve  of  combined  feeling  and  motion.  The  fibres  connected  with 
motion,  however,  are  directed  only  to  those  parts  which  are  concerned  in 
the  production  of  motion,  and  these  are  the  muscles-  By  the  contraction  of 
the  muscles,  caused  by  the  influence  of  the  nerves,  the  limbs  are  moved. 
The  bones,  the  blood-vessels,  and  other  parts,  are  merely  passive.  Now 
the  muscles  of  the  leg  of  the  horse  do  not  extend  below  the  knee.  No  part 
concerned  in  the  production  of  motion  is  found  below  the  knee,  and  the 
fibres  of  the  nerve  which  are  connected  with  motion  are  all  distributed 
above  this  joint ;  and  when  we  divide  the  nerve  either  on  the  pastern,  or 
above  the  fetlock,  we  do  not  touch  a  single  fibre  connected  with  motion. 
Those  which  are  connected  with  feeling  are  continued  to  the  very  extremity 
of  the  foot,  and  these  are  the  fibres  which  we  divide  in  the  operation  of 
neurotomy,  or  nerve-cutting.  We  cannot  possibly  interfere  with  the 
motion  of  the  limb,  but  we  take  away  the  sensibility  or  feeling  of  the  foot, 
and  relieve  the  animal  from  torture ;  and,  doing  this,  we  not  only  render 
him  a  service  in  return  for  the  many  we  have  received  from  him,  but  we 
often  and  speedily  abate  the  inflammation  of  the  part,  and  give  time  for 
the  use  of  remedies,  which  we  should  otherv/ise  have  been  unable  to  apply, 
and  thus  possibly  retain  his  services  for  many  a  year. 

It  is  long  before  a  new  operation  or  practice,  however  useful  or  judicious 
it  may  be,  is  generally  adopted,  and,  probably,  the  majority  of  our  readers 
are  some  of  the  last  to  shake  off  the  prejudices  and  errors  of  their  fore- 
fathers. We  have  heard  it  said  by  many  a  farmer,  and  by  many  a  farrier, 
too — "  What !  cut  the  nerve  of  the  limb  !  Is  not  the  nerve  the  very  life 
of  the  limb  ?  Does  not  the  limb  derive  all  its  support  from  the  nerve? 
Will  not  the  foot  waste  away,  and  even  the  hoof  drop  off?"  When  this 
operation  has  been  improperly  performed,  and  where  common  sense  would 
have  forbidden  it,  and  the  horse,  not  only  freed  from  pain,  but  from  feeling 
too,  has  battered  and  bruised  his  foot,  which  the  sensation  of  pain  would 
not  have  permitted,  and  thus  the  structure  of  the  foot  has  been  injured  ot 


NEUROTOMY. 


11 


aestroycd,  and  die  hoof  has  actually  dropped  off  after  the  division  of  the 
nerve — every  prejudice  has  been  strengthened,  and  the  operation  has  been 
censured  and  neglected.  Now,  although  we  have  shown  that  every  part 
jf  the  animal  frame  is  dependent  on  nervous  energy,  we  have  also  shown 
that  we  do  not  and  cannot,  by  this  operation,  injure  those  nerves  on  which 
nutiition  depends: — these  are  the  ganglial  nerves,  which  wind  round  the 
arteries  and  veins,  and  their  minutest  branches,  and  enable  them  to  discharge 
their  functions ;  and  they  are  not,  and  cannot  be  touched  in  the  operation 
of  unnerving ;  nor  can  the  sligiitest  portion  of  nutriment  be  takea  away 
from  the  linVb.  We  divide  only  the  nerve  of  sensation;  and  if  we  have 
used  a  little  common  sense,  and  considered  whether  it  be  a  case  that  admit* 
of  the  operation,  and  will  probably  benefit  by  it,  we  shall  give  relief  to  him 
who  well  deserves  it,  and  will  amply  repay  it. 


NERVE    AND    BRANCHES    OF    THE    LEG. 
WITH    THEIR    LOCALITY,    ETC. 

Nerve  on  the  inside  of  ilie  ofF-lcgr,  at  the  edge  of  the  shanK 
bone,  and  behind  the  nerve  and  artery. 

Continuation  of  the  same  nerve  on  the  pastern,  ^nd  pro- 
ceeding- downward  to  supply  the  back  part  ot  the  foot 
with  feeling-. 

Division  of  the  nerve  on  the  fetlock  joint. 

Branch  which  supplies  with  feeling-  the  fore-par*  of  the 

foot. 

Artery  between  the  vein  and  nerve. 

Continuation  of  the  artery  on  the  pastern,  clos--  to  and 

before  the  nerve. 
Vein  before  the  artery  and  nerve. 
Same  vein  spreading  <iver  the  pastern. 
One  of  the  tlexor  tendons,  the  perforatus  (perfora'^^d). 
Deeper  flexor  tendon,  the  perforans  (perforating,  t    nidined 

witiiin  the  other). 
Tendinous  bands  in  which  the  flexors  work. 
One  of  the  extensors  of  the  foot. 
Internal  or  sensible  frog. 
Posterior  lateral  ligament. 
Fleshy  or  sensible  lamina,  covering  the  cof5n-bone,  th« 

horny  crust  being  removed. 
Horny  crust. 
Sole. 


Our  cut  gives  a  view  of  the  nerve  on  the  inside,  as  it  approaches  tho 
fetlock,  and  goes  over  the  pastern.  It  will  be  seen  that  branches  are  given 
off  above  the  fetlock,  which  go  to  the  fore-part  of  the  foot,  and  supply  it 
with  feeling.  The  continuation  of  the  nerve  below  the  fetlock  is  given 
principally  to  the  quarters  and  hinder-part  of  the  foot.  The  first  consider 
alioii,  then,  with  the  operator  is,  Does  he  wish  to  deprive  the  whole  of  the 
fc'Ot  of  sensation,  or  is  the  cause  of  lameness  principally  in  the  hinder-part 
of  the  foot,  so  that  he  can  leave  some  degree  of  feeling  in  the  fore-part,  and 
prevent  that  alteration  in  the  tread  and  going  of  the  horse  which  the  good 
horseman  immediately  detects. 

The  horse  is  cast  and  secured,  and  the  limb  to  be  operated  on  removed 
from  the  hobbles,  and  extended — the  hair  having  been  previously  shaved 
fioii-  the  part.  The  operator  then  feels  for  the  throbbing  of  the  artery,  or 
the  round  firm  body  of  the  nerve  itself,  on  the  side  of  the  shank-bone,  or 
the  larger  pastern.  The  vein,  artery,  and  nerve,  here  run  close  together; 
the  vein  nearest  to  the  front  of  the  leg,  then  the  artery,  and  the  nervo 
behind.     He  cautiously  cuts  through  the  skin,  for  an  inch  and  a  half  in 


112  THE*HORSE. 

longlli.  The  vessels  will  then  be  brought  into  view,  and  the  nerve  will  b« 
distinguished  from  them,  by  its  being  behind,  and  by  its  whiteness.  \ 
crooked  needle,  with  silk,  is  passed  under  it,  to  raise  it  a  little  ;  it  is  dis- 
sected from  tiie  cellular  substance  beneath,  and  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  of  it  cut  cut;  the  first  incision  being  made  at  the  upper  part,  in  which 
case  the  second  cut  will  not  be  felt,  The  horse  must  then  be  turned,  and 
the  operation  performed  on  the  other  side,  for  there  is  a  nervous  trunk  on 
both  sides.  The  wounds  are  now  closed  with  strips  of  adhesive-plaster,  a 
bandage  placed  over  them,  the  head  tied  up  for  two  days,  and  the  animal 
kept  rather  low,  and  as  quiet  as  possible.  _  The  incisions  will  gcnerally 
, rapidly  heal,  and  in  three  weeks  or  a  month,  and  sometimes  earlier,  tiie 
horse  will  be  fit  for  work. 

For  ring-bone  : — the  side  cartilages  becoming  bony,  and  partial  stiflness 
of  the  pastern  and  coffin-joints,  the  operation  of  nerving  will  probably  be 
useful.  Tiie  sense  of  pain  being  taken  away,  tiie  animal  will  use  these 
parts  more,  and  partly  recover  tiieir  natural  action  and  motion.  For  the 
same  reason,  in  old  contraction  of  tlie  feet,  it  is  highly  beneficial.  The 
torture  occasioned  by  the  pressure  of  the  horny  crust  on  the  sensible  parts 
within  being  no  longer  felt,  and  the  foot  coming  fully  and  firmly  in  contact 
with  ihe  ground,  not  only  is  lameness  relieved,  but  the  elasticity  and  form 
of  the  foot  partially  restored.  Where  there  has  long  existed  lameness, 
unattended  with  heat  of  the  foot  or  alteration  of  shape,  and  the  seat  of 
which  could  not  be  ascertained,  although  probably  existing  between  the 
shuttle-bone  and  the  back  tendon  which  plays  over  it,  neurotomy  may  be 
resorted  to  with  decided  advantage. 

Mischief,  however,  will  result  from  the  operation  if  the  pastern  or  coflin 
joints  are  perfectly  stiff,  because  the  concussion  occasioned  by  the  forcible 
contact  of  the  foot  with  the  ground,  and  unbroken  by  the  play  of  the  joints, 
must  necessarily  still  more  injure  the  bone.  When  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  con- 
vex or  pumiced,  the  effect  of  neurotomy  will  be  most  destructive.  The  sole, 
scarcely  able  to  bear  the  pressure  of  the  coffin-bone  forced  below  its  natural 
situation,  even  when  pain  induces  the  animal  to  put  his  foot  as  gently  as 
possible  on  the  ground,  would  now  be  probably  worn  through  and  destroyed. 
So  if  inflammation  existed,  although  its  pain  might  be  removed,  yet  its 
progress  would  be  quickened  by  the  bruising  to  which  the  parts  might  be 
subjected,  and  more  especially  would  this  be  the  case  if  there  were  any  ulcer- 
ation of  the  ligaments  or  cartilages.  How  many  cases  will  this  include !  To 
how  many  poor  coach  and  cart-horses  and  hackneys  might  some  years  of 
usefulness  and  enjoyment  thus  be  added  ! 

The  value  of  the  operation,  or  the  unpleasant  consequences  which  may 
follow  from  it,  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  the  surgeon ;  and  that  judg- 
ment being  duly  exercised,  we  regard  this  operation  as  one  of  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  horse  practice  in  modern  times. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE. 

The  diseases  of  the  eye  constitute  a  very  important,  but  a  most  unsatis- 
factory division  of  our  work  ;  for  the  maladies  of  this  organ,  although  few 
in  number,  are  frequent  in  their  appearance;  they  are  sadly  obstinate,  and 
baffle  all  skill.  The  eye  of  the  horse  appears  to  be  naturally  more  disposed 
to  disease  than  that  of  any  other  animal  vvith  which  we  are  acquainted ; 
and  most  assuredly  there  is  no  domestic  animal,  the  treatment  of  whose 
diseases  is  so  much  at  variance  with  common  sense. 

We  have  spoken  of  Fracture  of  the  orbit,  and  its  treatment.  Occa- 
sionally a  v/ouND  is  inflicted  by  a  passionate  or  careless  servant.     The  eye. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYE.  US 

ilsnll'is  rarely  injured.  It  is  placed  on  a  mass  of  fat,  and  it  turns  most  readily, 
und  the  prong  of  the  fork  glances  otF;  but  the  substance  around  the  eye  may 
be  deeply  wounded,  and  very  considerable  inflammation  may  ensue.  Thi? 
should  be  abated  by  poultices,  and  bleeding,  and  phasic;  but  no  probe 
should  be  used,  under  the  foolish  idea  of  ascertaining  the  depth  of  the 
wound;  for,  from  the  constant  motion  of  the  eye,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
pass  the  probe  into  the  original  wound,  and  the  efTort  to  accomplish  it  will 
give  a  great,  deal  of  pain,  and  increase  the  inflammation. 

The  horse  has  occasionally  a  scaly  eruption  on  the  edges  of  the  eyelids, 
attended  with  great  itching,  in  the  etfort  to  allay  which,  by  rubbing  the  part, 
the  eye  may  be  blemished.  The  nitrated  ointment  of  quicksilver,  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  lard,  may  be  slightly  rubbed  on  the  edges  of  th.; 
lids  with  considerable  good  effect. 

Warts  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  edges  of  the  lids,  and  are  a  source 
of  great  irritation.  When  rubbed,  they  bleed;  and  the  common  opinion  is 
true,  that  they  are  propagated  by  the  blood.  They  may  be  taken  off  with 
a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  and  their  roots  touched  with  lunar  caustic. 

The  Haw  may  be  thickened,  and  project  on  the  fore  part  of  the  eye. 
The  eye  is  drawn  back  by  the  retractor  muscle,  to  relieve  it  from  the  pain- 
ful influence  of  the  light ;  and  the  haw  being  thus  pushed  forward  and 
thickened,  and  the  neighbouring  parts  thickened,  is  unable  to  retract. 
Cooling  applications,  and  bleeding  and  physic,  will  generally  set  all  right. 
The  farrier  who  talks  of  cutting  out  this  important  organ  must  be  exceed- 
ingly ignorant. 

In  a  very  few  instances,  long-continued  inflammation  of  the  haw  is  fol- 
lowed  by  ulceration  and  eating  away  of  the  cartilage.  If  the  Goulard  lotion, 
and  that  succeeded  by  the  white  vitriol,  fail  to  abate  the  inflammation,  or  to 
retract  the  part,  it  may  be  necessary  to  extirpate  it.  The  horse  must  be 
cast,  and  the  aid  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  indispensable;  for  he  alone  can 
determine  how  much  of  the  neighbouring  membranes  must  likewise  be 
removed. 

COMMON  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYE. 

The  conjunctiva  is  the  seat  of  the  worst  disease,  and  which  is  too  often 
destructive  to  the  eye.  We  ma)'  consider  inflammation  of  the  eye  under 
two  forms — the  common  and  manageable,  and  the  specific  and  fatal.  The 
common  inflam.mation  is  generally  sudden  in  its  attack.  The  lids  will  be 
found  swelled,  the  eyes  partially  closed,  with  some  weeping.  The  inside 
of  the  lid  will  be  red,  some  red  streaks  visible  on  the  white  of  the  eye,  and 
the  cornea  slightly  dim.  This  is  usually  connected  with  some  degree  of 
catarrh  or  cold  ;  but  it  is  as  often  unaccompanied  by  this,  and  depends  on 
external  irritation,  as  a  blow,  or  the  presence  of  a  bit  of  hay-seed  or  oat-husk 
within  the  lid,  and  towards  the  outer  corner,  where  the  haw  cannot  reach  it: 
therefore  the  lids  should  always  be  carefully  examined  as  to  this  possible 
liource  of  the  complaint.  The  health  of  the  animal  is  generally  not  at  all 
affected  :  he  feeds  well,  and  performs  his  work  with  his  usual  spirit.  Cool- 
ing applications  to  the  eye,  as  the  Goulard's  extract  in  the  proportion  of  a 
diachni,  or  half  an  ounce  of  the  tincture  of  opium,  to  a  pint  of  water,  with 
tnash-d/et,  and  gentle  physic,  will  usually  get  rid  of  this;  or  the  ir.flamma 
lion  will  subsile  without  medical  treatment. 

SVECIFtC  OPHTHALMIA,  OR  MOON-BLINDNESS. 

Should  three  or  four  days  pass,  and  the  inflammation  not  be  abated  we 
mav  begin  to  suspect  that  it  is  the  true  Ophthalmia,  especially  if  the  eye 


114  THE  HORSE. 

Se  very  impatient  of  Hght,  and  the  cornea  be  considerably  cloudod  ;  tlie 
aqueous  humour  then  often  loses  its  transparency,  even  the  iris  changes  its 
colour,  and  the  pupil  is  exceedingly  contracted.  We  have  now  an  obsti- 
nate  disease  to  combat,  and  one  which  will  generally  maintain  its  ground  in 
spite  of  all  our  efforts.  For  three,  or  four,  or  five  weeks,  tlie  inflammation 
will  remain  undiminished,  or,  if  it  appears  to  yield  on  one  day,  it  will  return 
with  redoubled  violence  on  the  next.  At  length,  and  often  unconnected 
with  any  of  the  means  we  have  been  using,  the  eye  begins  to  oear  the  light, 
the  redness  on  the  membrane  of  the  lid  and  the  white  of  the  eye  somewhat 
suddenly  disappears,  the  cornea  clears  up,  and  the  only  vestige  of  disease 
which  remains  is  a  slight  thickening  of  the  lids  and  apparent  uneasinesa 
when  exposed  to  a  very  strong  light. 

If  we  imagine  that  we  have  got  rid  of  the  disease,  we  shall  be  sadly  dis- 
appointed ;  for  in  the  course  of  six  weeks  or  two  months,  either  the  same 
eye  undergoes  a  second  and  similar  attack,  or  the  other  eye  becomes 
affected.  All  again  seems  to  pass  over,  except  that  the  eye  is  not  so  perfectly 
restored,  and  a  slight,  deeply-seated  cloudiness  begins  to  appear;  and  after 
repeated  attacks,  and  alternations  of  disease  from  eye  to  eye,  the  affair  ter- 
minates  in  opacity  of  the  lens  or  its  capsule,  attended  with  perfect  blindness 
either  of  one  eye  or  both.  This  affection  was  formerly  known  by  the  name 
of  moon-hJindiiess,  from  its  periodical  return,  and  some  supposed  mfluence 
of  the  moon.  That  planet,  however,  has  not,  and  cannot  have,  any  thing 
to  do  with  it. 

What  is  the  practitioner  doing  all  this  while  ?  He  is  an  anxious  and 
busy,  but  almost  powerless  spectator.  He  foments  the  eyes  with  warm 
water,  or  applies  cold  lotions  with  the  extract  of  lead  or  opium,  or  poultices 
to  which  these  drugs  may  be  added  ;  he  bleeds,  not  from  the  temporal 
artery — for  that  does  not  supply  the  orbit  of  the  eye — but  from  the  angular 
vein  at  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  or  by  scarifying  the  lining  of  the  lid,  or 
by  subtracting  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood  from  the  jugular.  The 
scarifying  of  the  lids,  which  may  be  easily  accomplished  without  a  twitch, 
by  exposing  the  inside  of  the  lids,  and  drawing  a  keen  lancet  slightly  over 
it,  is  the  most  effectual  of  all  ways  to  abate  inflammation  ;  for  we  are  then 
immediately  unloading  the  distended  vessels.  He  places  his  setons  in  the 
cheek,  or  his  rowels  under  the  jaw ;  and  he  keeps  the  animal  low,  and 
physics,  or  gives  fever  medicine — digitalis,  nitre,  and  emetic  tartar;  or,  as 
some  have  done,  considering  it  as  a  constitutional  disease,  administers  the 
corrosive  sublimate  daily,  in  doses  of  a  scruple.  The  disease,  however, 
ebbs  and  flows,  retreats  and  attacks,  until  it  reaches  its  natural  termination, 
blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes. 

The  horse  is  more  subject  to  this  disease  from  the  age  of  four  to  six  years 
than  at  any  other  period.  He  has  then  completed  his  growth  :  he  is  full  of 
blood,  and  liable  to  inflammatory  complaints,  and  the  eye  is  the  organ  attacked 
from  a  peculiar  predisposition  in  it  to  inflammation,  the  nature  or  cause  of 
which  cannot  be  explained.  Every  affection  of  the  eye  appearing  about 
this  age  must  be  regarded  with  much  suspicion.  It  is  a  common  opinion 
that  black  horses  are  more  subject  to  blindness  than  others.  We  have  con- 
siderable doubt  about  this,  or  rather  we  believe  that  colour  has  no  influence 
either  in  producing  or  aggravating  the  disease. 

As  this  malady  so  frequently  destroys  the  sight,  and  there  are  certam 
periods  when  the  inflammation  has  seemingly  subsided,  and  the  inexpe- 
rienced person  would  be  deceived  into  the  belief  that  all  danger  is  at  an 
end,  the  eye  should  be  most  carefully  examined  at  the  time  of  ])urchase 
and  the  examiner  should  be  fullv  aware  of  all  the  minute  indications  of 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYE.  1  )  £ 

jfevious  or  approacliing  disease.  They  are  a  slight  thickening  of  the  lids, 
or  puckering  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  ;  a  difference  in  the  ufipa 
rent  size  of  the  eyes;  a  cloudiness,  although  perhaps  scarcely  perceptible, 
of  the  surface  of  the  cornea,  or  more  deeply  seated,  or  a  hazy  circle  round 
its  edge;  a  gloominess  of  the  eye  generally,  ap'^'  dullness  of  the  iris;  or  a 
minute,  faint,  dusky  spot  in  the  centre,  with  or  without  little  fibres  or  lines 
diverging  from  it. 

The  cause  of  this  inflammation  is  undoubtedly  a  strong  predisposition  to 
it  in  the  eye  of  the  horse,  but  assisted  by  the  heated  and  poisoned  air  of 
many  stables.  Some  of  our  readers,  whose  stables  are  not  too  air-tight,  see 
frequently  a  great  deal  of  this  disease;  but  if  they  knew  its  ravages,  where 
several  horses  are  crowded  together,  and  scarcely  a  breath  of  air  admitted, 
they  would  deem  themselves  comparatively  fortunate.  The  heated  air  has 
much  to  do  with  the  production  of  the  disease  ; — the  poisoned  air  a  great 
deal  more ;  for  every  one  must  have  observed,  on  entering  a  close  stable 
early  in  the  morning,  strong  fumes  of  hartshorn,  which  were  painful  to  his 
eyes,  and  caused  them  to  water.  What  must  be  the  constant  action  of  this 
on  the  eyes  of  the  horse  ?  The  dung  of  the  horse,  and  the  litter  of  the 
stables,  when  becoming  putrid,  give  out  fumes  of  volatile  alkali  or  harts- 
horn ;  but  besides  this,  the  urine  of  the  horse,  for  some  purpose  unknovvn 
to  us,  possibly  to  teach  us  to  take  better  care  of  this  useful  servant,  begins 
very  soon  after  it  is  voided  to  give  out  immense  quantities  of  pungent  gas. 
If  we  are  scarcely  able  to  bear  it  when  we  stand  in  the  stable  for  only  a  few 
minutes,  we  need  not  wonder  at  the  prevalence  of  inflammation  in  tiie  eye 
of  the  stabled  horse,  nor  at  the  difficulty  of  abating  inflammation  while  the 
eye  continues  to  be  exposed  to  such  painful  excitement.  Stables  are  now 
much  better  ventilated  than  they  used  to  be,  and  this  disease  is  not  so  prev- 
alent as  it  was  fifty  years  ago. 

The  farmer  may  not  be  aware  of  another  cause  of  this  disease,  to  which 
his  horse  is  more  particularly  exposed,  viz:  confinement  in  a  dark  stable. 
Many  stables  in  the  country  have  no  glazed  windows,  but  there  is  a  flap 
which  is  opens  for  a  few  hours  in  the  day,  or  while  the  carter  is  employed 
in  the  stable,  and  when  that  is  shut  down  almost  total  darkness  prevails. 
Let  our  readers  consider  what  are  his  sensations  when  he  suddenly  emerges 
from  a  dark  room  into  the  full  glare  of  light:  he  is  dazzled  and  bewildered, 
and  some  time  passes  before  his  vision  is  distinct.  Let  this  be  repeated 
several  times  in  the  day,  and  what  will  be  the  consequence  ?  The  sight 
will  be  disordered,  and  the  eye  irreparably  injured.  Then  let  him  think  of 
his  poor  horse,  who  often  stumbles  and  starts  through  no  fault  of  his  own, 
although  he  is  corrected  for  so  doing,  but  because  his  eyes  are  necessarily 
weakened  by  these  sudden  transitions,  and  disposed  to  take  on  this  sad 
inflammation  with  all  its  fatal  results. 

The  propagation  of  various  diseases,  and  this  probably  more  than  any 
other,  from  the  sire  to  his  progeny,  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered  by 
breeders.  Let  a  stallion  that  is  blind,  or  whose  sight  is  defective,  possess 
every  other  point  and  quality  that  can  be  wished,  yet  he  is  worse  than  use- 
less;  tor  a  very  considerable  portion  of  his  offspring  will  most  .assuredly 
i.iherit  his  weak  eyes,  or  become  totally  blind.  There  is  no  fact  bettei 
established  than  this. 

The  most  frequent  consequences  of  this  disease  are  cloudiness  of  the  eye 
and  cataract.  The  cloudiness  is  singular  in  its  nature.  It  will  change  in 
twenty-four  hours  from  the  thinnest  film  to  the  thickest  opacity  ;  and  as 
suddenly  the  eye  will  nearly  regain  its  perfect  transparency,  but  only  tc 
'ose  it,  and  as  rapidly,  a  second  tiifie.     The  most  barbarous  meth(jJs  nave 


ll(i  THE  HORSE. 

been  resorted  to  for  tl  e  purpose  of  removing  this  cloudiness.  Clialk,  and 
salt,  and  sugar,  and  even  pounded  glass,  have  been  introduced  into  the  eye 
mechanically  to  rub  off  the  film.  It  was  forgotten  that  the  cloudiness  was 
the  effect  of  inflammation,  and  that  means  so  harsh  and  cruel  were  very 
likely  to  recall  the  inflammation  ;  that  these  rough  and  sharp  substances 
must  of  necessity  inflict  excruciating  pain ;  and  that,  after  all,  it  generally 
is  not  a  film  on  the  surface  of  the  cornea,  but  a  dimness  pervading  its  sub- 
stance, and  even  sinking  deep  within  it,  and  therefore  not  capable  of  being 
rubbed  off.  Where  the  cloudiness  can  be  removed,  it  will  be  best  effected 
by  first  abating  inflammation  ;  and  then  exciting  the  absorbents  to  take  up 
the  grey  deposit,  by  washing  the  eye  with  a  very  weak  solution  of  corro- 
sive sublimate,  containing  not  more  than  a  grain  of  sublimate  to  an  ounce 
of  water. 

Opacity  of  the  lens  is  another  consequence  of  inflammation.  A  white 
speck  appears  on  the  ceinie  of  the  lens,  which  gradually  spreads  over  it, 
and  completely  covers  it.  It  is  generally  so  while  and  pearly  as  not  to 
be  mistaken  :  at  other  times  more  hazy,  deceiving  the  inexperienced,  and 
occasioning  doubt  in  the  mmd  of  the  professional  man.  We  have  seen 
mawy  instances  in  wiiich  the  sight  has  been  evidently  affected  or  almost  lost, 
and  yet  a  dnferent  opinion  has  been  given  by  very  fair  judges.  The  eye 
must  be  exposed  to  the  light,  and  yet  under  the  kind  of  shelter  to  which  we 
have  previously  referred,  in  order  to  discover  the  defect.  The  pupil  of  the 
horse  is  seldom  black,  like  that  of  the  human  being,  and  its  greyish  hue 
conceals  the  recent  or  thin  film  which  may  be  spreading  over  the  lens. 

Cataract  in  ttie  eye  of  a  horse  admits  of  no  remedy,  for  two  obvious 
reasons ;  the  retractor  muscle  draws  the  eye  back  so  powerfully  and  so 
deeply  into  the  socket,  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  perform  any 
operation  ;  and,  could  an  operation  be  performed,  and  the  opaque  lens 
removed,  the  sight  would  be  so  imperfect,  from  the  rays  of  light  not  being 
sufficiently  converged,  that  the  horse  would  be  worse  to  us  than  a  blind  one. 
The  man  who  has  undergone  the  operation  of  couching,  may  put  a  new 
lens  before  his  eye  in  the  form  of  a  convex  spectacle,  but  we  could  not 
adapt  spectacles  to  the  eye  of  the  horse,  or  fix  them  there. 

GUTTA  SERENA. 

Another  species  of  blindness,  and  of  which  we  spoke  when  describing 
.he  retina,  is  Gutta  Serena,  commonly  called  the  glass  eye.  The  pupil  is 
more  than  usually  dilated  ; — it  is  immoveable,  and  bright  and  glassy.  This 
is  the  palsy  of  the  optic  nerve,  or  its  expansion,  the  retina ;  and  is  usually 
produced  by  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  head.  We  have  described  it 
as  a  consequence  of  staggers.  So  much  pressure  has  been  occasioned  on 
the  base  of  the  brain,  that  the  nerve  has  been  injured,  and  its  function 
destroyed.  The  treatment  of  Gutta  Serena  is  quite  as  difficult  as  that  of 
cataract.  We  have  heard  of  successful  cases,  but  we  never  saw  one  ;  nor 
should  we  be  disposed  to  incur  much  expense  in  endeavouring  to  accom- 
plish impossibilities.  Reasoning  from  the  cause  of  the  disease,  we  should 
bleed,  and  physic,  and  rowel.  If  we  succeed,  it  must  be  by  constitutional 
treatment;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  pressure  would  have  long 
ceased,  although  the  mischief  which  it  had  effected  remained.  As  to  local 
treatment,  the  seat  of  disease  is  out  of  our  reach. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  NOSE  H? 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE  ANATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  NOSE  AND  ]M0U1H 
We  now  proceed  to  a  description  of  the  face  of  tiie  horse,  so  called  'P 
contradistinction  from  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  containing  the  brain. 
The  nusal  bones,  or  bones  of  tiie  nose  ( j  j,  page  66,  and  a,  p.  68),  are  con- 
nected wich  the  frontal  bones  above,  and  with  the  lachrymal,  i  i,  and  the 
bones  of  the  upper  jaw,  /  /,  on  either  side  ;  tliey  are  united  together  by  a 
plain  suiure,  wliich  is  a  continuation  of  the  frontal,  and  they  terminate  in  a 
point  at  the  nostril  (/,  p.  63).  Tiiey  are  rounded  and  arched  abovCj 
because  they  are  exposed  to  occasional  violence  and  injury,  which  the 
arch-form  will  enable  them  best  to  resist ;  and  at  the  base  of  the  arch,  where 
the  main  strength  should  be,  they  are  overlapped  by  the  upper  jawbone,  as 
we  have  described  the  temporal  bone  overlapping  the  base  of  the  parietal. 
These  bones  form  a  principal  part  of  the  face  ;  and  the  length,  or  shortness, 
and  the  character  of  the  face  depend  upon  tliem.  The  largeness  and  length 
of  these  bones  constitute  the  striking  ditference  between  the  head  of  the  cart 
horse  and  of  the  blood-horse. 

In  some  horses,  this  arch  is  more  than  usually  developed,  and  there  is, 
beside,  a  prominence  or  increased  archcdness  about  half-way  down  the  nasal 
bones.  These  horses  are  said  to  have  Ronvm  noses,  because  this  arch  of 
'he  nose  distinguishes  the  profile  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
ancient  Romans.  We  cannot  say  that  the  breed  of  horses  in  which  the 
Roman-nose  usually  occurs,  possesses  superior  sagacity  or  courage;  they 
are  generally  easy,  good-tempered  horses,  excellent  feeders,  and  hardy  con- 
stitutioned,  but  possessing  little  blood.  Many  thorough-bred  horses  have  a 
peculiarity  the  reverse  of  the  Roman-nose.  There  is  a  depression  or  hollow 
about  the  middle  of  the  nasal  bones.  Although  this  be  a  characteristic  of 
breeding,  it  often  accompanies  an  uncontrollable  and  vicious  temper. 

These  bones  form  the  roof  of  an  important  cavity  (see  a,  p.  68).  The 
sides  are  constituted  above  by  the  nasal  bones,  and,  lower  down,  by  the 
upper  jaw-bones  [superior  maxilktries),  while  plates  from  these  latter  bones 
project  and  compose  the  palate,  which  is  both  the  floor  of  the  nose,  and  the  roof 
of  the  mouth,  {t,  p.  68).  Above  (near  fig.  8),  not  visible  in  our  cut,  is  a 
bone  called  the  palatine,  altliough  it  contributes  very  little  to  the  formation 
of  the  palate.  It  is  the  termination  of  the  palate,  or  the  border  of  the 
opening  where  the  cavities  of  tlie  mouth  and  nose  meet  (fig.  8).  The  fron- 
tal sinuses,  h,  and  large  vacuities  in  the  upper  jaw-bone,  and  in  the  lethmoid, 
/,  and  the  sphenoid  bones,  k,  communicate  with  and  enlarge  the  cavity  of 
the  nose. 

This  cavity  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  thick  cartilage  (r,  p.  68). 
When  we  open  the  nostril,  we  see  the  membrane  by  which  tiie  cartilage, 
and  the  whole  of  tiie  cavity  of  the  nose  is  lined,  and  by  the  colour  of  which, 
much  more  than  by  that  of  the  lining  of  the  eyelids,  we  judge  of  the  degree 
of  fever,  and  particularly  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  any  of  the  air 
passages.  By  the  sore  places  or  ulcerations  discovered  on  this  membrane, 
we  likewise  determine  on  the  existence  of  glanders.  This  cavity  is,  on 
either  side,  occupied  by  two  bones,  which,  from  their  being  rolled  up  some- 
what in  the  form  of  a  turban,  aru  called  the  turhinated  or  turhan-shaped 
bones  s  s ;  part  of  the  cartilage  is  cut  away  to  display  them.  They  arc 
as  thin  as  gauze,  and  perforated,  like  gauze,  with  a  thousand  iiolos,  Between 
thern  are  left  suflicient  passages  for  the  air. 


f[8  THE  HORSE. 

If  they  were  unrolled  they  would  present  a  very  considerable  surface; 
and  on  every  part  of  them  is  spread  the  substance  or  the  pulp  of  tlie  olj'ac- 
lory,  or  first  pair  of  nerves.  These  bones,  lined  with  delicate  membranes, 
and  covered  by  the  olfactory  nerves,  are  tiie  seat  of  smell :  and  they  are 
thus  expanded,  because  the  sense  of  smell  in  the  horse  must,  to  a  very 
considerable  degree,  supply  the  place  of  the  sense  of  touch  and  the  lessons 
of  experience  in  the  human  being.  By  this  alone  is  he  enabled  to  select, 
among  the  nutritive  and  poisonous  herbage  of  the  meadow,  that  which  would 
support  and  not  destroy  him.  The  troops  of  wild  horses  are  said  to  smell 
the  approach  of  an  enemy  at  a  very  considerable  distance.  In  iiis  domestic 
state  tiie  horse  does  not  examine  the  ditlerent  food  which  is  placed  before 
him,  with  his  eye,  but  with  his  nose  ;  and  if  the  smell  displeases  him,  no 
coaxing  will  induce  him  to  eat  it.  He  examines  a  stranger  by  the  smell, 
and,  by  very  intelligible  signs,  expresses  the  opinion  which  he  forms  of  him 
by  this  inquisition.  The  horse  will  evidently  recognise  his  favourite  groom 
when  he  has  nothing  else  to  indicate  his  approach  but  the  sense  of  smell. 
Thesfc,  cavities  are  likewise  organs  of  voice.  The  sound  revel'berates 
tiirough  them,  and  increases  in  loudness,  as  through  the  windings  of  a 
French  horn. 

The  extension  of  the  nostrils  at  the  lower  part  of  these  cavities  is  an 
important  part  of  the  face,  and  intimately  connected  with  breeding,  courage, 
and  speed.  The  horse  can  breathe  only  through  the  nose.  All  the  afr 
which  goes  to  and  returns  from  the  lungs  must  pass  through  the  nostrils.  In 
the  common  act  of  breathing,  these  are  sufficiently  large  ;  but  when  the 
animal  is  put  on  his  speed,  and  the  respiration  is  quickened,  these  passages 
must  dilate,  or  he  will  be  much  distressed.  The  expanded  nostril  is  a  strik- 
ing feature  in  a  blood-horse,  especially  when  he  has  been  excited  and  not 
over-blown.  The  sporting  man  will  not  forget  the  sudden  etfect  which  is 
given  to  tiie  countenance  of  tlie  hunter,  when  his  ears  become  erect,  and  his 
nostrils  dilate  as  he  first  hears  the  cry  of  the  hounds,  and  snorts,  and  scents 
them  afar  off;  and  tlie  painful  and  spasmed  stretching  of  this  part,  in  the 
poor  over-driven  post-horse,  will  show  how  necessary  it  is  that  the  passage 
to  tlie  lungs  should  be  free  and  open.  The  nostril  siiould  not  only  be  large, 
bui  the  skin  and  substance  which  covers  the  entrance  into  nose  should  be 
thin  and  elastic,  that  they  may  more  readily  yield,  when  the  necessity  of 
the  animal  requires  a  greater  supply  of  air,  and  afterwards  return  to  their 
natural  dimensions.  Therefore,  nature,  which  adapts  the  animal  to  his 
situation  and  use,  has  given  to  the  cart-horse,  that  is  seldom  blown,  a  con- 
fined nostril,  and  surrounded  by  much  cellular  substance,  and  a  tiiick  skin  ; 
and  to  the  horse  of  more  breeding,  whose  use  consists  in  his  speed  and  his 
continuance,  a  wider  nostril,  and  much  more  flexible. 

The  inhabitants  of  some  countries  were  accustomed  to  slit  the  nostrils 
of  their  liorses,  that  they  miglit  be  less  distressed  in  the  severe  and  long, 
continued  exertion  of  their  speed.  Tlie  Icelanders  do  so  to  the  present  day. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  this,  for  nature  has  made  ample  provision  for  all  the 
ordinary  and  even  extraordinary  exertions  we  can  require  from  the  horse.* 
Some  very  powerful  muscles  proceed  from  different  parts  of  the  face,  to  the 
neighbouriiood  of  the  nostrils,  to  draw  them  back  and  dilate  them.  Foui 
of  them  are  given  in  this  cut,  which  is  introduced  here  to  complete  our 

*  Do  Grey,  whose  "Complete  Horseman"  wag  published  in  lGo7,  recommenrls  that  a 
Btuinblitig  or  crippled  horse  should  have  his  nose  cut  open,  and  tlie  two  letidons  wjiich  gi 
to  tiie  lip  divided;  and  "this,"  says  he,  "will  g-ive  liiin  the  use  of  his  leg's  so  perfectly, 
an  that  he  will  seldom  or  never  trip  any  more."  F'arriers  adopt  many  absurd  and  cruel 
piacliscs  uow-a-days,  but  nothing-  half  so  barbarous  as  this. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  NOSE  AND  LIPS. 


119 


present   subject,  and  which  will  be  often  referred  to  in  the  course  of  our 
work  ;  /,  m,  o,  and  p,  are  muscles  employed  for  this  purpose. 

THE    MUSCI-Urf,    NERVES,    AND    BLOOD-VESSELS 

OF 

THE  HEAD  AND  UPPER  PART  OF  THE  NECK 


a    Upper  part  of  the  lig-ament  of  the  neck. 

b  Levator  humeri  (elevator  of  the  shoulder),  rising-  from  the  tubercle  of  the  occiput,  the 
mastoid  (nipple-shaped)  process  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  the  transverse  processes 
(cross  projections)  of  the  four  first  bones  of  the  neck,  and  the  ligament  of  the  neck, 
and  going-  to  the  muscles  of  the  shoulders,  and  the  upper  bone  of  tli«  arm;  to  draw- 
forward  the  shoulder  and  arm  ;  or  turn  the  head  and  neck  ;  and,  when  the  two  leva- 
tors act,  to  depress  the  head. 

e  Tendon  common  to  the  complexus-major  (larger  complicated),  and  splenius  (splint-like); 
to  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal,  to  hold  up  the  head,  or  the  muscles  on  one 
side  alone  acting,  to  turn  it, 

d  Stemo-maxillaris  (belonging  to  the  breast-bone),  and  upper  jaw,  from  the  cartilage  in 
front  of  the  chest  to  the  angle  cf  the  lower  jaw;  to  bend  the  head,  or,  if  one  only- 
act,  to  bend  rt  on  one  side. 

e  Shjlo-7na.vinaris,  from  the  styloid  (pencil-shaped)  or  coracoid  (beak-shaped)  process  of 
the  occiput,  to  the  angle  of  the  jaw;  to  pull  the  jaw  backward  and  open  it. 

f  Subscapuh  fiijoideus,  from  under  the  shoulder-blade,  to  the  body  of  tlic  os  Injokles  (the 
bone  at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  formed  like  a  Greek  w,  v) ;  to  draw  back  that  Ixiiic. 

g  Ma'iscter  (chewing)  ;  a  most  powerful  muscle,  constituting  the  check  of  the  horse; 
from  the  upper  jaw-bone  into  the  rough  surface  round  the  angle  of  the  lower;  in 
conjunction  with  the  temporal  muscle  to  close  the  mouth  and  chew  the  food. 

h     Orbicularis  (circular)  surrounding  the  eye  and  closing  the  lids. 

t  Zygomatieus,  from  the  zygomatic  arch  and  masseter  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth  ;  to 
draw  back  the  angle  of  the  mouth. 

fc  Buccinator  (trumpeter),  from  the  inside  of  the  mouth  and  cheeks,  to  the  angle  of  the 
mouth,  to  draw  it  back. 

I  Nasalis  labii  superiorls  (belonging  to  the  nose  and  upper  lip),  from  a  depression  at  the 
junction  of  the  superior  maxillary  and  malar  bones  to  the  angle  of  the  nostril ;  to 
raise  the  lip  and  dilate  the  nostrils. 

m  Dilator  naris  lateralis  (side  dilator  of  the  nostril);  reversed  to  show  the  vessels  an'-i 
nerves  which  it  covers,  going  from  the  covering  of  the  nasal  and  frontal  bones  to 
the  angle  of  the  mouth  and  side  of  the  nostril ;  to  retract  the  upper  lip  and  dilate 
the  nostrils. 

n    Dilator  iiagnus  (great  dilator),  assisting  in  the  same  office. 

a  Depressor  labii  inferioris  (puller  down  of  the  under  lip),  to  the  sides  of  the  under  lip 
to  pull  it  down. 


120 


THE  HORSE. 


p     Orbicularis  oris  (circular  muscle  of  the  mouth),  surrounding-  the  mouth;  to  close  the 

lips,  aii'l  <iiiaic  the  nostrils. 
5     Upper  portion  o{  the  parotid  gland  (gland  near  the  ear)  reversed,  to  show  the  blood-vea- 

scls  and  nerves  beneath  it. 
r    Parotid  duct,  piercing  tht  theek,  to  discharge  the  saliva  into  the  mouth. 
t     Maxillary  gland  (gland  of  the  lower  jaw)  with  its  duct. 
t     Jugular  (neck)  veil.,  after  the  two  branches  have  united. 
U    At  l))i3  letter,  the  submaxillary  artery,  a  branch  of  the  jugular  and  the  parotid  duct 

pass  under  and  witiiin  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw;  they  come  out  again  at  w,  and 

climb  up  the  cheek,  to  be  distributed  over  tlie  face. 
r     Vein  and  artery,  passing  under  the  zygomatic  arch. 
z    A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair,  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the  face,  emerging  from  under  tha 

parotid  gland. 
y    Main  brancli  of  the  portio  dura  (hard  portion)  of  the  seventh  pair,  the  motor  (moving) 

nerve  of  the  face,  coming  out  from  beneath  the  parotid  gland,  to   spread  ovei 

the  face, 
s     Branches  of  both  nerves,  with  small  blood-vessels. 

There  are  also  four  distinct  cartilages  attached  to  the  nostrils,  which,  by 
their  elasticity,  bring  back  the  nostrils  to  their  former  dimensions,  as  soon 
as  the  muscles  cease  to  act.  The  bones  of  the  nose  (a  a,  p.  66,  andy,  p. 
63),  are  also  sharpened  off  to  a  point,  to  give  wider  range  for  the  action  of 
the  muscles;  while  the  cartilages  are  so  contrived,  as  not  only  to  discharge 
the  office  we  have  mentioned,  but  to  protect  this  projection  of  bone  from 
injury. 

There  are  two  circumstances  which,  more  than  any  others,  will  enable 
the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  owner  of  a  horse,  accurately  to  judge  of 
the  character  and  degree  of  many  diseases,  and  to  which  very  few  pay 
sufficient  attention  ;  these  are  the  pulse,  of  which  we  shall  presently  speak, 
aid  the  colour  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  at  which  we  have  hinted,  a 
few  pages  back,  and  of  which  we  would  again  remind  the  reader.  It  is 
the  custom  of  most  veterinary  surgeons,  and  of  almost  every  horseman 
who  takes  any  pains  to  ascertain  for  himself  the  state  of  his  sick  horse,  to 
turn  down  the  under  eyelid,  and  to  form  his  opinion  by  the  colour  which  its 
lining  presents.  If  it  be  very  red,  there  is  considerable  fever ;  if  it  be  of 
a  pale  pinkish  hue,  there  is  little  danger.  The  nose  is  more  easily  got  at ; 
the  surface  presented  to  the  view  is  more  extensive ;  the  sympathy  with 
almost  all  the  important  organs  is  greater;  and  the  changes  produced  by 
disease  are  more  striking  and  more  conclusive.  Let  the  reader  first  make 
himself  well  acquainted  with  the  uniform  pale  pink  appearance  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  membrane  which  covers  the  lower  part  of  the  cartilaginous  par- 
tition between  the  nostrils,  when  the  horse  is  in  health,  and  quiet ;  then  the 
mcreased  blush  of  red,  betokening  some  excitement  of  the  system  ;  the 
streaked  appearance  of  inflammation  commenced,  and  threatening  to  increase 
— the  intense  florid  red,  of  acute  inflammation  ;  the  pale  ground  with  patches 
of  vivid  red,  showing  the  half-subdued,  but  still-existing  fever  ;  the  uniform 
colour,  although  somewhat  redder  than  natural,  predicting  a  return  to  a 
healthy  circulation  ;  the  paleness  approaching  to  white,  marking  the  si  age 
of  debility,  and  sometimes  intermingled  with  radiations  of  crimson,  inducing 
the  suspicion  of  lurking  mischief;  and  the  dark  livid  colour  of  approacii- 
ing  stagnation  of  the  vital  current :  these,  with  all  their  shades  oi  diflerence, 
will  be  guiucs  to  his  opinion  and  treatment,  which  every  one  who  has  studied 
them  will  highly  appreciate. 


GLANDERS.  IQ) 


NASAL  GLEET,  OR  DISCHARGE  FROM  THE  NOSE 

The  most  frequent  disease  of  this  cavity  is  an  increased  and  t/iicker 
discharge  of  fluid  from  the  nose.  It  may  he  properly  called  a  Nasal 
Gleet.  There  is  a  constant  secretion  of  fluid  to  lubricate  and  moisten 
the  membrane  that  lines  the  cavity  of  the  nose  which,  under  catarrh  or 
cold,  is  increased  in  quantity,  and  altered  in  appearance  and  consistence. 
This  will  properly  belong  to  our  account  of  catarrh  or  cold  ;  but  that 
to  which  we  immediately  refer  is  a  continued  and  oftentimes  profuse  dis- 
charge when  every  symptom  of  catarrh  and  fever  has  passed  away  ;  an 
almost  incredible  quantity  of  thickened  mucus,  of  dilTerent  colours:  if  the 
horse  is  at  grass,  almost  as  green  as  the  food  on  which  he  lives ;  or,  if  he 
be  stabled,  white,  straw-coloured,  brown,  or  even  bloody,  and  sometimes 
evidently  mingled  with  matter  or  pus;  and  either  constantly  running,  or 
snorted  out  in  masses  many  times  in  the  day, — teasing  the  horse,  and  a 
perfect  nuisance  in  the  stable,  and  to  the  rider.  We  have  known  this 
continue  several  months,  and  eventually  destroy  the  horse. 

If  the  discharges  be  not  offensive  to  the  smell,  nor  mixed  with  any 
matter,  it  is  probably  merely  an  increased  and  somewhat  vitiated  secretion 
from  the  cavities  of  the  nose ;  and,  all  fever  having  disappeared,  will 
frequently  yield  to  small  doses  of  blue  vitriol,  from  one  to  two  drachms, 
and  given  twice  in  the  day.  If  fever  or  cough  remain,  ihe  cough  medicino 
whicii  will  hereafter  be  described  must  be  combined  with  the  tonic.  It 
the  discharge  be  mingled  with  pus,  and  very  offensive,  the  vegetable  tonics, 
gentian  and  ginger,  may  be  added  to  the  copper  in  doses  of  two  drachms 
of  the  former,  and  one  of  the  latter ;  but  there  is  then  reason  to  apprehend 
that  the  discharge  will  not  be  controlled,  and  will  terminate  in  glanders. 
Turning  into  a  salt  marsh  will  occasionally  effect  a  cure,  when  both  the 
mineral  and  the  vegetable  tonics  have  failed. 

GLANDERS. 

The  next  and  most  formidable  of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is- 
subject,  is  Glanders.  It  is  described  by  writers  fifteen  hundred  years 
ago,  and  it  was  then,  and  is  now,  not  only  a  loathsome,  but  an  incurable 
disease  ;  we  shall  therefore  principally  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration, 
of  its  symptoms,  nature,  and  causes,  and  prevention,  and  degree  of  contagion, 
and  these  will  afford  too  much  matter  of  interest  to  the  farmer. 

If  we  could  obtain  an  authentic  history  of  the  glandered  horse,  we  should 
find  that,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  if  the  disease  were  bred  in  him,  he 
had  been  dull,  off  his  feed,  losing  flesh,  and  his  coat  staring;  and  that  these 
appearances  had  for  several  weeks  preceded  the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
glanders.  These  symptoms,  however,  may  lead  to,  or  be  the  causes  of 
other  diseases,  or  they  may  pass  away,  and  the  horse  may  return  to  perfect 
health.  That  which  would  be  considered  as  the  earliest,  and  an  unquestion- 
able symptom  of  glanders,  would  be  an  increased  discharge  from  one  or 
both  nostrils ;  different  from  the  discharge  of  catarrh,  because  it  is  usually 
lighter  and  clearer  in  its  colour,  and  more  glutinous  or  sticky.  When 
rubbed  between  the  fingers  it  has,  even  in  an  early  stage,  a  peculiar,  clammy, 
bird-limy  feel.  It  is  not  discharged  occasionally  and  in  large  quantities, 
like  the  mucus  of  catarrh,  but  it  is  constantly  running  from  the  nostril. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  for  which  no  satisfactory  account  has  yet 
been  given,  that  when  one  nostril  alone  is  attacked,  it  is  i:\  a  great  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  near  or  left.     M.  Dupuy,  the  director  of  the  veterinarr 


]22 


THE   HORSE. 


school  at  Toulouse,  gives  a  most  singular  account  of  this.  He  says  that 
out  of  eight  hundred  cases  of  glanders  that  canrie  under  his  notice,  pnly 
one  was  affected  in  the  right  nostril. 

This  discharge,  in  cases  of  infection,  may  continue,  and  in  so  slight  a 
degree  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible,  for  many  weeks  or  months  before 
the  health  and  capabilities  of  the  horse  seem  to  be  injured.  It  will 
remain  for  a  long  time  almost  transparent,  yet  gluey  ;  and  then  it  will 
begin  to  be  mingled  with  pus ;  retaining,  however,  its  sticky  character, 
and  being  rarely  offensive  in  the  early  stages.  The  constant  flow  of 
lliis  seoelion,  and  its  stickiness,  with  the  absence  of  cough  either  before 
or  during  the  discharge,  will  be  the  only  symptoms.  In  process  of  time, 
however,  pus  mingles  with  the  discharge,  and  then  another  and  a  char- 
acteristic symptom  appears.  Some  of  this  is  absorbed,  and  the  neighbour- 
ing glands  become  affected  ;  and,  if  there  be  a  discharge  from  both  nostrils, 
the  glands  within  the  under  jaw  will  be  on  both  sides  enlarged.  If  the 
discharge  be  from  one  nostril  only,  the  swelled  gland  will  be  found  on 
that  side  alone.  Glanders,  however,  will  frequently  exist  at  an  early  stage 
without  these  swelled  glands,  and  some  other  diseases,  as  catarrh,  wil 
produce  them.  Then  we  must  look  out  for  some  peculiarity  about  these 
glands,  and  we  shall  readily  find  it.  The  swelling  may  be  at  first  some- 
what large  and  diffused,  but  the  surrounding  enlargement  soon  goes  off, 
and  one  or  two  small  distinct  glands  i-emain  ;  and  they  are  not  in  the  centre 
of  the  channel,  but  adhere  closely  to  the  jaw  on  the  affected  side. 

The  membrane  of  the  nose  may  now  be  examined,  and  will  materiall)- 
guide  our  opinion.  It  will  either  be  of  a  dark  purplish  hue,  or  almost  of 
a  leaden  colour,  or  of  any  shade  between  the  two ;  or,  if  there  be  some  of 
the  redness  of  inflammation,  it  will  have  a  purple  tinge  ;  but  there  will 
never  be  the  faint  pink  blush  of  health,  or  the  intense  and  vivid  red  of  usual 
inflammation.  Spots  of  ulceration  will  probably  appear  on  the  membrane 
covering  the  cartilage  of  the  nose — not  simple  sore  places,  or  streaks  of 
abrasion  and  quite  superficial,  but  small  ulcers  usually  approaching  to  a 
circular  form,  deep,  with  the  edges  abrupt  and  prominent.  When  these 
appearances  are  observed,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  matter.  Care 
should  be  taken,  however,  to  ascertain  that  these  ulcers  do  actually  exist, 
for  spots  of  mucus  adhering  to  the  membrane  have  been  more  than  once 
taken  for  them.  The  finger  should,  if  possible,  be  passed  over  the  sup- 
posed ulcer,  to  determine  whether  it  can  be  wiped  away ;  and  it  should  be 
recollected,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  when  describing  the  duct  that 
conveys  the  tears  to  the  nose,  that  the  orifice  of  that  duct,  just  within  the 
nostril,  and  on  the  inner  side  of  it,  has  been  mistaken  for  a  cancerous  ulcer. 
This  orifice  is  on  the  continuation  of  the  common  skin  of  the  muzzle  which 
runs  a  little  way  up  the  nostril,  while  the  ulcer  of  glanders  is  on  the  proper 
membrane  of  the  nose  above ;  and  the  line  of  separation  between  the  two 
is  evident  on  the  sliglitest  inspection. 

It  is  proper  to  state  that  this  discharge  has  continued  unattended  by  any 
other  disease,  or  even  by  ulceration  of  the  nostril  for  two  or  three  years, 
and  yet  the  horse  was  decidedly  glandered  from  the  beginning,  and  capable 
of  propagating  the  malady. 

When  ulcers  on  the  membrane  of  the  nose  have  appeared,  the  constitu- 
tion will  be  evidently  affected.  The  horse  will  lose  flesh;  his  belly  will 
be  tucked  up;  his  coat  will  be  unthrifty,  and  readily  come  off ;  cough  will 
be  heard  ;  the  appetite  will  be  impaired  ;  the  strength  will  fail  ;  tlie  dis- 
charge from  the  nose  will  grow  more  purulent,  discoloured,  blooiy,  stink 
vng :  the  ulcers  in  the  nose  will  be  larger  and  more  numerous ;   and,  thft 


GLANDERS.  123 

air-passages  being  obstructed,  a  grating,  choking  noise  will  be  heard  ai 
every  act  of  breatiiing.  The  lungs  are  now  diseased  ;  they  are  filled  with 
tubercles  or  ulcerations ;  and  the  horse  at  length  dies,  an  emaciated  ana 
loathsome  object. 

The  symptoms  frequently  vary,  and  to  a  most  puzzling  degree.  The 
discharge  will  be  so  sliglit  as  scarcely  to  be  perceived,  and  known  only 
by  its  stickiness ;  and  the  glands  will  not  be  in  the  least  degree  enlarged. 
At  other  times  a  very  small  enlarged  gland  may  be  found,  adhering  to  the 
jaw,  and  may  be  stationary  month  after  month,  and  the  surgeon  may  be 
told  that  there  has  never  been  discharge  from  the  nose.  He  will,  how- 
ever, be  wrongly  informed  here  ;  it  has  most  assuredly  existed,  although 
perhaps  to  no  great  degree,  at  some  former  period,  and  he  will  generally 
without  much  difficulty  discover  it  then,  although  perhaps  in  so  small  a 
quantity  that  the  groom  or  carter  will  deny  its  existence  ;  and  he  will 
principally  satisfy  himself  in  respect  to  it,  by  its  gluey  feeling. 

Glanders  have  often  been  confounded  with  strangles,  and  by  those  who 
ought  to  have  known  better.  Strangles  are  peculiar  to  young  horses. 
The  early  stage  resembles  common  cold,  with  some  degree  of  fever 
and  sore  throat;  generally  with  distressing  cough,  or  at  least  frequent 
wheezing ;  and  when  the  enlargement  appears  beneath  the  jaw,  it  is  not  a 
single  small  gland,  but  a  swelling  of  the  whole  of  the  substance  between 
the  jaws  ;  growing  harder  towards  the  middle  ;  and  after  a  while  appearing 
to  contain  a  fluid,  and  breaking.  In  strangles  the  membrane  of  the  nose 
will  be  intensely  red,  and  tlie  discharge  from  the  nose  profuse,  and  puru- 
lent, or  mixed  with  matter  almost  from  the  first ;  and  when  the  tumour  has 
burst,  the  fever  will  abate,  and  the  horse  will  speedily  get  well. 

Should  the  discharge  from  the  nose  continue  for  a  considerable  time 
after  the  horse  has  recovered  from  strangles,  as  it  sometimes  does,  there  is 
no  cause  for  fear.  Simple  strangles  need  never  degenerate  into  glanders. 
Good  keep,  and  small  doses  of  the  blue  vitriol  given  internally,  will  grad- 
ually make  all  right. 

Glanders  have  been  confounded  with  catarrh  or  cold,  but  the  distinction 
between  them  is  plain  enough.  Fever  accompanies  cold,  and  loss  of  appe- 
tite, and  sore  throat  (the  quidding  of  the  food,  and  gulping  of  the  water 
are  sufficient  indications  of  the  latter  of  these)  ;  the  discharge  from  the  nose 
is  profuse,  and  perhaps  purulent ;  and  the  glands  under  the  jaw,  if  swelled, 
are  moveable,  and  there  is  a  thickening  around  them,  and  they  are  tender 
and  hot.  With  proper  treatment  the  fever  abates  ;  the  cough  disappears ; 
the  swellings  under  the  throat  subside,  and  tlie  discliarge  from  tiie  nose 
gradually  ceases,  or,  if  it  remain,  it  is  usually  very  ditlerent  from  that 
which  characterizes  glanders.  In  glanders,  there  is  seldom  cough  of  any 
consequence,  and  generally,  no  cough  at  all. 

A  running  from  the  nose,  small  in  quantity,  and  from  the  smallness  of 
its  quantity  drying  about  the  edges  of  the  nostril,  and  so  presenting  some 
appearance  of  stickiness,  will,  in  a  few  cases,  remain  after  severe  catarrh, 
and  especially  after  the  influenza  of  spring;  and  these  have  gradually 
assumed  the  character  of  glanders,  and  more  particularly  when  they  have 
been  accompanied  by  enlarged  glands  and  ulceration  in  the  nose.  Here 
the  aid  of  a  judicious  veterinary  surgeon  is  indispensable  ;  and  he  perhaps 
will  experience  considerable  difficulty  in  deciding  the  case.  One  circum- 
stance will  principally  guide  him.  No  disease  will  run  on  to  glanders 
which  has  not,  to  a  considerable  and  palpable  degree,  impaired  and  broken 
^own  the  constitution ;  and  every  disease  that  does  this  will  run  on  to 
^lanaers.     He  will   look  then  to  the  general   state   and   condition   of  the 


i24  THE  HORSE. 

horse,  as  well  as  to  the  situation  of  the  glands,  the  nature  of  the  discharge 
and  eliaracter  of  the  ulceration. 

If,  after  all,  he  is  in  doubt,  an  experiment  may  be  resorted  to,  which 
wears  indeed  the  appearance  of  cruelty,  and  which  only  the  safety  of  a 
valuable  animal,  or  of  a  whole  team,  can  justify  :  he  will  inoculate  an  ass 
or  a  liorse  already  condemned  to  the  hounds  with  the  matter  dischargea 
from  the  nose.  If  the  horse  be  glandered,  the  symptoms  of  glanders  or 
farcy  will  appear  in  the  inoculated  animal  in  the  course  of  a  few  days. 

The  history  we  have  given  of  the  symptoms  of  glanders  will  prntty 
clearly  point  out  its  nature.  It  is  an  affection  of  the  membrane  of  the 
nose.  Some  say  tiiat  is  the  production  of  tubercles,  or  minute  tumours 
in  the  upper  cells  of  the  nose,  which  may  long  exist  undetected,  and  hard 
to  be  detected  except  by  a  scarcely  perceptible  running  from  the  nostril, 
caused  by  the  slight  irritation  which  they  occasion.  These  tubercles  grad- 
ually become  more  numerous  ;  they  cluster  together,  suppurate,  and  break  ; 
and  small  ulcerations  are  formed.  The  ulcers  discharge  a  poisonous  matter, 
which  is  absorbed  and  taken  up  by  the  neighbouring  glands,  and  which, 
witli  greater  or  less  rapidity,  vitiates  the  constitution  of  the  animal,  and  is 
capable  of  communicating  the  disease  to  others.  Other  surgeons  content 
themselves  with  saying  that  it  is  an  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the 
nose,  which  may  assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form,  or  in  a  very  short  time, 
or  exceedingly  slowly,  run  on  to  ulceration. 

The  malady  proceeds  as  we  have  already  described  it,  but,  before  its 
termination,  becomes  connected  with  farcy.  Few  horses  die  of  glanders 
without  exhibiting  some  appearance  of  farcy  ;  and  farcy,  in  its  latter  stages, 
is  almost  invariably  accompanied  by  glanders:  they  are  different  forms  or 
stages  of  the  same  disease. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  the  original  seat 
of  glanders;  that  the  disease  is  for  a  time  purely  local;  that  the  inflamma- 
tion of  the  tubercles  must  proceed  to  suppuration  before  that  matter  is 
formed  on  which  the  poisoning  of  the  constitution  depends ;  that  the  whole 
circulation  does  at  length  become  empoisoned ;  and  that  the  horse  is 
destroyed  by  the  general  irritation  and  disease  produced. 

Glanders  may  be  either  bred  in  the  horse,  or  communicated  by  conta- 
gion. What  we  have  further  to  remark  on  this  malady  will  be  arranged 
under  these  two  heads. 

Improper  stable  management  we  believe  to  be  a  far  more  frequent  cause 
of  glanders  than  contagion.  The  air  which  is  necessary  to  respiration  is 
changed  and  empoisoned  in  its  passage  through  the  lungs,  and  a  fresh 
supply  is  necessary  for  the  support  of  life.  That  supply  may  be  sufficient, 
barely  to  support  life,  but  not  to  prevent  the  vitiated  air  from  agam  and 
again  passing  to  the  lungs,  and  producing  irritation  and  disease.  The 
membrane  of  the  nose,  possessed  of  extreme  sensibility  for  the  purpose  of 
smell,  is  easily  irritated  by  this  poison,  and  close  and  ill-ventilated  stables 
oftenest  witness  the  ravages  of  glanders.  Professor  Coleman  relates  a 
case,  which  proves  to  demonstration  the  rapid  and  fatal  agency  of  this 
cause.  "  In  the  expedition  to  Quiberon,  the  horses  had  not  been  long 
on  board  the  transports,  before  it  became  necessary  to  shut  down  the 
liatchways  (we  believe  for  a  few  hours  only);  the  consequence  of  this  was 
tliat  some  of  them  were  suffocated,  and  that  all  the  rest  were  disembarked 
either  glandered  or  farcied."* 

In  a  close   stable,   the   air    is   not  only   poisoned   by   being  repeatedly 

Percivall's  excellent  Lectures  oii  the  Veterinary.  Art,  vol.  iii.  p.  455 


GLA?v'DERS.  12.»s 

Dreathed,  but  there  are  other  and  more  powerful  sources  of  mischief  The 
dung  and  the  urine  are  suffered  to  remain  fermenting,  and  giving  out 
injurious  gases.  In  many  dark  and  ill-managed  stables,  a  portion  of  the 
dung  may  be  swept  away,  but  the  urine  lies  for  days  at  the  bottom  of  the 
bed,  the  disgusting  and  putrify'ing  nature  of  which  is  ill  concealed  by  a  little 
fresh  straw,  which  the  lazy  horse-keeper  scatters  over  the  top. 

The  stables  of  the  gentleman  are  generally  kept  hot  enough,  and  far  too 
hot,  although  in  many  of  them  a  more  rational  mode  of  treatment  is  begin- 
ning to  be  adopted  ;  but  they  are  lofty  and  roomy,  and  the  horses  are  noi 
too  much  crowded  together,  and  a  most  scrupulous  regard  is  paid  to 
cleanliness:  Glanders  "seldom  prevail  there.  The  stables  of  the  farmer  are 
ill-managed  and  filthy  enough,  and  the  ordure  and  urine  sometimes  remain 
from  week  to  week,  until  the  horse  lies  on  a  perfect  dunghill ;  while  there 
is  no  declivity  to  drain  away  the  moisture,  nor  any  regular  pavement  to 
prevent  it  from  soaking  into  the  earth,  nor  any  water  to  clean  even  the 
surface;  but  the  only  instrument  of  purification  is  an  old  stumped  broom. 
Glanders  seldom  prevail  there  ;  for  the  same  carelessness  which  permits  the 
filth  to  accumulate,  leaves  many  a  crany  for  the  wind  to  enter,  and  sweep 
away  the  deleterious  fumes  from  this  badly-roofed  and  unceiled  place. 

The  stables  of  the  horse-dealer  are  hot  enough  ;  but  a  principle  of  strict 
cleanliness  is  enforced,  for  there  must  be  nothing  to  otfend  the  eye  or  the 
nose  of  the  customer ;  and  there  glanders  are  seldom  found :  but  if  the 
stables  of  many  of  our  post-horses,  and  of  those  employed  on  our  canals, 
be  examined,  almost  too  low  for  a  tall  horse  to  stand  upright — too  dark  for 
the  accumulation  of  filth  to  be  perceived — too  far  from  the  eye  of  the  master: 
ill-drained  and  ill-paved;  and  governed  by  a  false  principle  of  economy, 
which  grudges  the  labour  of  the  man,  and  the  cleanliness  and  comfort  of 
the  animal :  these  will  be  the  very  hot-beds  of  the  disease,  and  in  many  of 
these  establishments  it  is  an  almost  constant  resident. 

When  speaking  of  inflammation  of  the  eye,  and  the  effect  of  ill-ventilated 
stables  in  producing  it,  we  remarked  that  the  urine  of  the  horse  contained 
an  unusually  largequantity  of  hartshorn  ;  that  the  litter  wetted  by  it  was 
disposed  most  rapidly  to  ferment ;  and  that  the  gases  extricated  must  be 
extremely  prejudicial  to  so  delicate  an  organ.  It  may,  then,  be  easily  im- 
agined that  the  constant  presence  of  those  pungent  fumes,  and  the  irritation 
which  they  would  cause  on  that  membrane  which  is  the  very  seat  of  smell, 
must  predispose  for,  and  often  generate  a  disease  which  is  primarily  an  affec- 
tion of  this  membrane. 

Glanders  may  be  produced  by  any  thing  that  injures,  or  for  a  length  of 
lime  acts  upon,  and  weakens  the  vital  energy  of  this  membrane.  They 
have  been  known  to  follow  a  fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  nose:  they  have 
been  the  consequence  of  violent  catarrh,  and  particularly  the  long-continued 
discharge  from  the  nostrils,  of  which  we  have  spoken  :  they  have  been  pro- 
duced by  the  injection  of  stimulating  and  acrid  substances  up  the  nostril ; 
and  every  thing  that  weakens  the  constitution  generally,  will  lead  to  glanders. 
It  is  not  only  from  bad  stable-management,  but  from  the  hardships  which 
they  endure,  and  the  exhausted  state  of  their  constitution,  that  post  and 
machine-horses  are  so  subject  to  glanders  ;  and  there  is  scarcely  an  inflam- 
matory disease  to  which  tiie  horse  is  subject,  that  is  not  occasionally  wound 
up  and  terminated  by  the  appearance  of  glanders. 

Glanders,  however,  are  highly  contagious.  The  farmer  cannot  be  too 
well  aware  of  this  ;  and,  considering  the  degree  to  which  they  often  prevail, 
the  legislature  would  be  justified  in  interfering  by  some  severe  enactments, 
as  they  have  done  in  the  case  of  the  small-pox  in  the  human  subject. 


I2f,  THR  HORSE. 

The  5«v-y  and  marked  symptom  of  glanders  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrus 
of  a  peculiar  character;  and  if  that,  even  before  it  becomes  purulent,  be 
rubbed  on  a  wound,  or  on  a  mucous  surface,  as  the  nostrils,  it  will  produce 
a  similar  disease.  Glanders  are  not  communicated  by  the  air  or  breath. 
If  the  division  between  two  horses  were  sufficiently  high  to  prevent  aL 
smelling  and  snorting  at  each  other,  and  contact  of  every  kind,  and  they 
drunk  not  out  of  the  same  pail,  a  sound  horse  might  live  for  years,  unin- 
fected, by  the  side  of  a  glandered  one.  The  matter  of  glanders  has  been 
mixed  up  into  a  ball,  and  given  to  a  healthy  horse,  without  effect ;  yet,  in 
another  experiment  of  the  same  kind,  the  poor  animal  died.  The  mouth 
or  gullet  had  probably  some  small  wounds  or  ulcers  in  it.  Some  horses 
have  eaten  the  hay  left  by  those  that  were  glandered,  and  no  bad  con- 
sequence has  followed ;  but  others  have  been  speedily  infected.  The 
glanderous  matter  must  come  in  contact  with  a  wound,  or  fall  on  some 
membrane,  thin  and  delicate,  like  that  of  the  nose,  and  through  which  it 
may  be  absorbed.  It  is  easy,  then,  accustomed  as  horses  are  to  smell  each 
other,  and  to  recognise  each  other  by  the  smell — eating  out  of  the  same 
manger  and  drinking  from  the  same  pail — to  imagine  that  the  disease  may 
be  very  readily  communicated.  One  horse  has  passed  another  when  he 
was  in  the  act  of  snorting,  and  has  become  glandered.  Some  fillies 
have  received  the  infection  from  the  matter  blown  by  the  wind  across  a 
lane,  when  a  glandered  horse,  in  the  opposite  field,  has  claimed  acquaint- 
ance by  neighing  or  snorting.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  an  infected 
horse  to  remain  long  in  a  stable  where  there  are  others  without  irreparable 
mischief. 

If  some  persons  underrate  the  danger,  it  is  because  the  disease  may 
remain  unrecognised  in  the  infected  horse  for  some  months,  or  even  years; 
and  therefore  when  it  appears,  it  is  attributed  to  other  causes,  or  to  after- 
inoculation.  We  would  deeply  impress  it  on  the  mind  of  the  farmer,  that 
no  glandered  horse  should  be  employed  on  his  farm  in  any  kind  of  work, 
or  permitted  to  remain  for  a  day  on  his  premised:  nor  should  a  glandered 
horse  be  permitted  to  work  on  any  road,  or  even  to  pasture  on  any  field. 
He  may  be  capable  of  work  for  years  after  the  disease  has  become  un- 
doubted ;  but  mischief  may  so  easily  and  extensively  be  effected,  that  the 
public  interest  demands  that  every  infected  animal  should  be  summarily 
destroyed,  or  given  over  for  experiment  to  a  veterinary  surgeon  or  recog- 
nised  veterinary  establishment. 

Our  opinion  of  the  treatment  of  glanders  is  implied  in  what  we  have 
just  stateil.  There  are  a  few  instances  of  the  spontaneous  cure  of  chronic 
glanders,  or  glanders  long  established  and  slow  in  their  progress.  The 
discharge  has  existed  for  a  considerable  time  ;  at  length,  it  has  gradually 
diminished,  and  has  ceased  without  medical  treatment :  but  in  the  majority 
of  these  supposed  cases,  the  matter  was  only  pent  up  for  a  while,  and  then, 
bursting  from  its  confinement,  flowed  again  in  double  quantity:  or  if 
glanders  have  not  re-appeai'ed,  the  horse,  in  eighteen  or  twenty-four 
months,  has  become  farcied  or  consumptive,  and  died.  We  view  these 
cures  with  much  suspicion:  but  even  allowing  that  some  have  occurred, 
they  are  so  few  and  far  between,  that  our  expressed  opinion  of  the  incura- 
ble nature  of  the  disease,  in  the  present  state  of  veterinary  knowledge,  is 
but  very  little  affected.  As  for  medicine,  there  is  scarcely  8  drug  to  which 
a  fair  trial  has  not  been  given,  and  many  of  them  have  had  a  temporary 
reputation  ;  but  thev  have  passed  awav,  one  after  the  other,  and  are  no 
longer  used.  The  blue  vitriol  and  the  Spanish  fly  have  held  out  longest, 
and,  in  a  few  cases,  either  nature  or  these  medicines  have  done  wonders; 


GLANDERS  121 

but,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  they  have  palpably  failed.  Where  tne  life 
of  a  valuable  animal  is  at  stake,  and  the  owner  takes  every  precaution  to 
prevent  infection,  he  may  subject  the  horse  to  medical  treatment;  but  we 
indignantly  object  to  the  slitting  of  the  nostril,  and  scraping  of  the  carti- 
lage, and  searing  of  the  gland,  and  firing  the  frontal  and  nasal  bones,  an(i 
to  those  injections  of  pepper  and  mustard,  corrosive  sublimate  and  vitriol, 
by  which  the  horse  has  been  tortured  and  the  practitioner  disgraced.  At 
the  veterinary  school,  and  by  veterinary  surgeons,  it  will  be  most  desirable 
that  every  experiment  should  be  tried  to  discover  a  remedy  for  this  pest ; 
but,  in  ordinary  instances,  he  is  not  faithful  to  his  own  interest,  or  that  of 
his  neighbours,  who  does  not  remove  the  possibility  of  danger  in  the  most 
summary  way. 

Supposing  that  glanders  have  made  their  appearance  in  the  stables  of  a 
farmer,  is  there  any  danger  after  he  has  removed  or  destroyed  the  infected 
horse?  Certainly  there  is;  but  not  to  the  extent  that  is  commonly  sup- 
posed. There  is  no  necessity  for  pulling  down  the  racks  and  mangers,  or 
even  the  stable  itself,  as  some  have  done.  The  poison  resides  not  in  tne 
breath  of  the  animal,  but  in  the  nasal  discharge,  and  that  can  only  reach 
certain  parts  of  the  stable ;  and  if  the  mangers,  and  racks,  and  bales,  and 
partitions,  are  first  well  scraped,  and  next  scoured  with  soap  and  water, 
and  then  thoroughly  washed  with  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  (one 
pint  of  the  chloride  to  a  pailful  of  water,)  and  the  walls  are  lime-washed, 
and  the  head-gear  burned,  and  the  clothing  baked  and  washed,  and  the 
pails  new  painted,  and  the  iron-work  exposed  to  a  red  heal,  all  danger 
will  cease. 

The  tricks  which  some  dealers  resort  to  at  fairs  and  markets,  in  order  to 
conceal  the  existence  of  glanders,  are  most  infamous,  and  should  be  visited 
with  the  severest  penalty  of  the  law.  Having  given  the  horse  a  brushing 
gallop,  that  he  may  thoroughly  clear  the  nose,  some  of  them  blow  pow- 
dered alum  up  the  nostrils  a  little  while  before  he  is  shown;  others 
use  white  vitriol ;  and,  although  the  horse  may  be  sadly  tortured,  about 
which  they  care  nothing,  the  discharge  is  for  some  hours  stayed.  Others 
roll  up  a  pledget  of  tow,  and  introduce  it  into  the  nostril,  sufficiently  high 
to  escape  common  observation.  Both  these  tricks  may  be  discovered  by 
the  uneasiness  of  the  animal,  and  his  repeated  efforts  to  sneeze,  as  well 
as  by  his  general  appearance ;  and,  if  the  disease  be  far  advanced,  most 
assuredly  by  the  red  or  raw  appearance  of  the  nose,  and  by  the  stinking 
breath. 

Happy  should  we  be,  if  we  could  say  any  thing  satisfactory  of  the  preven- 
tion of  glanders.  The  danger  from  exposure  to  infection  can  scarcely  be 
avoided  by  those  who  travel  much,  and  whose  horses  must  stand  in  stables 
!.he  inmates  of  which  are  so  promiscuous,  and  also  so  frequently  changed. 
Although  we  cannot  prevent  contagion,  we  have  more  power  in  preventing 
the  disease  from  occurring  without  contagion,  and  that  is  a  point  of  im- 
portance ;  at  least,  if  the  opinion  of  Professor  Coleman  be  correct,  that  not 
one  horse  in  a  thousand  receives  the  disease  from  contagion.  To  this,  how. 
ever,  we  cannot  subscribe;  for  not  only  the  history  of  cavalry  regiments, 
but  the  experience  of  every  breeder  and  proprietor  of  horses  will  prove  the 
infectious  nature  of  the  complaint. 

No  fact  is  more  certain,  than  that  he  who  will  keep  a  glandered  horse  in 
his  stable,  or  work  him  in  his  team,  will  sooner  or  later  lose  the  greater  par* 
of  his  stud.  However,  the  generation  of  the  disease  may  certainly  be 
much  prevented  ;  and  the  first  and  most  effectual  mode  of  prevention  will 
be  to  keep  the  stables  cool  and  well  ventilated,  for  the  hot  and  poisoned  air 


128  THE  HORSE. 

of  low  rtnti  confined  stables  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  principal  causes  of 
glanders. 

Next  to  ventilation  stands  cleanliness;  for  the  foul  air  from  the  ferment 
ino-  litter,  and  urine  and  duns,  must  not  only  be  highly  injurious  to  health 
generally,  but  irritate  and  predispose  to  inflammation  that  deli-ate  mem- 
brane which  is  the  primary  seat  of  the  disease.  If  to  this  be  added  rec^ulai 
exercise,  and  occasional  green  meat  during  the  summer,  and  carrots  in  the 
winter,  Ave  shall  have  stated  all  that  can  be  done  in  the  w  ay  of  prevention. 
The  farmer's  horse,  in  his  cool  or  cold  stable — and  during  the  greater  pait 
of  the  vear  running  loose  when  not  at  work — would  be  exempt  from  glanders 
if,  at  tiie  market  and  the  fair,  he  were  not  so  much  exposed  to  contagion. 
In  truth,  glanders  may  be  considered  mainly  as  the  consequence  of  the 
stabling  of  the  horse.  In  South  America  and  Arabia,  they  are  unknown  ; 
but  wherever  the  uimatural  European  plan  of  stabling  has  been  introduced, 
glanders  have  sooner  or  later  followed  in  its  train  ;  and,  therefore,  if  any 
means  are  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  glanders,  the  first,  and,  perhaps,  the 
only  effectual  one,  would  be  to  remove  every  exciting  cause  of  the  disease; 
to  restore  the  horse  almost  or  quite  to  a  state  of  nature  ;  to  turn  him  out 
for  a  long  time,  or  at  leasi  to  throw  open  his  stable  as  much  as  the  season 
and  the  weather  will  permit.  Experience,  however,  tells  us  that,  although 
the  symptoms  have  disappeared  when  the  exciting  causes  of  disease  have 
been  removed,  and  the  horse  has  returned  to  his  stable  after  a  twelvemonth's 
run,  apparently  sound,  every  symptom  has  gradually  shown  itself  again, 
when  these  causes  have  been  once  more  called  into  action. 

FARCY. 

Farcy  is  intimately  connected  with  glanders ;  they  will  run  into  each 
other,  or  their  symptoms  will  mingle  together,  and  before  either  arrives  at 
its  fatal  termination,  its  associate  will  almost  invariably  appear.  An  animal 
inoculated  with  the  matter  of  farcy  will  often  be  afflicted  with  glanders, 
while  the  matter  of  glanders  will  frequently  produce  farcy.  They  are  dif- 
terent  types  or  stages  of  the  same  disease.  There  is,  however,  a  very  ma- 
serial  difference  in  their  symptoms  and  progress,  and  this  most  important 
oi  all,  that  while  glanders  are  generally  incui-able,  farcy,  in  its  early  stage 
unci  mild  form,  may  be  successfully  treated,  especially  if  an  experienced 
practitioner  be  employed. 

Veterinary  writers  tell  us  that  it  is  a  disease  of  the  absorbents  in  the  skin. 
The  small  arteries  are  employed  in  building  up  and  nourishing  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  ;  and  another  set  of  vessels  are  busied  in  taking  up  and  car- 
rying  away  that  which  is  worn  out  and  useless.  There  is  no  part  of  *he 
body  on  which  thousands  of  these  little  tubes  do  not  open.  Those  of  '.he 
skin  are  not  only  employed  in  removing  useless  materials,  but  in  taking  up 
various  substances,  and  principally  fluids  which  may  be  in  contact  with  the 
skin.  The  little  vessels  which  are  thus  occupied  collect  together  and  form 
larger  branches,  which  run  m  company  with  the  superficial  veins,  and  there- 
lore  farcy  was  once  supposed  to  be  a  disease  of  the  veins,  and  the  tumours 
by  which  it  is  characterized  accompany  the  coui'se  of  the  veins.  The  poison 
w-liich  they  take  up  produces  inflammation  in  them,  vi'hich  gradually  spreads 
along  the  absorbent,  and  causes  it  to  swell. 

These  vessels,  small  as  they  are,  contain  valves,  like  those  in  the  conr* 
mon  pump,  which  permit  the  fluid  to  pass  one  way,  but  prevent  iu"!  return 
The  inflammation,  which  pursues  the  natural  course  of  the  fluid  through 
liiese  tubes,  that  is,  towards  the  reservoir  into  which  it  is  throwi   before  it 


FARCV.  129 

enters  I  he  heart,  seems  to  be  arrested  by  these  valves,  and  they  inflame  and 
■swell ;  and  therefore  the  first  indication  of  this  disease,  even  before  any 
drooping,  or  loss  of  condition  or  of  appetite,  is  generally  the  appearance  of 
.itlle  tumours— ^f/rcj/  buds — close  to  some  of  the  veins,  following  the  course 
of  the  veins,  and  connected  together  by  a  kind  of  cord,  which  ftirriers  caL 
corded  veins.  Wiien  they  are  i'ew  and  small,  they  may  possibly  exist  for 
several  weeks  without  being  observed  ;  but  at  length  they  increase  in 
number  and  in  size,  and  become  painful  and  hot,  and  some  of  them  begin 
to  ulcerate.  They  appear  usually  about  the  face  or  neck,  or  inside  ol"  the 
thigh,  and  in  the  latter  case  there  is  some  general  enlargement  of  the  limb, 
and  lameness. 

In  some  cases,  however,  the  horse  will  droop  for  many  a  day  before  the 
appearance  of  the  Z;H/r<7»5  01  farcy  buds;  his  appetite  will  be  impaired; 
his  coat  will  stare  ;  he  will  .use  flesh.  The  poison  is  evidently  at  work,  but 
has  not  gained  sufficient  power  to  cause  the  absorbents  to  swell.  In  a  few 
instances  these  buds  do  not  ulcerate,  but  become  hard  and  difficult  to  dis- 
perse. The  progress  of  the  disease  is  then  suspended,  and  possibly  for 
many  months  the  horse  will  appear  to  be  restored  to  health  :  but  he  bears 
the  seeds  of  the  malady  about  him,  and,  all  at  once,  the  farcy  assumes  a 
virulent  form,  and  hurries  him  off".  These  buds  have  sometimes  been  con- 
founded with  the  little  tumours  or  lumps  of  surfeit.  They  are  generally 
higher  than  these  tumours ;  not  so  broad  ;  have  a  more  knotty  feel,  and  are 
principally  found  on  the  inside  of  the  limbs,  instead  of  the  outside. 

The  increase  of  tiiese  buds  marks  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  that 
progress  is  retarded  by  the  resistance  of  these  valves.  The  ulcers  spread 
around,  and  are  cured  with  considerable  dithculty.  Larger  tumours 
appear  in  the  groin  and  between  the  fore-leg,  and  ulcerate  and  spread,  and 
the  hollows  and  burrowings  run  deep  in  every  direction,  and  the  horse 
becomes  a  miserable  and  loathsome  object.  Glanders  speedily  appear, 
and  death  ensues. 

Few  things  are  more  unlike,  or  more  perplexing,  than  the  different  forms 
which  farcy  assumes  at  different  times.  One  of  the  legs,  and  particularly 
one  of  the  hinder-legs,  will  suddenly  swell  to  an  enormous  size.  At  night 
the  horse  will  appear  to  be  perfectly  well,  and,  in  the  morning,  one  leg  will 
be  three  times  the  size  of  the  other,  with  considerable  fever,  and  scarcely 
the  power  of  moving  the  limb. 

We  do  not  mean  that  enlargement  of  the  hind  leg,  with  red  shining 
skin,  and  exudation  of  ffuid  on  the  skin,  reaching  from  the  fetlock  to  the 
heel,  round  and  smooth,  very  painful,  attended  with  extreme  lameness,  and 
which  the  grooms  call  a  farcy  humour.  This  will  yield  to  frequent  foment, 
ulion  and  a  good  dose  of  pliysic.  It  is  effusion  of  fluid  beneath  the  skin, 
from  want  of  exercise  and  over-feeding.  The  enlargement  of  farcy 
occupies  more  of  the  limb,  and  presents  an  uneven  surface,  with  sudden 
projections  and  depressions,  and  betrays  in  some  part  the  corded  absorbent 
and  the  inflamed  and  swelled  valve. 

At  other  times  the  head  will  be  subject  to  this  enlargement — the  muzzle 
will  particularly  swell,  and  a  stinking  discharge  will  issue  from  the  nose. 
Sometimes  the  horse  will  gradually  lose  flesh  and  strength  ;  he  will  be 
'lide-bound — mangy  eruptions  will  appear  in  different  parts;  the  legs  will 
swell ;  cracks  will  appear  at  the  heels,  and  the  inexperienced  person  may 
conceive  it  to  be  a  mere  want  of  condition  combined  with  grease. 

Farcy,  like  glanders,  springs  from  infection,  or  from  bad  stable  manage- 
ment.  It  is  j)roduced  by  all  the  causes  which  give  rise  to  glanders;  bu( 
■vith  liiis  difference,  that  il  is  more  frequently  generated,  and  is  sometimes 


l;^i^y  THE  HORSE. 

stran^'-ely  prevalent  in  particular  districts.  It  will  attick,  at  the  samo 
time,  several  horses  in  the  same  ill-conducted  stable,  and  others  In  tJie 
neighbourhood,  who  have  been  exposed  to  the  same  predisposing  causes. 
The  practitioner  is  always  afraid  of  seeing  too  mnch  of  this  disease  when 
he  meets  with  one  case  of  farcy  where  there  has  been  gross  inattention  to 
the  horses.  Some  have  denied  that  it  is  a  contagious  disease.  They  must 
have  had  little  exi)eriezice.  It  is  true  that  the  matter  of  farcy  must  come 
in  contact  with  a  wound,  or  sore,  in  order  to  communicate  the  disease;  but 
accustomed  as  horses  are,  to  nibble  and  play  with  each  other,  and  sore  as 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  frequently  rendered  by  the  bit,  it  is  easy  to 
imagine  that  this  may  often  be  effected  ;  and  experience  tells  us,  that  a 
horse  having  farcy-ulcers  cannot  be  suffered  to  remain  with  others  without 
extreme  risk.  We  recollect  an  instance  in  which  virulent  and  fatal  farcy 
was  communicated  by  a  scratch  from  the  currycomb,  which  had  been  pre- 
viously used  on  a  glandered  horse. 

The  treatment  of  farcy  varies  with  the  form  it  assumes.  In  the  button 
or  bud  farcy,  a  mild  dose  of  physic  should  be  first  administered.  The 
buds  then  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  if  any  of  them  have  broken, 
the  budding  iron,  of  a  dull  red  heat,  should  be  applied  to  them ;  or  if  mattei 
should  be  felt  in  them,  showing  that  they  are  disposed  to  break,  they 
should  be  penetrated  with  the  iron.  These  wounds  should  be  daily  in- 
spected, and  if,  when  the  slough  of  the  cautery  comes  off,  they  look  pale, 
and  foul,  and  spongy,  and  discharge  a  thin  matter,  they  should  be  frequently 
washed  with  a  lotion,  composed  of  a  drachm  of  corrosive  sublimate 
dissolved  in  an  ounce  of  rectified  spirit ;  the  other  buds  should  likewise 
be  examined,  and  opened  with  the  iron  as  soon  as  they  evidently  contain 
matter.  When  the  wounds  begin  to  look  red,  and  the  bottom  of  them  is 
even  and  firm,  and  they  discharge  a  thick  white  or  yellow  matter,  the  friar's 
balsam  will  speedily  heal  them.  As,  however,  the  constitution  is  now 
tainted,  local  applications  will  not  be  sufficient,  and  the  disease  must  be 
attacked  by  internal  medicines,  as  soon  as  the  physic  has  ceased  to  operate. 
The  corrosive  sublimate  will  be  the  best  alterative,  and  may  be  given  in 
doses  of  ten  grains,  gradually  increased  to  a  scruple,  with  two  drachms  of 
gentian  and  one  of  ginger,  and  repeated  morning  and  night  until  the  ulcers 
disappear,  unless  the  horse  is  violently  purged,  or  the  mouth  becomes 
sore,  when  a  drachm  of  blue  vitriol  may  be  substituted  for  the  corrosive 
sublimate.  During  this,  the  animal  should  be  placed  in  a  large  box, 
with  a  free  circulation  of  air ;  and  green  meat,  or  carrots,  the  latter  more 
particularly,  should  be  given  him,  with  a  fair  allowance  of  corn.  If  he 
could  be  turned  out  during  the  day,  it  would  be  advantageous;  but  at  all 
events  he  should  bo  daily  exercised.  It  is  related  by  Mr.  Blaine,  that  a 
horse  so  reduced  as  not  to  be  able  to  stand,  was  drawn  into  a  field  of  tares, 
and  suft'ered  to  take  his  chance;  the  consequence  was,  that  when  he  had 
eaten  all  within  his  reach,  he  was  able  to  rise  and  search  for  more,  and 
eventually  recovered.*  In  an  early  stage  of  the  disease,  and  if  glandera 
have  not  appeared,  this  treatment  will  frequently  succeed.  If,  after  the 
wounds  have  healed,  the  absorbents  should  continue  to  be  corded,  a  blister, 
or  light  firing,  will  probably  be  serviceable. 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  a  horse  which  has  experienced  one  attack 
of  farcy  will  be  very  subject  to  a  relapse,  and,  therefore,  should  be  regarded 
with  a  watchful  eye,  and  occasional  alteratives  of  iEthiop's  minera',  with 
turpentine,  in  the  proportions  of  one  drachm  of  the  former  and  four  sf  the 

*  Blaine's  Veterinary  Outiiiaes,  p.  467. 


THE  LIPS,  13\ 

atlei,  made  into  a  ball  with  linseed  meal  should  le  given,  and  green  meat 
or  carrots,  when  circumstances  will  permit.* 

Jn  the  species  of  farcy  attended  with  enormous  swelling,  it  will  be  prudent 
to  bleed  moderately  as  well  as  to  physic.  The  iron  will  not  be  necessary, 
but  the  same  alterative  medicine  will  be  useful,  and  the  leg  should  be 
frequently  fomented  with  warm  water.  In  both  cases,  although  the  air 
should  be  fresh  and  cool,  the  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed. 

The  Water  Farcy,  confounded  by  name  with  the  common  farcy,  and  by 
which  much  confusion  has  been  caused,  and  a  great  deal  of  mischief  done 
is  a  dropsical  affection  of  the  skin,  either  of  the  chest  or  the  limbs  generally 
and  belongs  to  another  part  of  our  subject. 

A  tumour  termed  a  Polypus  sometimes  occupies  one  of  the  nostrils. 
It  will  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  obstructing  the  breathing,  and  sadly 
annoying  the  horse.  As  this  can  only  be  removed  by  an  operation,  which 
a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  is  competent  to  perform,  we  do  not  describe  it 
pai-ticularly. 

THE  LIPS 

The  lips  of  the  horse  are  far  more  important  organs  than  many  suppose. 
The}'  are  in  a  manner,  the  hands  of  the  horse  ;  and  if  any  one  will  take  the 
trouble  to  observe  the  manner  in  which  he  gathers  up  his  corn  with  them, 
and  collects  together  the  grass  before  he  divides  it  with  his  nippers,  he  will 
be  satisfied  that  the  horse  would  be  no  more  able  to  convey  the  food  to  hii 
mouth  without  them,  than  the  human  being  could  without  his  hands. 
This  has  even  been  put  to  the  test  of  experiment.  The  nerves  which  sup- 
ply the  lips  were  divided  in  a  poor  ass,  to  illustrate  some  point  of  physio- 
logy. The  sensibility  of  the  lips  was  lost,  aud  he  knew  not  when  he 
touched  his  food  with  them ;  the  motion  of  the  lips  was  lost,  and  he 
could  not  get  the  oats  between  his  teeth,  although  the  manger  was  full  of 
them ;  at  length,  driven  by  hunger,  he  contrived  to  lick  up  a  few  of 
them  with  his  tongue,  but  when  they  were  on  his  tongue,  the  greater  part 
of  them  were  rubbed  off  before  he  could  get  them  into  his  mouth.  It  is  on 
account  of  this  use  of  the  lips,  that  the  faces  of  all  quadrupeds  are  so 
lengthened,  that  the  lips  ma}?-  be  brought  into  contact  with  the  food,  without 
inconvenience  or  injury  to  other  parts  of  the  face.  Several  muscles  go  to 
the  lips  from  different  parts  of  the  jaw  and  face.  Some  of  them  are  shown 
in  the  cut,  p.  119.  The  orbicularis  or  circular  muscle,  p,  employed  in 
pushing  out  the  lips,  and  closing  them,  and  enabling  the  horse  to  seize  and 
hold  his  food,  is  particularly  evident;  and  in  our  explanation  of  the  cut, 
the  action  of  other  muscles,  i.  A;,  m,  and  o,  was  described.  The  nerves 
likewise,  y,  taking  their  course  along  the  cheek,  and  principally  supplying 
the  lips  with  the  power  of  motion,  and  those,  z,  proceeding  from  the  foramen 
or  hole  in  the  upper  jaw,  deserve  attention. 

The  lips  are  composed  of  muscles  for  the  sake  of  strength,  and  of  a  mul- 
titude of  small  glands,  which  secrete  a  fluid  that  covers  the  inside  of  the  lips 
and  the  gums,  in  order  to  prevent  friction,  and  likewise  furnishes  a  por- 
lion  of  the  moisture  so  necessary  for  the  proper  chewing  of  the  food.  The 
skin  covering  the  lips  is  very  thin,  because,  if  these  are  the  hands  of  the 
horse,  they  should  possess  considerable  feeling;  and  for  the  same  purpose 

♦  The  Old  farriers  had  a  stran£re  and  barbarous  way  of  attempting'  to  cure  the  farcy 
They  mixed  together  a  variety  of  stimulating-  drugs,  an  J  sewed  them  in  the  horse's  car 
and  set  him  to  hard  work  on  straw  and  water. 


132  THE  HORSE 

likewise,  tl.cy  aro  scantily  covered  with  hair,  and  that  hair  is  fine  and  short, 
and  long  hairs  or  feelers,  called  the  beard,  are  superadded  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  horse  is  guided  and  governed  principally  by  the  mouth, 
and  therefore  the  lips  are  endowed  with  extraordinary  sensibility,  so  that 
the  animal  feels  the  slightest  motion  of  the  hand  of  the  rider  or  driver,  and, 
as  it  were,  anticipates  his  very  thoughts.  The  Jineness  or  goodness  of  the 
mouth  consists  in  the  exquisite  feeling  of  the  mouth,  and  depends  on  the 
thinness  of  this  membrane.  We  shall  say  more  of  this,  when  we  have 
described  the  lower  jaw  and  palate. 

Tiie  lips  of  the  horse  should  be  thin,  if  the  beauty  of  the  head  be  re- 
garded, for  if  the  are  loaded  with  fat  they  cannot  be  so  sensible  as  they 
ought  to  be :  yet,  although  tliin,  they  should  evidently  possess  power,  and 
be  strongly  and  regularly  closed.  A  firm,  compressed  mouth  gives  a 
favourable  and  no  deceptive  idea  of  the  muscular  power  of  tlie  animal. 
Lips  apart  from  each  other,  and  hanging  down,  indicate  weakness  or  old 
age,  or  dullness  and  sluggishness. 

The  depth  of  the  mouth,  or  the  distance  from  the  fore  part  to  the  angle 
of  the  lips,  should  be  consideral)le,  first,  for  the  sake  of  beauty.  A  short 
protuberant  mouth  would  be  a  bad  finish  to  the  tapering  face  of  the  blood 
horse  ;  more  room  is  likewise  given  for  the  opening  of  the  nostril,  which 
we  have  seen  to  be  an  important  consideration.  The  bridle  will  not  be 
carried  well,  and  the  horse  will  hang  heavy  on  hand,  if  there  be  not  con- 
siderable depth  of  mouth. 

The  angles  of  the  lips  are  frequently  made  sore  or  wounded  by  the 
smallness  or  shortness  of  the  snaffle,  and  by  the  unnecessary  and  cruel 
tightness  of  the  bearing  rein.  This  rein  not  only  gives  the  horse  a  grander 
appearance  in  harness,  and  places  the  head  in  that  position  in  which  the 
bit  most  powerfully  presses  upon  the  jaw,  but  there  is  no  possibilty  of 
driv'ng  without  it,  unless  the  arm  of  the  driver  were  as  strong  as  that  of 
Hercules;  and  most  certainly  there  is  no  safety  if  it  be  not  used.  There 
are  few  horses  who  will  not  bear,  or  bore  upon  something,  and  it  is  better 
to  let  them  bore  upon  themselves  than  upon  the  arm  of  the  driver.  With- 
out this  control,  many  of  them  would  hang  their  heads  low  and  be  dis- 
posed every  moment  to  stumble,  and  would  defy  all  pulling,  if  they  tried 
to  run  away.  There  is,  and  can  be  no  no  necessity,  however,  for  using  a 
bearing-rein  so  tight  as  to  cramp  the  muscles  of  the  head,  and  which  is 
indicated  by  the  animal's  continually  tossing  up  his  head  :  they  may  indeed 
be  cramped  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  horse  is  scarcely  able  to  bring  his  head 
to  the  ground  when  turned  to  grass.  The  tight  rein  injures  and  excoriates 
the  angles  of  the  lips,  and  frequently  brings  on  poll-evil.  We  saw  a  poor 
horse  at  work,  unroughed,  during  a  severe  frost.  He  was  continually 
sliding  about,  and  in  danger  of  falling.  The  stupid  driver  buckled  the 
bearing-rein  as  tight  as  he  could,  to  keep  hhn  vp ;  and  the  consequence  was, 
that  by  the  sudden  and  forcible  pressing  upon  the  ii-on,  in  the  slips  which 
wouM  still  every  moment  occur,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  were  absolutely 
cut  tlirough  to  a  considerable  depth.  Except  it  be  a  restive  or  determined 
horse,  there  should  be  little  more  bearing  upon  the  mouth  than  is  generally 
used  in  riding.  This  the  horse  likes  to  feel,  and  it  is  necessary  for  him  in 
the  swift  gallo]).  We  must  have  the  bearing-rein,  whatever  some  meu  of 
iiumanity  may  say  against  it;  but  we  need  not  use  it  cruelly. 


THE  PALATE.  133 


THE  BONES  OF  THE  MOUTH 

The  bones  iti  and  giving  form  to  the  mouth,  are  the  superior  maxillary 
i..r  upper  jaw  {b,  p.  6'S  and  I,  p.  66),  containing  the  grinders,  the  anterioi 
maxillary,  or  lower  part  of  the  upper  jaw  (b,  p.  63,  n,  p.  66,  r,  p.  68), 
containing  the  upper-nippers  or  cutting-teeth  ;  the  palatine  bone  (below  8, 
p.  68),  and  the  posterior  maxillary  oi-  under  jaw  (a,  p.  63,  and  w,  p.  68), 
containing  all  the  under  teeth.  We  will  speak  of  them  very  shortly,  in  the 
order  in  which  we  have  mentioned  them. 

The  superior  maxillary  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  jaw,  the  largesi 
bone  in  the  face.  It  unites  above  with  the  lachrymal  bone  {i,  p.  66);  and, 
more  on  the  side,  with  the  malar  or  cheek  bone,  k ;  and  a  portion  of  it, 
continued  upward,  and  underneath,  enters  into  the  orbit.  Above,  and  on 
the  front  of  the  face,  it  unites  with  the  bones  of  the  nose,  j,  and  below, 
with  the  inferior  maxillary,  n.  That  which  most  deserves  notice  in  it, 
externally,  is  the  ridge  or  spine,  seen  at  b,  p.  63,  but  better  delineated  in  the 
cut  of  the  head,  p.  67,  continued  from  the  base  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and 
across  the  malar  bone.  It  and  the  surface  beneath  serve  to  give  attach- 
ment to  the  masseter  muscle,  concerned  almost  as  much  as  the  temporal 
one,  in  the  act  of  chewing.  The  dark  spot  (m,  p.  66,  and  seen  likewise  at 
p.  63)  marks  the  foramen  or  hole,  through  which  a  branch  of  the  fifth  pair 
of  nerves  proceeds  to  give  sensibility  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face.  As  it 
approaches  the  teeth,  this  bone  separates  into  two  plates,  and  these  are 
divided  by  long  partitions,  which  contain  and  firmly  hold  the  upper  grinders. 
The  lower  plate  then  projects  inwards,  and  forms  (/,  p.  68)  the  principal 
portion  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the  floor  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 
The  corresponding  bone  on  the  other  side  meets  its  fellow  in  the  centre  of 
the  palate.  The  upper  jaw-bone  contains  in  it  large  cavities,  beside  the 
cavities  for  the  teeth,  and  these  open  into  and  enlarge  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 
They  are  connected  with  the  voice,  but  not  with  the  smell,  for  the  expan- 
sion of  the  olfactory  or  smelling  nerve  has  never  been  traced  beyond  the 
bones  and  membranes  of  the  proper  cavity  of  the  nose.  The  maxillary 
sinuses  are  genei'ally  filled  with  matter  in  bad  cases  of  glanders. 

Below  these  are  the  anterior  maxiliary  bones  {/,  p.  63,  a,  p.  68,)  contain- 
ing the  upper  cutting  teeth,  with  the  tushes  belonging  both  to  the  upper  and 
anterior  bones.  These  are  the  bones  to  which  (see  cut,  p.  68)  the  upper 
lip  is  attached.  The  superior  and  anterior  maxillary  bones  are  separated 
in  animals  with  long  faces  like  the  horse,  that  by  overlapping  each  other 
strength  might  be  gained. 

The  palatine  bone  forms  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  palate,  and  sur- 
rounds the  edge  of  the  communication  between  the  cavity  of  the  nose  and 
the  back  parts  of  the  mouth. 

THE  PALATE. 

Adhering  to  a  portion  of  all  three  of  the  bones  just  described,  and  being 
the  lining  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  is  the  hard  palate,  {t,  p.  68,)  composed 
of  a  firm  dense  substance  divided  into  several  ridges  called  bars  The  cut 
gives  a  tew  of  them. 

The  cut  will  point  out  the  bleeding  place,  if  the  hoise  should  be  attacked 
with  the  megrims  on  a  journey,  and  the  rider  or  driver  should  not  have  a 
lancet.  Precisely  in  a  line  between  the  middle  and  second  cutting  teeth, 
and  a  little  more  than  an  inch  within  the  mouth,  the  artery  and  vein  make 
a  curve.     They  mav  tli^re  be  cut  down  upon  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  » 


ini 


THE  HORSE. 


plentiful  stream  of  blood  will  be  obtained,  which  will  usually  stop  of  itself 
w.iea  two  or  three  quarts  of  blood  have  been  obtained.  The  artery  being 
cut  across  will  shrink,  and  soon  cease  to  bleed,  and  the  application  of  a 
sponge  filled  with  cold  water  will  generally  stop  the  bleeding  of  the  vein. 
No  injury  will  result  from  the  division  of  the  nerve,  for  it  is  a  mere  nerve 
of  feeling,  distributed  over  those  parts. 


CUT    OF    THE    PALATE. 

1 


a  The  palate  divided  into  ridges  or  bars. 

b  A  strip  dissected  up  to  show  the  vessels  and 
nerve  beneath. 

c  The  palatine  artery. 

d  The  palatine  vein. 

e  The  palatine  nerve  between  the  artery  and 
the  vein. 

f  The  cheek  divided,  showing  the  direction 
of  the  muscular  fibres. 

g  The  grinders. 

h  The  nippers. 

i  The  tushes. 


Should  the  cut  be  made  a  little  too  much  on  one  side  and  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  incisor  tooth,  the  artery  may  be  wounded  longitudinally, 
but  not  divided,  and  there  may  be  very  great  difficulty  in  stopping  the  blood. 
We  recollect  a  horse  which  almost  bled  to  death  from  the  artery  being  thus 
wounded.  If,  however,  a  large  and  firm  pledget  of  lint  or  tow  be  rolled 
round  a  piece  of  twine,  and  that  tied  firmly  round  the  front  teeth,  the  press- 
ure on  the  part  will  effect  the  desired  purpose  ;  or  should  this  in  a  very  few 
cases  fail,  a  gag  may  be  easily  contrived  to  press  upon  the  pledget,  and  the 
bleeding  will  immediately  cease. 

We  are  speaking  of  this  as  a  make-shift  sort  of  bleeding  when  the  horse 
is  on  a  journey ;  but  we  should  decidedly  object  to  the  cutting  of  the  bars 
as  the  usual  mode  of  taking  blood.  The  blood  cannot  be  measured  ;  the 
degree  of  inflammation  cannot  be  ascertained  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
coagulates,  and  there  may  be  difficulty  to  the  operator,  and  annoyance  and 
pain  to  the  horse  in  stopping  the  bleeding. 

LAMPAS. 

Some  of  the  lower  bars  occasionally  swell,  and  rise  to  a  level  with,  and 
even  beyond  the  edge  of  the  teeth,  and  they  are  very  sore,  and  the  horse 
feeds  badly  on  account  of  the  pain  he  suffers  from  the  pressure  of  the  food 
on  the  bars.  This  is  called  the  Lampas  ;  and  it  may  arise  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  gums,  propagated  to  the  bars,  when  the  horse  is  shedding  his 
teeth  ;  and  young  horses  are  more  subject  to  it  than  others;)  or  from  some 
slight  febrile  tendency  in  the  constitution  generally,  as  when  a  young  horse 
has  lately  been  taken  up  from  grass,  and  has  been  over-fed,  or  not  suffi- 
ciently exercised. 

in  the  majority  of  cases  the  swelling  wih  soon  subside  without  medical 


THE  LOWER  JAW.  135 

tveatn  ent ;  or  a  few  masnes,  and  gentle  alteratives,  will  relieve  the  animal. 
A  few  slight  cuts  across  the  bars  with  a  lancet  or  penknife,  and  taking  car*- 
to  avoid  the  principal  artery  and  tlie  vein  of  the  palate,  the  situation  of 
which  has  just  been  pointed  out,  will  relieve  the  inflammation,  and  cause 
the  swelling  to  subside  ;  indeed,  this  scarification  of  tlie  bars  will  seldom 
do  harm,  although  it  is  far  from  being  so  necessary  as  is  supposed.  To  the 
brutal  custom  of  the  farrier,  who  sears  and  burns  down  the  bars  with  a 
red-hot  iron,  we  do  most  peremptorily  object.  It  is  torturing  the  horse 
to  no  purpose ;  and  it  is  rendering  that  part  callous,  on  the  delicate  sensi- 
bility of  which  all  the  pleasure  and  safety  of  riding  and  driving  depend. 
It  may  be  prudent  in  case  of  lampas  to  examine  the  grinders,  and  more 
particularly  the  lushes,  to  see  whether  either  of  them  is  endeavouring  to 
make  its  way  through  the  gum.  If  with  the  gum-lancet,  or  penknife,  two 
incisions  across  each  other  be  made  on  the  tooth,  the  horse  will  experience 
immediate  relief. 

THE  LOWER  JAW. 

Tlie  posterior  or  lower  jaw  may  be  considered  as  forming  the  floor  of  the 
mouth  {a,  p.  63,  or  iv,  p.  68).  The  body  or  lower  part  of  it  contains  the 
under  cutting  teeth  and  the  tushes  ;  the  sides  are  two  flat  pieces  of  bone, 
containing  the  grinders.  On  the  inside,  and  opposite  to  a,  p.  63,  is  a  hole 
through  which  blood-vessels  and  nerves  enter  to  supply  the  teeth,  and  some 
of  which  escape  again  at  another  hole  on  the  outside,  and  near  the  nippers. 
The  branches  are  broader  and  thinner,  rounded  at  the  angle  of  the  jaw, 
and  terminating  in  two  processes.  One,  the  coracoid,  from  its  sharpness  or 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  beak,  passes  under  the  zygomatic  arch,  (see  p. 
63,)  and  the  temporal  muscle,  arising  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  pari- 
etal  bone  (see  p.  70),  is  inserted  into  it,  and  wrapped  round  it;  and  by  its 
action,  principally,  the  jaw  is  moved,  and  the  food  is  ground.  Tlie  other, 
the  condyloid,  or  rounded  process,  is  received  into  the  glenoid  (shallow)  cav- 
ity of  the  temporal  bone,  at  the  base  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  forms  the 
joint  on  which  the  lower  jaw  moves.  This  joint  is  easily  seen  in  the  cut 
at  page  63;  and  being  placed  so  near  to  the  insertion  of  the  muscle,  or  the 
centre  of  motion,  the  temporal  muscle  must  act  with  very  considerable 
mechanical  disadvantage,  and  must  possess  immense  power. 

This  joint  is  admirably  contrived  for  the  purpose  which  the  animal 
requires"  It  will  admit  freely  and  perfectly  of  the  simple-  motion  of  a 
hinge,  and  that  is  the  motion  of  the  jaw  in  nipping  the  herbage  and  seizing 
the  corn.  But  the  grass,  and  more  particularly  the  corn,  must  be  crushed 
and  bruised  before  it  is  fit  for  digestion.  Simple  champing,  which  is  the 
motion  of  the  human  lower  jaw.  and  that  of  most  beasts  of  prey,  would  very 
imperfectly  break  down  the  corn.  It  must  be  put  into  a  mill;  it  must  be 
actually  ground. 

It  is  put  into  a  mill,  and  as  perfect  a  mill  as  imagination  can  possibly 
conceive. 

The  following  cut  represents  the  glenoid  cavity  in  a  carnivorous,  or  flesh- 
eating,  and  herbivorous,  or  grass-eating  animal,  viz :  the  tiger  and  the 
horse :  the  one  requiring  a  simple  hinge-like  motion  of  the  lower  jaw  to 
tear  and  crush  the  food  :  the  other  a  lateral  or  grinding  motion  to  bring  it 
into  a  pulpy  form.  First  examine  this  cavity  in  the  tiger,  represented  at 
B.  At  the" root  of  the  zygomatic  process,  D,  is  a  hollow  with  a  ridge  along 
the  greater  part  of  the  upper  and  inner  side  of  it,  standing  to  a  considerable 
height,  and  curling  over  the  cavity.     At  the  lower  and  onnosite  edge  of 


138 


THE  HORSE. 


ihe  cavity,  but  in  the  outside,  is  a  similar  ridge,  E,  likewise  rising  abruptly 
and  curling  over.  At  C  is  another  and  more  perfect  view  of  this  cavity  in 
a  diiferent  direction.  The  head  of  the  lower  jaw  is  received  into  this  hoi- 
low,  and  presses  against  these  ridges,  and  is  partially  surrounded  by  them, 
and  ibrms  with  them  a  very  strong  joint,  where  dislocation  is  scarcely 
possiliie,  and  admitting  the  hinge-like  or  cranching  motion  to  its  fullest 
extent;  permitting  the  animal  violently  to  seize  his  prey,  to  hold  it  firmly, 
and  to  crush  it  to  pieces;  but,  from  the  extent  and  curling  form  of  the 
ridges,  forbidding,  except  to  a  very  sliglit  degree,  all  lateral  and  grinding 
motion,  and  this  because  the  animal  does  not  want  it. 

The  food  of  the  horse  must  be  ground — simple  bruising  and  champing 
would  not  reduce  it  sufficiently  small  for  the  purposes  of  digestion.  Then 
observe  the  different  construction  to  effect  this.  A  gives  the  glenoid  cavity 
of  the  norse.  First,  there  is  the  upper  ridge  assuming  a  rounded  form,  F, 
and  therefore  called  the  mastoid  process  ;  and,  a  peculiarity  in  the  horse, 
the  mastoid  process  of  the  squamous  portion  of  the  ♦emporal  bone  :  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  support  the  pressure  and  action  of  the  lower  jaw  when 
cropping  the  food  or  seizing  an  enemy,  but  not  encircling  the  head  of  that 
bone,  and  reaching  only  a  little  way  along  the  side  of  the  cavity,  where  it 
terminates,  having  its  edges  rounded  off,  so  as  to  admit,  and  to  be  evi- 
dently destined  for  a  circular  motion  about  it.  Then,  at  the  other  and 
lower  edge  of  the  cavity,  and  on  the  outside,  G,  is  placed,  not  a  curling 
ridge,  as  in  the  tiger,  but  a  mere  tubercle:  and  for  what  reason?  evi- 
dently to  limit  this  lateral  or  circular  motion  ;  to  permit  it,  as  far  as  the 
necessities  of  the  animal  require  it,  and  then  to  arrest  it :  but  how  ?  not 
suddenly  or  abruptly  ;  but  this  tubercle,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken 
as  strengthening  this  portion  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  yet  now  discharging 
another  office,  has  a  smooth  and  gradual  ascent  to  it,  up  which  the  lower 
jaw  may  climb  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then,  by  degrees  be  stopped.  We 
speak  not  now  of  the  moveable  cartilage  which  is  placed  in  this  cavity,  and 
between  the  bones,  to  render  the  motion  easier  and  freer.  It  is  found  in 
this  joint  in  every  quadruped ;  and  it  is  found  wherever  motions  are  rapid 
and  of  long  continuance. 

So  great  is  the  conformity  between  the  structure  of  the  animal  and  his 
destination,  that  a  tolerable  student  in  natural  history,  by  the  mere  inspec- 
tion of  the  glenoid  cavity,  will  at  once  determine  whether  the  animal  to 
which  it  belonged  was  carnivorous,  and  wanted  no  lateral  motion  of  the 
jaw;  or  omnivorous,  living  occasionally  on  all  kinds  of  food,  and  requiring 
some  degree  of  grinding  motion  ;  or  herbivorous,  and  needing  the  constant 
use  of  this  admirably-constructed  mill. 

At  g,  page   119,  is   represented   the   masscler   muscle,  an   exceedingly 


THE  TEETH. 


IS*; 


Strong  one,  constituting  the  cheek  of  the  horse  arising  from  the  superior 
maxillary  under  the  ridge  continued  from  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  inserted 
into  the  lower  jaw,  and  particularly  round  the  rough  border  at  the  anglf^. 
of  the  jaw.  This  acts  with  the  temporal  muscle  in  closing  the  jaw,  and 
in  giving  the  direct  cutting  or  champing  motion  of  it. 

Inside  the  lower  jaw,  on  each  side,  and  occupying  the  whole  of  the  hoi 
lowed  portion  of  them,  and  opposite  to  the  masseters,  are  the  pterygoi'l 
muscles,  going  from  the  jaws  to  bones  more  in  the  centre  of  the  channel, 
likewise  shutting  the  mouth,  and  also,  by  their  alternate  action,  giving  that 
grinding  motion  which  we  have  described. 

The  space  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  called  the  channel,  is 
of  considerable  consequence.  It  may  be  a  little  too  wide,  and  tiien  the 
face  may  have  a  clumsy  appearance  ;  but  if  it  be  too  narrow,  the  horse 
will  never  be  able  to  bend  his  head  freely  and  gracefully  ;  he  will  be  always 
pulling  and  boring  upon  the  hand,  nor  can  he  possibly  be  well  reined  in. 

The  jaws  contain  the  teeth,  which  are  the  millstones  employed  in  this 
operation.  The  mouth  of  the  horse  at  five  years  old  contains  forty  teeth, 
viz :  six  nippers  or  cutting  teeth  in  front,  a  tush  on  each  side,  and  six  molars, 
or  grinding  teeth,  above  and  below ;  they  are  contained  in  cavities  in  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws,  surrounded  by  bony  partitions,  to  which  they  are 
accurately  fitted,  and  by  wliich  they  are  firmly  supported.  For  a  little  way 
above  these  bony  cavities,  they  are  surrounded  by  a  hard  substance,  called 
the  gum,  so  dense,  indeed,  and  adhering  so  closely  to  the  teeth  and  the  jaws, 
as  not  to  be  separated  without  very  great  difficulty  ;  singularly  compact, 
that  it  may  not  be  wounded  by  hard  or  sharp  particles  of  the  food,  and 
almost  devoid  of  feeling,  for  the  same  purpose. 

Seven  or  eight  months  before  the  foal  is  born,  the  germs  or  beginnings  of 
he  teeth  are  visible  in  the  cavities  of  the  jaws.  The  tooth  grows,  and 
presses  to  the  surface  of  the  gum,  and  forces  its  way  through  it ;  and  at 
the  time  of  birth  the  first  and  second  grinders  have  ap- 
peared, large  compared  with  the  size  of  the  jaw,  and 
seemingly  filling  it.  In  the  course  of  seven  or  eight 
days  the  two  centre  nippers  are  seen  as  here  repre- 
sented. 

They  likewise  appear  to  be  large,  and  to  fill  the  front 

of  the  mouth,  although  they  will  afterwards  be  found  to 

be  small,  compared  with  the  permanent  teeth  that  follow. 

In  the  course  of  the  first  month  the  third  grinder  appears 

above  and  below,  and  not  long  after,  and  generally  before 

six  weeks  have  expired,  another  incisor  above  and  below 

will  be  seen  on  each  side  of  the  two  first,  which  have 

now  considerably  grown,  but  not  attained  their  perfect 

height.     This  cut  will  then  represent  the  appearance 

of  the  mouth. 

At  two  months,  the  centre  nippers  will  have 
reached  their  natural  level,  and  between  the  second 
and  third  month  the  second  pair  will  have  overtaken 
them.  They  will  then  begin  to  wear  a  little,  and  the 
outer  edge,  which  was  at  first  somewhat  raised  and 
sharp,  is  brought  to  a  level  with  the  inner  edge,  and 
so  the  mouth  continues  until  some  time  between  the 
sixth  and  ninth  month,  when  another  nipper  begins 
to  appear  on  each  side  of  the  two  first,  making 
six    above    and    below,    and    completing    the    co/t's 


138  THE  HORSE. 

Kicu'li;  after  which,  the  only  observable  differt  Dce,  until  between  the  second 
and  third  year,  is  in  the  wear  of  these  teeth. 

The  term  nipper  is  familiar  to  the  horseman  and  the  farrier,  and  much 
better  expresses  the  action  of  these  teeth  than  the  word  incisor  or  cutler, 
which  is  adopted  by  anatomists.  Whoever  has  observed  a  horse  in  the  act 
of  browsing,  and  the  twitch  of  the  head  whicli  accompanies  the  separation 
of  each  portion  of  grass,  will  perceive  tliat  it  is  nipped  or  torn  rather  than 

cut  otr. 

These  teeth  are  covered  with  a  polished  and  exceedingly  hard  substance, 
called  the  enamel :  indeed,  it  is  so  hard  that  it  almost  bids  defiance  to  the 
action  of  a  file.  It  spreads  over  that  portion  of  the  teeth  which  appeai-s 
above  the  gum,  and  not  only  so,  but  as  they  are  to  be  so  much  employed  in 
nipping  the  grass,  and  gathering  up  the  animal's  food,  and  in  such  employ- 
n'ent  even  this  hard  substance  must  be  gradually  worn  away,  a  portion  of 
it,  as  it  passes  over  the  upper  surface  of  the  teeth,  is  bent  inward,  and 
sunk  into  the  body  of  the  teeth,  and  forms  a  little  pit  in  them ;  and  the 
inside  and  bottom  of  this  being  blackened  by  the  food,  constitutes  the  mark 
of  the  teeth,  by  the  gradual  disappearance  of  which,  in  consequence  of  the 
wearing  down  of  the  teeth,  we  are  enabled  lor  several  yea»'s  to  judge  of  the 
age  of  the  animal. 

Dealers  often  talk  of  the  filling  up  of  the  tooth.  This  is  altogether  a  vulgar 
error.  The  mark  never  fills  up.  The  peculiar  cementing  substance, 
which  oc3upies  the  funnel  or  pit  made  by  the  dipping  in  of  the  enamel, 
never  grows  up,  but  the  ridge  of  enamel  around  it  is  worn  down,  and  then 
the  blackness  at  the  bottom  is  rubbed  off. 

The  colt's  nipping  teeth  are  rounded  in  front,  somewhat  hollow  towards 
Vhe  mouth,  and  present  at  first  a  cutting  surface,  with  the  outer  edge 
rising  in  a  slanting  direction  above  the  inner 
edge.  This,  however,  soon  begins  to  wear 
down  until  both  surfaces  are  level,  and  the 
mark,  which  was  originally  long  and  narrow, 
becomes  shorter,  and  wider,  and  fainter.  At 
six  months  the  four  nippers  are  beginning  to 
wear  to  a  level.  The  annexed  cut  will  convey 
some  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  at 
twelve  months.  The  four  middle  teeth  are  evi- 
dently level — the  corner  ones  becoming  so.  1  he 
mark  in  the  two  middle  teeth  is  wide  and  faint; 
in  the  two  next  teeth  it  is  darker,  and  longer, 
and  narrower;  and  in  the  corner  teeth  it  is 
darkest,  and  longest,  and  narrowest. 

We  may  now  speak  of  the  back  teeth  or  grinders.  They  will  not  guide 
us  far  in  ascertaining  the  age  of  the  animal,  for  we  cannot  easily  inspect 
them;  but  there  are  some  interesting  particulars  connected  with  them. 
The  foal  is  born  with  two  grinders  in  each  jaw,  above  and  below,  or  they 
appear  within  three  or  four  days  after  the  birth  ;  and  before  the  expiration 
of  a  month  they  are  succeeded  by  a  third,  more  behind.  The  grinders  are, 
like  the  cutting  teeth,  covered  with  enamel  on  the  sides,  but  not  on  the  top, 
though  several  portions  of  enamel  enter  into  their  s'ubstance.  They  have  a 
great  deal  more  to  do  than  the  nippers,  and  are  employed  in  grinding  down 
the  hardest  portion  of  the  food  ;  nature  has,  therefore,  made  an  additional 
provision  for  their  strength  and  endurance. 

This  cut  represents  a  grinder  sawn  across.     It  seems  to  be  a  most  '» Teg 


THE  TEETH.  139 

ular  and  intricate  machine  ;  but  the  explana- 
tion of  it  is  not  difficult.  The  tooth  is  <ornied 
and  prepared  in  cavities  within  the  jaw-bones. 
A  delicate  membranous  bag,  containing  a  jelly- 
like substance,  is  found,  in  the  unborn  animal, 
in  a  little  cell  within  the  jaw-bone.  It  assumes, 
by  degrees,  the  form  of  the  tooth  that  is  to 
ajjpear,  and  then  the  jelly  within  the  nriembrane 
begins  to  change  to  bony  matter ;  and  a  hard 
and  beautiful  crystallization  is  formed  on  the  membrane  without,  and  so 
we  have  the  cutting  tooth  covered  by  its  enamel.  In  the  formation,  how- 
ever,  of  each  of  tiie  grinders  of  the  horse,  there  are  originally  five  of  these 
membranous  bags  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  four  in  the  lower,  filled  with  jelly. 
This  jelly,  by  degrees,  gives  place  to  bony  matter,  which  is  thrown  out  by 
little  vessels  penetrating  into  it,  and  is  represented  by  the  darker  portions 
of  the  cut  with  central  black  spots.  The  crystallization  of  enamel  can  be 
traced  around  each,  and  so  tliere  would  be  five  distinct  bones  or  teeth. 
A  third  substance,  iiowever,  is  now  secreted,  (which  is  represented  by 
the  white  spaces.)  and  is  a  powerful  cement,  uniting  all  these  distinct 
bones  into  one  body,  and  making  one  tooth  of  the  five  :  this  being  done, 
another  coat  of  enamel  spreads  over  tiie  sides,  but  not  the  top,  and  the 
tooth  is  completed.  By  no  other  contrivance  could  we  have  the  grinding 
tootii,  capable,  without  injury  and  without  wearing,  to  rub  down  the  hay, 
and  oats,  and  beans,  which  constitute  the  stable  food  of  horses.  Tlie  teeth 
of  the  animal  who  lives  on  flesh,  and  the  upper  part  of  whose  teeth  alone 
are  covered  with  this  enamel,  and  even  the  nipping  teeth  of  the  horse,  with 
the  simple  well  of  enamel  running  a  certain  way  down  their  centre,  would 
soon  be  rubbed  down  and  destroyed.  It  is  necessary  to  have  columns  of 
enamel  penetrating  through  the  whole  substance  of  the  tooth.  There  is 
another  advantage:  the  bony  matter,  and  cement  by  which  the  different  shells 
are  united,  and  which  occupy  the  spaces  between  the  columns  of  enamel, 
soon  begin  to  wear  away,  while  the  enamel  remains;  and  thence  results 
the  irregular  surface  of  the  grinding  teeth,  being  that  kind  of  surface  which 
it  is  necessary  for  them  to  possess,  in  order  to  effect  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  intended. 

The  grinders  in  the  lower  jaw,  having  originally  but  four  of  these  bags 
or  shells,  are  smaller,  and  narrower,  and  more  regular,  than  the  upper  ones. 
They  are  not  placed  horizontally  in  either  jaw  ;  but  in  the  lower,  the 
higher  side  is  within,  and  shelving  gradually  outward  ;  in  the  upper  jaw 
the  higher  side  is  without,  shelving  inward,  and  thus  tiie  grinding  motion  is 
most  advantageously  performed.  There  is  also  an  evident  difference  in 
the  appearance  and  structure  of  each  of  the  grinders,  so  that  a  careful 
observer  could  tell  to  which  jaw  every  one  belonged,  and  what  situation  it 
occupied ;  but  we  should  depart  from  the  object  of  our  work  if  we  entered 
into  these  minutiae. 

At  the  completion  of  the  first  year,  a  fourth  grinder  usually  comes  up, 
and  the  yearling  has  then,  or  soon  afterwards,  six  nippers,  and  four  grinders 
aiiove  and  below  in  each  jaw,  which,  with  the  alteration  in  the  appearance 
of  the  nippers  we  have  just  described,  will  enable  us  to  calculate  prettv 
nearly  the  age  of  the  foal,  subject  to  some  variations,  arising  from  the 
period  of  weaning  and  the  nature  of  the  food. 

At  the  age  of  one  year  and  a  half,  the  mark  in  the  central  nippers  will 
^>o  much  shorter  and  fainter;  that  in  the  two  other  pairs  will  have  under- 
gone an  evident  change,  and  all  the  nippers  will  be  flat. 


HU 


THE   HCRSE. 


At  two  years  all  this  will  be  more  manifest.  The  accompanying  cu 
d(  serves  attention,  as  giving  an  accurate  representation  of  the  nippers  io 
the  lower  jaw  of  a  two-year-old  colt. 

About  this  period  a  fifth  grinder  will  push 
out,  and  now,  likewise,  will  connmence  another 
process.  The  first  teeth  are  adapted  to  the 
size  and  wants  of  the  young  animal.  They 
are  sufficiently  large  to  occupy  and  to  fill  the 
colt's  jaws  ;  but  when  the  jaws  are  expanded 
with  the  increasing  growth  of  the  animal, 
the  teeth  are  separated  too  far  from  each 
other  to  be  useful,  and  another  and  larger  set 
is  required.  Evident  provision  is  made  for 
these,  even  before  the  colt  is  foaled.  In  cav- 
ities in  the  jaw,  beneath  the  first  and  tempo- 
rary teeth,  are  to  be  seen  the  rudiments  of  a 
second  and  permanent  set:  These  gradually  increase,  and  some  with 
greater  rapidity  than  others,  and  pressing  upon  the  roots  or  fangs  of  the 
first  teeth,  the  consequence  of  this  pressure  is,  not  that  the  first  teeth 
are  forced  out,  but  the  portion  pressed  upon  gradually  disappears ;  it  is 
absorbed,  taken  up,  and  carried  away,  by  numerous  little  vessels,  whose 
office  it  is  to  get  rid  of  the  worn  out  or  useless  part  of  the  system.  This 
absorption  continues  to  proceed  as  the  second  teeth  grow  and  press  upon 
their  predecessors,  until  the  whole  of  the  fang  is  gone,  and  the  crown  of  the 
tooth,  or  that  part  of  it  which  was  above  the  gum,  having  no  longer  firm 
hold,  drops  out,  and  the  second  teeth  appear,  larger  and  stronger,  and  per- 
manent. In  a  few  instances,  however,  the  second  teeth  do  not  rise  imme- 
diately under  the  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  but  somewhat  by  their  side  ;  and 
then,  instead  of  this  gradual  process  of  absorption  and  disappearance  from 
the  point  of  the  root  upwards,  the  root  being  compressed  sideways,  dimin- 
ishes throughout  its  whole  bulk  ;  the  crown  of  the  tooth  diminishes  with  the 
root ;  and  the  whole  is  pushed  out  of  its  place,  to  the  forepart  of  the  first 
grinder,  and  remains  for  a  considerable  time  under  the  name  of  a  wolf^s 
tooth,  causing  swelling  and  soreness  of  the  gums,  and  frequently  wounding 
the  cheeks.  These  would  be  gradually  quite  absorbed,  but  the  process 
might  be  slow  and  the  annoyance  would  be  great ;  and  therefore  it  is  proper 
to  get  rid  of  these  diminutive  teeth,  either  by  punching  them  out  or  drawing 
them  as  soon  as  they  are  perceived. 

This  change  of  teeth  commences  in  those  which  earliest  appeared,  and, 
therefore,  the  front,  or  first  grinder  gives  way  at  the  age  of  two  years,  and 
is  succeeded  by  a  larger  and  permanent  tooth.  Now,  likewise,  seriously 
commences,  in  too  many  cases,  the  roguery  of  horse-dealers  and  breeders. 
A  colt  rapidly  increases  in  value,  as  his  age  and  growth  increase.  A  three- 
year-old  colt  is  worth  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  a  two-year-old  one; 
and  if  a  dealer  has  a  strong  and  likely  colt,  that  was  dropped  early  in  the 
year,  and  whose  form  and  points  might  deceive  the  unwary,  he  is  anxious 
to  pass  him  if  he  can  for  a  three-year-old.  To  accomplish  this,  he  must 
give  him  a  three-year-old  mouth;  and  between  two  years  and  a  half  and 
three  years,  the  two  middle  nippers  are  displaced,  and  succeeded  by  two 
permanent  teeth. 

During  the  period  between  the  falling  out  of  the  central  milk  nippers 
and  the  coming  up  of  the  permanent  ones,  the  colt,  having  a  broken  moulh. 
may  have  some  difficulty  in  grazing.  If  he  should  fall  away  considerabiv 
in  condition,  he  should  be  fed  with  mashes  and  corn,  or  cut  meat. 


THE  TEETH. 


141 


This  cut  will  represent  a  thre^  -year, 
old  mouth.  The  central  teeth  are  large- 
than  the  others,  with  two  grooves  in  the 
outer  convex  surface,  and  the  mark  is 
long,  narrow,  deep  and  black  ;  and  not 
having  yet  attained  their  full  growth, 
they  are  not  so  high  as  the  others.  The 
mark  in  the  two  next  nippers  is  nearly 
worn  out,  and  it  is  wearing  away  in  the 
corner  nippers.  Is  it  possible  to  give  this 
mouth  to  an  early  two-year-old  ?  The 
ages  of  all  horses  are  reckoned  from  May, 
but  some  are  foaled  even  so  early  as  Jan- 
uary, and  being  actually  four  months  over  the  two  years,  if  they  have  been 
well  nursed  and  fed,  and  are  strong  and  large,  they  may,  with  the  inexpe- 
rienced have  an  additional  year  put  upon  them.  The  central  nippers  are 
punched  or  drawn  out,  and  the  others  appearjhree  or  four  months  earlier 
than  they  otherwise  would.  In  the  natural  process,  they  could  only  rise 
by  long  pressing  upon,  and  causing  the  absorption  of  the  first  set.  The 
first  set  mechanically  oppose  their  rising,  and  that  opposition  being  removed, 
it  is  reasonable  to  imagine  that  their  progress  will  be  more  rapid.  Three 
or  four  months  will  be  gained,  and  these  three  or  four  months  may  enable 
.-he  breeder  to  term  him  a  late  colt  of  a  preceding  year.  To  him,  how- 
ever, who  is  accustomed  to  horses,  (although  it  is  long  practice  alone 
v/hich  could  give  this  facility  of  judgment,)  the  general  form  of  the  animal, 
the  little  develoj^ment  of  the  forehand,  the  continuance  of  the  mark  on 
the  next  jiair  of  nippers,  its  more  evident  existence  in  the  corner  ones, 
some  enlargement  or  irregularity  about  the  gums  from  violence  used 
in  forcing  out  the  teeth,  the  small  growth  of  the  first  and  fifth  grinders,  and 
the  non-appearance  of  the  sixth  grinder,  which,  if  it  is  not  through  the 
gum  at  three  years  old,  is  swelling  under  it,  and  preparing  to  get  through, 
any  or  all  of  these  circumstances,  carefully  attended  to,  will  be  a  sufficient 
security  against  deception. 

It  is  so  unusual  to  look  at  the  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  of  a  young  horse, 
that  the  dealer  who  wishes  to  give  a  false  appearance  of  age,  frequently 
confines  his  operations  to  the  lower  jaw,  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  when 
the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  thus  made  to  push  out,  they  are  still  below 
tlie  gum  in  the  upper  jaw,  although,  in  the  natural  process,  they  are  cut  a 
little  sooner  in  the  u|)per  tlian  in  the  lower  jaw.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
good  policy  always  to  examine  both  jaws. 

A  horse  then  at  three  years  old  ought  to  have  the  central  permanent 
nippers  growing,  the  other  two  pairs  wasting,  six  grinders  in  each  jaw, 
above  and  below,  the  first  and  fifth  molars  level  with  the  others,  and  the 
sixth  protruding.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  new  incisors,  although  it  could 
not  be  well  expressed  in  our  cut,  will  be  very  evident  when  compared  with 
the  neighbouring  teeth. 

As  the  permanent  nippers  grow,  and  press  upon  the  teeth  at  their  side, 
those  teeth  will  begin  gradually  to  diminish.  Not  only  will  the  maik  be 
wearing  out,  but  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  will  be  considerably  smaller. 

At  three  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that  and  four,  the  next  pair  of 
riippers  will  be  changed,  and  the  mouth  at  that  time  cannot  be  mistaken. 
Tile  central  nippers  will  have  attained  nearly  their  full  growth  ;  a  vacuity 
>vill  be  left  where  the  second  stood,  or  they  will  begin  to  peep  abcve  the 
film,  and  the   cornei    ones  will   be   diminished  in  breadth,  worn  down, 


i  i 


THE  HORSE. 


niu]  tne  mark  becoming  small  and  faint.  At  this  period,  likewise,  the 
second  pair  of  grinders  will  be  shed,  and  previous  to  this,  will  be  the 
attem,)t  of  the  dealer  to  give  his  three-year-old  colt  an  additional  year,  but 
Ihe  fraud  may  be  detected  by  an  examination  similar  to  that  which  we  have 
already  described. 

At  four  years  the  central  nippers 
will  be  fully  developed ;  the  sharp 
edge  somewhat  worn  off;  the  mark 
shorter,  wider  and  fainter:  the  ne.xt 
pair  will  be  up,  but  they  will  be  small, 
with  tlie  mark  deep,  and  extending 
quite  across  them ;  and  the  corner 
nippers,  larger  than  the  inside  ones, 
yet  smaller  than  they  were,  flat,  and 
the  mark  nearly  effliced  ;  the  sixth 
grinder  will  have  risen  to  a  level  with 
the  others,  and  the  tushes  will  begin 
to  appear. 

Now,  more  than  at  any  other  time, 
will  the  dealer  be  anxious  to  put  an  additional  year  upon  the  animal,  for  the 
difference  between  a  four-year-old  colt  and  a  five-year-old  horse, in  strength, 
utility  and  value,  is  very  great ;  but  the  want  of  wear  in  the  other  nippers, 
the  small  size  of  the  corner  ones,  the  little  growth  of  the  tush,  the  small- 
ness  of  the  second  grinder,  the  low  forehand,  the  legginess  of  the  colt,  and 
the  thickness  and  little  depth  of  the  mouth,  will,  to  the  man  of  common 
experience  among  horses,  at  once  detect  the  cheat. 

The  tushes  (see  p.  134)  are  four  in  number,  two  in  each  jaw,  situated 
between  the  nippers  and  the  grinders,  much  nearer  to  the  former  than  the  lat- 
ter, and  nearer  in  tlie  lower  jaw  than  in  the  upper,  but  this  distance  increasing 
in  both  jaws  witli  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  shape  it  somewhat  resembles 
a  cone  ;  it  protrudes  about  an  inch  from  the  gum,  and  has  its  extremity 
sharp-pointed  and  curved.  At  the  age  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  the 
tushes  are  almost  peculiar  to  tlie  horse,  and  castration  does  not  apj)ear  to 
prevent  or  retard  their  development.  All  mares,  however,  have  the  begin- 
nings of  them  in  the  chambers  of  the  jaw,  and  they  appear  externally  in 
the  majority  of  old  mares.  Their  use  is  not  evident :  perhaps  in  the  wild 
state  of  the  animal  they  are  weapons  of  offence ;  so  as  that  he  can  more 
firmly  seize,  and  deeply  wound  his  enemy. 

The  breeder  often  attempts  to  hasten  the  appearance  of  the  tush,  and  he 
cuts  deeply  through  the  gum  to  remove  the  opposition  which  that  wou'd 
afford.  To  a  little  extent  he  succeeds.  He  may  possibly  gain  a  few  weeks, 
but  he  cannot  gain  more ;  for  the  resistance  of  the  gum  is  not  like  that  of 
a  solid  and  firmly-fixed  tooth,  and  is  much  more  easily  overcome  by  the 
regular  process  of  nature.  After  all,  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the 
appearance  of  the  tush,  and  it  may  vary  from  the  fourth  year  to  four  years 
and  six  months.  It  belongs,  in  the  upper  jaw,  both  to  the  inferior  and 
superior  maxillary  bones  (see  n,  p.  66) ;  for,  while  its  fang  is  deeply  im- 
bedded in  the  inferior  maxillary,  the  tooth  penetrates  the  process  of  the 
superior  maxillary  at  the  union  of  those  bones. 

At  four  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that  and  five,  the  last  impoi-tant 
change  takes  place  in  the  mouth  of  the  iiorse.  The  corner  nippers  are 
shed,  and  the  permanent  ones  begin  to  appear;  the  central  nippers  are 
consideribly  worn,  and  the  next  pair  are  beginning  to  show  the  marks  of 
usage.     The  tush  has  now  protruded,  and  is  generally  a  full  half  incri  iu 


THE  TEETH. 


143 


/;eight ;  externally  it  nas  a  rounded  prominence,  with  a  groove  on  either 
side,  and  within  it  is  evidently  iioUowed.  Our  readers  need  not  be  told  that 
fiom  the  rising  of  the  corner  nipper  the  animal  changes  its  name ;  the  colt 
becomes  a  horse,  and  the  filly  a  mare. 

^ At  five  years  the  horse's  mouth  is 

almost  perfect.  The  corner  nippers 
are  quite  up  with  the  long  deep  mark 
irregular  on  the  inside  ;  and  the  other 
nippers  bearing  evident  tokens  of  in' 
creasing  wearing.  The  tusli  is  muc^ 
grown ;  the  groves  have  almost,  or 
quite  disappeared  ;  and  the  outer  sur 
face  is  regularly  convex :  it  is  still  as 
concave  within,  and  with  the  edge 
nearly  as  sharp  as  it  was  six  months 
before;  the  sixth  molar  is  quite  up, 
and  the  third  molar  is  wanting.  This 
last  circumstance,  if  the  general  ap. 
pearance  of  the  animal,  and  particularly  before,  and  the  wearing  of  the 
centre  nippers,  and  the  growth  and  shape  of  the  tushes,  be  likewise  care- 
fully attended  to,  will  prevent  deception,  if  a  late  fbur-year-old  be  attempted 
to  be  substituted  for  a  five.  The  nippers  may  be  brought  up  a  few  moniha 
before  their  time,  and  the  tushes  a  few  weeks,  but  the  grinder  is  with  diffi- 
culty displaced.     The  three  last  grinders  and  the  tushes  are  never  shed. 

At  six  years  the  mark  on  the  centre 
nippers  is  worn  out.  There  will  still 
be  a  difference  of  colour  in  the  centre 
of  the  tooth.  The  cement  filling  the 
bc'le  made  by  the  dipping  in  of  the 
enamel  will  present  a  browner  hue 
than  the  other  part  of  the  tooth,  and 
it  will  be  evidently  surrounded  by  an 
edge  of  enamel,  and  there  will  even 
remain  a  little  depression  in  the  centre, 
and  also  a  depression  round  this  case 
of  enamel ;  but  the  deep  hole  in  the 
centre  of  the  teeth,  with  the  blackened 
surface  which  it  presents,  and  the 
elevated  edge  of  enamel,  will  have 
disappeared.  Persons  not  much  accustomed  to  horses  have  been  sadly 
puzzled  here.  They  expected  to  find  a  plain  surface  of  an  uniform  colour, 
and  knew  not  what  conclusion  to  draw  when  there  was  both  discolouration 
and  irregularity. 

In  the  next  incisors  the  mark  is  shorter,  broader,  and  fainter;  and  in  the 
corner  teeth  the  edges  of  the  enamel  are  more  regular,  and  the  surface  is 
evidently  worn.  The  tush  has  attained  its  full  growth,  being  nearly  or 
quite  an  inch  in  length,  convex  outward,  concave  within,  tending  to  a  point, 
and  the  extremity  somewhat  curved.  The  third  grinder  is  fairly  up,  and 
all  the  grinders  are  level. 

Now,  or  perhaps  at  the  period  of  six  months  before,  the  horse  may  be 
said  to  have  a  perfect  mouth.  All  the  teeth  are  produced,  fully  grown, 
and  have  hitherto  sustained  no  material  injury.  During  these  important 
changes  of  the  teeth  the  animal  has  suffered  less  than  could  be  supposed 
possible.     With  children,  the  period  of  teething  is  fraught  with  danger. 


Hi 


THE   HORSE 


Dogs  are  subject  to  convulsions,  and  hundreds  of  them  die,  from  the  irrita- 
tion caused  by  the  cutting  or  shedding  of  their  teeth  ;  but  the  horse 
appears  to  feel  little  inconvenience.  The  gums  and  palate  are  occasionally 
«oniewhat  hot  and  swollen,  but  the  slightest  scarification  will  remove  tiiis. 
Tiie  teetii  of  tlie  horse  are  more  necessary  to  him  than  those  of  the  other 
animals  are  to  them.  The  child  may  be  fed,  and  the  dog  will  bolt  his 
victuals,  but  the  food  of  the  horse  must  be  well  ground  down,  or  the  nutri- 
ment cannot  be  extracted  from  it. 

At  seven  years,  the  mark,  in  the 
way  in  which  we  have  described  it,  is 
worn  out  in  tlie  four  central  nippers, 
and  fast  wearing  away  in  the  ctrner 
teeth  ;  and  the  tusb  is  beginning  to  be 
altered.  It  is  rounded  at  the  point; 
rounded  at  the  edges;  still  round  with- 
out ;  and  beginning  to  get  round  inside. 
At  eight  years  old,  the  mark  is  gone 
from  all  the  bottom  nippers  ;  the  tush 
is  rounder  in  every  way ;  and  the 
mark  is  now  said  to  be  out  of  the 
mouth.  There  is  nothing  remaining 
in  the  bottom  nippers  which  can  after- 
wards clearly  show  the  age  of  the 
horse,  or  justify  the  most  experienced 
examiner  in  giving  a  positive  opinion. 
Dishonest  dealers  have  been  said  to 
resort  to  a  method  of  prolonging  the 
mark  in  the  lower  nippers.  It  is  called 
bis/ioping,  from  the  name  of  the  scoun- 
drel who  invented  it.  The  horse  of 
eight  or  nine  years  old  is  thrown,  and 
with  an  engraver's  tool  a  hole  is  dug 
in  the  now  almost  plain  surface  of  the 
corner  teeth,  and  in  shape  and  depth 
resembling  the  mark  in  a  seven-year- 
old  horse.  The  whole  is  then  burned 
with  a  heated  iron,  and  a  permanent  black  stain  is  left :  the  next  pair  of 
nippers  are  sometimes  lightly  touched.  An  ignorant  man  would  very 
easily  be  imposed  on  by  this  trick ;  but  the  irregular  appearance  of  the 
cavity,  tlie  diffusion  of  the  black  stain  around  the  tushes,  the  sharpened 
edges  and  concave  inner  surface  of  which  can  never  be  given  again,  and 
the  marks  on  the  upper  nippers,  together  with  the  general  conformation  of 
the  horse,  can  never  deceive  the  careful  examiner. 

Horsemen,  after  the  horse  is  eight  years  old,  are  accustomed  to  look  to 
the  nippers  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  some  conclusion  has  been  drawn  from 
the  appearances  which  they  present.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  mark 
remains  in  them  some  years  after  it  is  obliterated  from  the  nippers  in  the 
lower  jaw  ;  because  the  hard  substance,  or  kind  of  cement,  by  which  the 
pit  or  funnel  in  the  centre  of  the  tooth  is  occupied,  does  not  reach  so  high, 
and  there  is  consequently  a  greater  depth  of  tooth  to  be  worn  away  m  order 
to  reach  it ;  and  because  the  upper  nippers  are  not  so  much  exposed  to 
friction  and  wear  as  the  under.  The  lower  jaw  alone  is  moved,  and  pressed 
forcibly  upon  the  food  ;  the  upper  jaw  is  without  motion,  and  has  only  to 
resist  that  pressure. 


THE  TEETH.  145 

There  are  various  opinions  as  to  the  intervals  between  the  disai/pearance 
of  the  marks  from  the  dillerent  cutting  teeth.  Some  have  averaged  it  at 
two  years,  and  others  at  one.  We  are  inclined  to  adopt  the  latter  opinion, 
and  then  the  age  would  be  thus  determined:  at  nine  years  the  mark  will 
be  worn  from  the  middle  nippers — from  the  next  pair  at  ten,  and  from  all 
the  upper  nippers  at  eleven.  During  these  periods  the  tush  is  likewise 
undergoing  a  manifest  change:  it  is  blunter,  shorter,  and  rounder.  In 
what  degree  this  takes  place  in  the  ditferent  periods,  long  and  most  favour 
able  opportunities  for  observation  can  alone  enable  the  horseman  to  decide, 
or  rather  we  believe  that  the  tush  alone  will  not  enable  us  to  form  a  very 
accurate  judgment. 

The  tushes  are  exposed  to  but  little  tear  and  wear.  The  friction  against 
them  must  be  slight,  proceeding  only  from  the  passage  of  the  food  by 
them,  and  from  the  motion  of  the  tongue,  or  from  the  bit ;  and  their  altera- 
tion of  form,  although  generally  as  we  have  described  them,  is  frequently 
uncertain.  The  tush  will  sometimes  be  blunt  at  eight,  and  remain  pointed 
at  eighteen ;  and  occasionally,  according  to  the  direction  which  they  take, 
or  degree  in  which  they  rub  against  each  other,  the  tushes  on  the  ditferent 
sides  will  present  an  apparent  variation  of  one  or  two  years.  The  upper 
tush,  although  the  latest  in  appearing,  is  soonest  worn  away. 

Are  there  any  circumstances  to  guide  our  judgment  after  this  ?  There  are 
those  which  will  prepare  us  to  guess  at  the  age  of  the  horse,  or  to  approach 
within  a  few  years  of  it,  until  he  becomes  very  old  :  but  there  are  none 
which  will  enable  U3  accurately  to  determine ;  and  the  indications  of  age 
must  now  be  taken  from  the  shape  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  nippers. 
At  eight,  they  are  all  oval,  the  length  of  the  oval  running  across  from  tooth 
to  tooUi ;  but  as  the  horse  gets  older,  the  teeth  diminish  in  size,  and  they 
at  first  diminish  in  width,  and  not  in  thickness.  They  become  a  little 
apart  from  each  other,  and  their  surfaces  are  rounded.  At  nine,  the  centre 
nippers  are  evidently  so ;  at  ten,  the  others  begin  to  have  the  oval  shor- 
tened.  At  eleven,  the  second  pair  of  nippers  are  quite  rounded,  and  at 
thirteen,  the  corner  ones  have  that  appearance.  At  fourteen,  the  faces  of 
the  central  nippers  become  somewhat  triangular.  At  seventeen,  they  are 
all  so.  At  nineteen,  the  angles  begin  to  wear  off,  and  the  central  teeth  are 
again  oval,  but  in  a  reversed  direction,  viz:  from  outward,  inward  ;  and  at 
twenty-one,  they  all  wear  this  form.  This  is  the  opinion  of  some  continental 
veterinary  surgeons,  and  Mr.  Percivall  first  presented  them  to  us  in  an 
English  dress.  We  believe  the  statement  is  correct  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  but  we  leave  our  readers  to  form  their  own  judgment. 

It  would  be  folly  indeed  to  expect  accuracy  at  this  advanced  age  of  the 
horse,  when  we  are  bound  to  confess,  that  the  rules  we  have  laid  down  for 
determining  this  matter  at  an  earlier  period,  although  they  are  recognised 
*jy  horsemen  generally,  and  referred  to  in  courts  of  justice,  will  not  guide 
us  in  every  case.  Stabled  horses  have  the  mark  sooner  worn  out  than 
those  that  are  al  grass,  and  a  crib-biter  may  deceive  the  best  judge  by  one 
01  two  years.  The  age  of  the  horse  likewise,  being  uniformly  calculated 
from  the  1st  of  May,  it  is  sometimes  exceedingly  difficult,  or  almost  im- 
possible, about  that  time  to  determine  whether  the  animal  be  a  late  foal  of 
one  year,  or  an  early  one  of  the  next.  At  nine  or  ten,  the  bars  of  the 
mouth  become  less  prominent,  and  their  regular  diminution  will  designate 
increasing  age.  At  eleven  or  twelve,  the  lower  nippers  change  their 
original  upright  direction,  and  project  forward  or  horizontally  ;  and  they 
become  yellow  and  covered  with  tartar.  They  are  yellow,  because  the 
teeth  n  ist  grow  to  answer  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  them  ;  but  the  enamel 


J  46  THE  HORSE. 

which  covered  their  surface  when  they  were  first  produced  canr.Jt  be 
repaired,  and  that  which  wears  this  yellow  colour  in  old  age  is  the  part 
which,  in  youth,  was  in  the  socket,  and  therefore  destitute  of  enamel. 

The  upper  nippers  become  arched,  and  project  over  the  lower  ones, 
wearing  down  the  outer  edge,  and  gradually  making  that  the  lowest,  which 
was  at  first  considerably  the  highest. 

The  general  indications  of  old  age,  independent  of  the  teeth,  are  deep- 
ening of  tlie  hollows  over  the  eyes — grey  hairf,,  and  particularly  over  the 
eyes,  and  about  the  muzzle ;  thinness  and  hanging  down  of  the  lips ; 
sharpness  of  the  withers ;  sinking  of  the  back ;  lengthening  of  the  quar- 
ters ;  and  the  disappearance  of  windgalls,  spavins,  and  tumours  of  every 
kind. 

Of  the  natural  age  of  the  horse  we  should  form  a  very  erroneous  esti- 
mate, from  the  early  period  at  which  he  is  now  worn  out  and  destroyed. 
Mr.  Blaine  tells  us  of  a  gentleman,  who  had  three  horses,  which  died  at  the 
ages  of  thirty-five,  thirty-seven  and  thirty-nine.  Mr.  Cully  mentions  one 
that  received  a  ball  in  his  neck,  at  the  battle  of  Preston,  in  1715,  and  which 
was  extracted  at  his  death,  in  1758 ;  and  Mr.  Percivall  gives  an  account 
of  a  barge  horse  that  died  in  his  sixty-second  year. 

There  cannot  be  a  severer  satire  on  the  English  nation,  than  that,  from 
the  absurd  practice  of  running  our  race-horses  at  two  and  three  years  old, 
and  working  others  in  various  ways,  long  before  their  limbs  are  knit,  or 
their  strength  come,  and  cruelly  exacting  from  them  services  far  beyond 
their  powers,  their  age  does  not  average  a  sixth  part  of  that  of  the  last- 
mentioned  horse.  The  scientific  author  of  the  "  Animal  Kingdom"  declares, 
that  "  it  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  more  horses  are  consumed  in  England, 
in  every  ten  years,  than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world,  in  ten  times 
that  period,  except  those  which  perish  in  war." 

This  point  has  with  the  English  been  too  long  considered  as  one  of  mere 
profit  and  loss ;  and  it  has  been  thought  to  be  cheaper  to  bring  the  young 
horse  early  into  work,  and  in  a  short  time  to  exhaust  his  whole  strength, 
than  to  maintain  him  for  a  long  period,  and  at  a  considerable  expense, 
almost  useless.  The  matter  requires  much  consideration,  and  we  think 
much  reformation  too. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  TEETH. 

Of  the  diseases  of  the  teeth  in  the  horse,  we  know  little.  Carious  or 
hollow  teeth  have  occasionally,  but  not  often  been  seen  ;  but  the  edges  of 
the  grinders,  from  the  wearing  off"  of  the  enamel,  or  the  irregular  growth 
of  the  teeth,  become  rough,  and  wound  the  inside  of  the  cheek ;  it  is  then 
necessary  to  adopt  a  summary  but  effectual  method  of  cure,  namely,  to 
rasp  them  smooth.  Many  bad  ulcers  have  been  produced  in  the  mouth,  by 
tne  neglect  of  this. 

The  teeth  sometimes  grow  irregularly  in  length,  and  this  is  particularly 
the  cast  with  the  grinders,  from  not  being  in  exact  opposition  to  each 
other,  when  the  mouth  is  shut.  The  growth  of  the  teeth  still  going  on, 
and  there  being  no  mechanical  opposition  to  it,  pne  of  the  back  teeth,  or  a 
portion  of  one  of  them,  shoots  up  half  an  inch  or  more  above  the  ofheis. 
Sometimes  it  penetrates  the  bars  above,  and  causes  soreness  and  ulceration  ; 
at  other  times,  it  interferes  partially,  or  altogether,  with  the  grinding 
motion  of  the  jaws,  and  the  animal  pines  away  without  the  cause  being 
suspected.  Here  the  saw  should  be  used,  and  the  projecting  portio.i  n- 
ducpd  to  a  level  with  the  other  teeth.     The  horse  which  has  once  been 


THE  TONGUE.  1,7 

subjected  1o  this  operation  should  afterwards  be  frequently  examined,  and 
especially  if  he  lose  condition  ;  and,  indeed,  every  horse  that  gets  thin  or 
out  of  condition,  without  fever,  or  any  other  apparent  cause,  should  have 
his  teeth  and  mouth  carefully  examined,  and  especially  if  he  quids  (partly 
chewing  and  then  dropping)  his  food,  without  any  indication  of  sore  throat, 
or  if  he  holds  his  head  somewhat  on  one  side,  while  he  eats,  in  order  to  get 
the  food  between  the  outer  edges  of  the  teeth.  A  horse  that  has  once  had 
veiy  irregular  teeth  is  materially  lessened  in  value,  for,  although  they 
may  be  sawn  down  as  carefully  as  possible,  they  will  project  again  at  no 
great  distance  of  time, 

THE  TONGUE 

The  tongue  is  the  organ  of  taste,  and  employed  in  disposing  the  food  for 
grinding  between  the  teeth,  and  afterwards  collecting  it  together,  and  con- 
veying it  to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  in  order  to  be  swallowed.  It  is 
also  the  main  instrument  in  drinking,  and  the  canal  through  wliich  the 
water  passes  in  the  act  of  drinking.  The  root  of  it  is  firmly  fixed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  mouth,  by  a  variety  of  muscles;  the  foie  part  is 
loose  in  the  mouth.  It  is  covered  by  a  continuation  of  the  membrane 
which  lines  the  mouth,  and  which,  doubling  beneath,  and  confii.ing  the 
motions  of  the  tongue,  is  called  iXa  frcenum  or  bi-idle.  On  the  buck  of 
the  tongue,  this  membrane  is  thickened  and  roughened,  and  is  covered 
with  numerous  conical  papiUcB^  or  little  eminences,  on  which  the  fibi'es 
of  a  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves  expand,  and  on  which  the  sense  of 
taste  depends.  The  various  motions  of  the  tongue  are  accomplished  by 
means  of  the  ninth  pair  of  nerves.  The  substance  of  the  tongue  is  com. 
posed  of  muscular  fibres,  with  a  great  deal  of  iatty  matter  interoosed 
between  them,  and  which  gives  to  this  organ  its  peculiar  softness. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  TONGUE. 

The  tongue  is  sometimes  exposed  to  injury,  from  carelessness  or  violence 
in  the  act  of  drenching,  or  administering  a  ball,  being  pressed  against, 
and  cut  by  the  edges  of  the  grinders.  A  little  diluted  tincture  of  myrvh, 
or  alum,  dissolved  in  water,  or  even  nature  unassisted,  will  speedily  heal 
the  wound.  The  horse  will  bite  his  tongue — most  frequently  in  his  sleep. 
If  the  injury  be  trifling,  it  requires  little  care;  but  in  some  instances,  a 
portion  of  the  tongue  will  be  torn  or  nearly  bitten  off',  and  the  assistance  of 
a  veterinary  practitioner  will  be  needed. 

Bladders  will  sometimes  appear  along  the  under  side  of  the  tongue, 
which  will  increase  to  a  considerable  size,,  and  the  tongue  itself  wilt  be 
much  enlarged,  and  the  animal  will  be  unable  to  swallow,  and  a  great 
quantity  of  ropy  saliva  will  drivel  from  the  mouth.  This  disease  often 
exists  without  the  nature  of  it  being  suspected.  It  resembles  what  is 
called  the  hhin  in  the  cow,  which  is  a  very  serious  complaint  in  that 
animal,  frequently  connected  with  much  fever,  and  terminating  in  sutfo- 
cation.  If  the  mouth  of  the  horse  be  opened,  one  large  bladder,  or  a  suc- 
cession of  bladders,  of  a  purple  hue,  will  be  seen  to  extend  along  the  whole 
of  the  under  side  of  the  tongue.  If  they  be  lanced  freely  and  deeply,  from 
end  to  end,  the  swelling  will  very  rapidly  abate,  and  any  little  {ever  thaf 
remains  may  be  subdued  by  cooling  medicine.  The  cause  of  this  dis- 
ease is  not  clearly  knowr  It  usually  proceeds,  perhaps,  from  imligestion. 
connected  with  a  general  tendency  to  inflammation. 


(48  THE  HORSE. 


THE  SALIVAPxY  GLANDS. 


»ii  Older  lliat,  the  food  may  be  properly  ground  down  to  prepare  it  for 
digestion,  it  is  necessary  that  it  siiould  be  previously  moistened.  Tlie  food 
of  the  stabled  horse,  however,  is  dry,  and  his  meal  is  generally  concluded 
witiiout  any  fluid  being  offered  to  him.  Nature  has  made  a  provision  foi 
this.  It  has  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth,  various  glands, 
to  secrete,  and  that  plentifully,  a  limpid  fluid,  somewhat  salt  to  the  taste: 
this  fluid  is  conveyed  from  the  glands  into  the  mouth,  by  various  ducts  in 
the  act  of  chewing,  and  being  mixed  with  the  food,  renders  it  more  easily 
ground,  more  easily  passed  afterwards  into  the  stomach,  and  better  fitted 
for  digestion. 

The  principal  of  these  is  the  parotid  gland  (see  cut,  p.  119).  It  is 
placed  in  the  hollow  which  extends  from  the  root  of  the  ear  to  the  angle 
of  the  lower  jaw.  A  portion  of  it,  q,  is  represented  as  turned  up,  to  show 
the  situation  of  the  blood-vessels  underneath.  In  almost  every  case  of 
cold,  connected  with  sore  throat,  the  parotid  gland  is  enlarged,  and  is 
immediately  evident  to  the  feeling  and  even  to  the  eye.  It  is  composed 
of  a  great  number  of  small  glands  connected  together,  and  a  little  tube 
proceeding  from  each,  to  carry  off  the  secreted  fluid.  These  tubes  unite 
in  one  common  duct.  At  the  letter  u,  the  parotid  duct  is  seen  to  pass 
under  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  together  with  the  submaxillary  artery, 
and  a  branch  of  the  jugular  vein,  and  they  come  out  again  at  w.  At  r, 
the  duct  is  seen  separated  from  the  other  vessels,  climbing  up  the  cheek, 
and  piercing  it  to  discharge  its  contents  into  the  mouth  opposite  to  the 
second  grinder.  The  quantity  of  fluid  thus  poured  into  the  mouth,  from 
each  of  the  parotid  glands,  amounts  to  a  pint  and  a  half  in  an  hour,  during 
the  action  of  chewing  ;  and  sometimes,  when  the  duct  has  been  accidentally 
opened,  it  has  spirted  out  to  the  distance  of  several  feet. 

The  parotid  gland  sympathizes  with  every  inflammatory  affection  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  throat,  and  therefore  it  is  found  swelled,  hot,  and  tender, 
in  almost  every  catarrh  or  cold.  The  cold  is  to  be  attacked  by  the  usual 
means;  and  a  stimulating  application,  almost  amounting  to  a  blister,  well 
rubbed  over  the  gland,  will  best  subdue  the  inflammation  of  that  body. 

In  bad  strangles,  and  sometimes  in  violent  cold,  this  gland  will  swell 
lo  a  great  size  and  ulcerate,  or  an  obstruction  will  arise  in  some  part  of  the 
duct,  and  the  accumulating  fluid  will  burst  the  vessel,  and  a  fistulous  ulcer 
will  be  formed,  very  difficult  to  heal.  A  veterinary  surgeon  alone  will  be 
competent  to  the  treatment  of  either  case  ;  and  the  principle  by  which  he 
will  be  guided,  will  be  to  heal  the  abscess  in  the  gland  as  speedily  as  he 
can;  or,  if  the  ulcer  be  in  the  duct,  either  to  restore  the  passage  through 
the  duct,  or  to  form  a  new  one,  or  to  cut  ofT  the  flow  of  the  saliva  by  the 
destruction  of  the  gland. 

The  second  source  of  the  saliva  is  from  the  submaxillary  glands,  or  the 
glands  under  the  jaw.  One  of  them  is  represented  at  s,  p.  119.  The  sub- 
maxillary glands  occupy  the  space  underneath,  and  between  the  sides  of 
the  lower  jaw,  and  consist  of  numerous  small  glands,  each  with  its  proper 
duct,  which  unite  together,  and  form  on  each  side  a  common  duct  or  vessel, 
that  pierces  through  the  muscles  at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  opens  in 
little  projections  or  heads,  upon  the  fr^Eiium  or  bridle  of  the  tongue, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  front  teeth.  When  the  horse  has  catarrh 
or  cold,  these  glands,  like  the  parotid  gland,  enlarge.  This  often  takes 
place  after  strangles,  and  several  distinct  kernels  are  to  be  felt  under  the 
jaw.     We  have  already  stated,  that  they  may  be  distinguished  from  those 


STRANGLES. 


149 


swellings  which  accompany  or  indicate  glanders,  by  their  being  larger, 
generally  not  so  distinct,  more  in  the  centre  of  the  channel  or  space 
between  the  jaws,  and  never  adhering  to  the  jaw-bones.  The  farriers  call 
them  ViVES,  and  often  adopt  cruel  and  absurd  methods  to  disperse  them  : 
such  as  burning  them  witii  a  lighted  candle  or  hot  iron,  or  even  cutting 
them  out.  They  will,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  gradually  disperse,  as 
the  disease  which  produced  them  subsides;  or  they  will  yield  to  slightly 
stimulating  embrocations ;  or,  if  they  are  obstinate  in  their  continuance, 
they  are  of  no  further  consequence,  than  as  indicating  that  the  horse  has 
laboured  under  severe  cold  or  strangles. 

During  catarrh,  or  inflammation  of  the  mouth,  the  little  projections 
marking  the  opening  of  these  ducts,  on  either  side  of  the  bridle  of  the 
tongue,  are  apt  to  enlarge ;  and  the  mouth  under  the  tongue  is  a  little  red, 
and  hot  and  tender.  The  farriers  call  these  swellings  Barbs  or  Paps,  and 
as  soon  as  they  discover  them,  mistaking  the  effect  of  disease  for  the  cause 
of  it,  set  to  work  to  cut  them  close  off.  The  bleeding  which  follows  this 
operation  somewhat  abates  the  local  inflammation,  and  affords  temporary 
relief:  but  the  wounds  will  not  speedily  heal  ;  the  saliva  continues  to  flow 
from  the  orifice  of  the  duct,  and  running  into  the  irregularities  of  the 
wound,  cause  it  to  spread  and  deepen ;  and  even  when  it  heals,  the  mouth 
of  the  duct  being  frequently  closed,  and  the  saliva  continuing  to  be  secreted 
by  the  submaxillary  gland,  it  gradually  accumulates  in  the  duct,  until  that 
vessel  bursts,  and  abscesses  are  formed,  which  eat  deeply  under  the  root  of 
the  tongue,  and  long  torment  the  poor  animal,  and  when  closed,  after  a 
great  deal  of  trouble,  are  very  apt  to  break  out  again  for  months  and  years 
afterwards. 

All  that  is  necessary  with  regard  to  these  paps  or  barbs  is  to  abate  the 
inflammation  or  cold  which  caused  them  to  swell,  and  they  will  very  soon 
and  perfectly  subside.  He  who  ever  talks  of  cutting  them  out  is  not  fit  to 
be  trusted  with  a  horse. 

A  third  source  of  saliva  is  from  glands  under  the  tongue  (the  subl'mgunl 
glands),  which  open  by  many  little  orifices  under  the  tongue,  resembling 
little  folds  of  the  skin  of  the  mouth,  hanging  from  the  lower  surface  of  the 
tongue,  or  found  on  the  bottom  of  the  mouth.  These  likewise  sometimes 
enlarge  during  cold  or  inflammation  of  the  mouth,  and  then  they  are  called 
gfg3,  and  h/adders,  and  flaps  in  the  mouth.  Tiiey  have  the  appearance  of 
small  pimples,  and  the  farrier  is  anxious  to  burn  them  off  or  cut  them  down. 
The  better  way  is  to  let  them  alone;  for  in  a  few  days  they  will  generally 
disappear.  Should  any  ulceration  follow  them,  a  little  tincture  of  myrjh, 
or  a  solution  of  alum,  will  readily  heal  them. 

Besides  these  three  principal  sources  of  saliva,  there  are  little  glands  to 
be  found  thickly  studded  on  every  part  of  the  mouth,  cheeks,  and  lips, 
which  pour  out  a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid,  to  assist  in  moistening  and 
preparing  the  food. 

Connected  with  these  glands,  and  particularly  with  the  submaxillary  and 
parotid  glands,  and  being  either  an  inflammation  of  them,  or  of  the  cellular 
substance  immediately  around  them,  is 

THE  STRANGLES. 

This  is  a  disease  pnncipally  incident  to  young  horses  ;  usually  appear, 
ing  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  year,  and  oftener  in  the  spring  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  year.  It  is  always  preceded  by  cough,  and  can 
at  first  be  scarcely  distinguished  from  common  cough,  except  that  there  is 


150  THE  HORSE. 

more  discliaro-e  from  the  nostril^  of  a  yellowish  colour,  mixed  with  matter, 
but  generally  without  smell ;  and  likewise  a  considerable  discharge  of  ropy 
fluid  from  the  mouth,  and  greater  swelling  than  usual  under  the  throat. 
Thi  •  swelling  increases  with  uncertain  rapidity,  accompanied  by  some  fever, 
and  disinclination  to  eat,  partly  arising  from  the  fever,  but  more  from  the 
pain  the  animal  feels  in  the  act  of  chewing.  There  is  considerable  thirst; 
but  after  a  gulp  or  two,  the  horse  ceases  to  drink,  yet  is  evidently  desirous 
of  more.  In  the  attempt  to  swallow,  and  sometimes  when  not  drinking,  a 
convulsive  cough  comes  on,  which  almost  threatens  to  suffocate  the  animal, 
and  thence  probably  the  name  of  the  disease.  The  tumour  is  about  the 
centre  of  the  channel  under  the  jaw,  it  soon  fills  the  whole  of  the  space, 
and  is  evidently  one  uniform  body,  and  may  thus  be  distinguished  from 
glanders,  or  the  enlarged  glands  of  catarrh.  At  length  the  centre  of  it 
becomes  more  prominent  and  softer,  and  it  evidently  contains  a  fluid.  This 
rapidly  increases,  the  tumour  bursts,  and  a  great  quantity  of  pus  is  dis- 
charged. As  soon  as  the  tumour  has  broken,  the  cough  subsides,  and  the 
horse  speedily  mends,  although  some  degree  of  weakness  may  hang  about 
him  for  a  considerable  time. 

Of  the  cause  of  the  disease  we  can  say  but  little.  Few  horses,  possibly 
none,  escape  its  attack ;  but,  that  attack  having  passed  over,  the  animal 
is  free  fiom  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Catarrh  may  precede,  or  may 
predispose  to  the  attack,  and  undoubtedly  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  has 
much  to  do  with  it,  for  both  its  prev.Tlence  and  its  severity  are  connected 
with  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  changes  of  the  weather.  There  is  no 
preventive  for  the  disease,  nor  do  we  believe  that  there  is  any  thing  conta- 
gious in  it.  There  are  strange  stories  told  with  regard  to  this ;  but  the 
explanation  of  the  matter  is,  that  when  several  horses  on  the  same  farm  or 
in  the  same  neighbourhood  have  had  strangles  at  the  same  time,  they  have 
been  exposed  to  the  same  powerful  but  unknown  exciting  cause. 

The  treatment  of  strangles  is  very  simple.  As  the  essence  of  the  disease 
consists  in  the  formation  and  suppuration  of  the  tumour  under  the  jaw, 
the  principal,  or  almost  the  sole  attention  of  the  practitioner  should  be 
directed  to  the  hastening  of  these  processes:  therefore,  as  soon  as  the 
tumour  of  strangles  evidently  appears,  the  part  should  be  actively  blis- 
tered. Old  practitioners  used  to  recommend  poultices;  which,  from  the 
thickness  of  the  horse's  skin,  must  have  very  little  efl^ect,  even  if  they  could 
be  confined  on  the  part ;  and  from  the  difficulty  and  almost  impossibilty 
of  this,  and  their  getting  cold  and  hard,  they  must  weaken  the  energies  of 
nature,  and  delay  the  ripening  of  the  tumour.  Fomentations  are  little  more 
effectual.  A  blister  will  not  only  secure  the  completion  of  the  process,  but 
hasten  it  by  many  days,  and  save  the  patient  much  pain  and  exhaustion  ; 
and  it  will  produce  another  good  effect — it  will,  previous  to  the  opening  of 
the  tumour,  abate  the  internal  inflammation  and  soreness  of  the  throat,  and 
thus  lessen  the  cough  and  wheezing. 

As  socc..  as  the  swelling  is  soft  on  the  top,  and  evidently  contains  matter, 
it  should  be  deeply  and  freely  lanced.  It  is  a  bad,  although  frequent 
practice,  to  suffer  the  tumour  to  burst  naturally,  by  which  a  ragged  ulcer 
is  formed,  very  slow  to  heal,  and  difficult  of  treatment.  If  the  incision  is 
deep  and  large  enough,  no  second  collection  of  matter  will  be  formed  ; 
and  that  which  is  already  formed  may  be  suffered  to  run  out  slowly,  all 
pressure  with  the  fingers  being  avoided.  The  part  should  be  kept  clean, 
and  a  little  friar's  balsam  daily  injected  into  the  wound. 

The  remainder  of  the  treatment  will  depend  on  the  symptoms.  If  there 
is  much  fe\er,  and  evident  affection  of  the  chest,  and  which  should  care- 


WOUNDS  IX  THE  MOUTH.  ]5] 

fully  be  distinguished  iVjm  the  oppression  and  choking  occasioned  by  the 
pressure  of  the  tumour,  it  will  be  proper  to  bleed.  In  the  majority  of  cases, 
however,  bleeding  will  not  only  be  unnecessary,  but  injurious.  It  will  delay 
the  suppuration  of  the  tumour,  and  increase  the  subsequent  debility.  A 
few  cooling  medicines — as  nitre,  emetic  tartar,  and  perhaps  digitalis — may 
be  given,  as  the  case  requires.  The  appetite,  or  rather  the  ability  to  eat, 
will  return  with  the  opening  of  the  abscess.  Bran-mashes,  or  fresh-cut 
grass  or  tares,  should  be  liberally  supplied,  which  will  not  only  afford  sufFi- 
cienl  nourishment  to  recruit  the  strength  of  the  animal,  but  keep  the  bowels 
gently  open.  If  the  weakness  be  not  great,  no  further  medicine  will  be 
wanted,  except  a  dose  of  mild  physic,  to  prevent  the  swellings  or  eruptions 
vvhicli  sometimes  succeed  to  strangles.  In  cases  of  debility,  a  small  quantity 
of  tonic  medicine — as  camomile,  and  gentian  with  ginger,  in  doses  of  a 
couple  of  drachms — may  be  administered. 

As  strangles  seem  to  be  a  disease  from  which  few  horses  escape,  and 
which,  although  attended  with  little  danger,  is  sometimes  tedious  in  its 
progress,  and  accompanied  by  much  debility,  some  foreign  veterinary  sur- 
geons  have  endeavoured  to  produce  a  milder  disorder  by  inoculating,  either 
with  the  matter  from  the  tumour  or  the  discharge  from  the  nose ;  and 
it  is  said  that  a  disease,  with  all  the  characters  of  strangles,  but  shorter 
and  milder  in  its  course,  has  supervened.  English  practitioners  have  not, 
we  believe,  tried  the  experiment. 

CANKER  AND  WOUNDS  IN  THE  MOUTH. 

The  mouth  is  injured  much  oftener  than  the  careless  owner  suspects,  by 
the  pressure  of  a  sharp  bit.  Not  only  are  the  bars  wounded  and  deeply 
ulcerated,  but  the  lower  jaw,  between  the  tush  and  the  grinders,  is  some- 
times torn  even  to  the  bone,  and  the  bone  itself  affected,  and  portions  of  it 
come  away.  It  may  be  necessary  to  have  a  sharp  bit  for  the  headstrong 
and  obstinate  beast,  yet  if  that  be  severely  and  unjustifiably  called  into  exer- 
cise, the  animal  may  rear,  and  endanger  himself  and  his  rider ;  but  there 
can  be  no  occasion  for  a  thousandth  part  of  the  torment  which  the  trappings 
of  the  mouth  often  inflict  upon  a  willing  and  docile  servant,  and  which  either 
render  the  mouth  hard,  and  destroy  all  the  pleasure  of  riding,  or  cause  the 
horse  to  become  fretful  or  vicious. 

Small  ulcers  are  sometimes  found  in  various  parts  of  the  mouth,  said  to 
be  produced  by  rusty  bits,  but  oftener  arising  from  contusions  inflicted  by 
the  bit,  or  from  inflammation  of  the  mouth.  If  the  curb-bit  is  in  fault,  a 
snaflle  or  Pelham-bit  should  be  used  ;  if  there  be  inflammation  of  the 
mouth,  a  little  cooling  medicine  may  be  administered  ;  and  to  the  ulcers 
themselves,  tincture  of  myrrh,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  or 
an  ounce  of  alum,  dissolved  in  about  twenty  times  the  weight  of  water,  may 
be  applied  with  the  greatest  advantage. 

THE  PHARYNX 

Proceeding  to  the  back  of  the  mouth,  we  find  the  Pharynx  (carrying  or 
conveying  the  food  towards  the  stomach).  It  begins  at  the  root  of  the 
tongue  (see  7,  8,  and  9,  p.  68)  ;  is  sejjarated  from  the  mouth  by  the  sof) 
palate  (7),  which  hangs  down  from  the  palatine  bone  at  8,  and  extends  In 
the  epiglottis,  or  covering  to  the  windpipe.  When  the  food  has  been  sufli- 
ciently  ground  between  the  teeth,  and  mixed  with  the  saliva,  it  is  gatherei/ 
together  by  the  tongue,  and  then  bv  the  actior  ol  the  cheeks  and  tongue  and 


152 


THE  HORSE. 


Dack  part  of  the  mouth,  forcpd  af^ainst  the  soft  palate,  which,  giving  way, 
and  being  raised  upwards  towards  tlie  entrance  into  the  nose,  prevents  the 
food  from  going  that  way.  It  passes  to  the  pharynx  ;  and  the  soft  palate, 
falling  down  again,  prevents  its  return  to  the  mouth,  and  prevents  likewise, 
except  in  extreme  cases,  the  act  of  vomiting  in  the  horse.  Whatever  is 
returned  from  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  passes  through  the  nose,  as  the  cut 
will  make  evident. 

The  sides  of  the  pharynx  are  lined  with  muscles,  which  now  begin  power^ 
fully  to  contract,  and  by  that  contraction  the  bolus  is  forced  in  until  it 
reaches  the  gullet  (10),  which  is  the  termination  of  the  pharynx.  Before, 
however,  the  food  reaches  the  gullet,  it  has  to  pass  over  the  entrance  into 
the  windpipe  (3) ;  and  should  any  portion  of  it  enter  into  that  tube,  much 
inconvenience  and  danger  might  result :  therefore  this  opening  is  not  only 
lined  by  muscles  by  which  it  may  be  closed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal, 
but  it  is  likewise  covered  by  a  heart-like  elastic  cartilage,  the  epiglottis  (2), 
with  its  back  towards  the  pharynx  and  its  hollow  towards  the  aperture. 
The  epiglottis  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  bolus  passing  over  it,  and  lies 
Hat  on  the  entrance  into  the  v.indpipe,  and  prevents  the  possibility  of  any 
tiling  entering  into  it ;  and  no  sooner  has  the  food  passed  over  it,  than  it 
rises  again  by  its  own  elasticity,  and  leaves  the  upper  part  of  tlie  wind- 
pipe once  more  open  for  the  purpose  of  breathing.  The  voice  of  animals 
is  produced  by  the  passage  of  air  through  this  aperture,  communicating 
certain  vibrations  to  folds  of  tiie  membrane  covering  the  part,  and  these 
vibrations  are  afterwards  modified  in  their  passage  through  the  cavities  of 
the  nose.  To  understand  the  diseases  of  these  parts,  we  must  consider 
the  anatomy  of  the  neck  generally. 


CHAPTER    IX, 


ANATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  NECK  AND  ADJACENT  PARTS. 

The  neck  of  the  horse  and  of  every  animal  belonging  to  the  class  main- 
malia,  except  one  species,  is  composed  of  seven  bones,  called  vertebnr, 
moveable  or  turning  upon  each  other  (see  cut,  p.  63 V  They  are  connected 
together  by  strong  ligaments,  and  form  so  many  distinct  joints,  in  order  to 
give  sufficiently  extensive  motion  to  this  important  part  of  the  body.  The 
bone  nearest  to  the  skull  is  called  the  alJas,  (see  cut,  p.  63,  and  g,  p.  68,) 
because,  in  the  human  being,  it  supports  the  head.  In  the  horse,  the  head 
is  suspended  from  it :  it  is  a  mere  ring-shaped  bone,  with  broad  projections 
sideway  ;  but  without  the  sharp  and  irregular  processes  which  are  found  on 
all  the  others.  The  pack-7vax,  or  ligament  by  which  the  head  is  principally 
supported,  (/,  p.  68,)  and  which  is  strongly  connected  with  all  the  other 
bones,  passes  over  this  without  touching  it,  by  which  means  the  head  is 
much  more  easily  and  extensively  moved.  The  junction  of  the  atlas  with 
the  head  is  the  seat  of  a  very  serious  and  troublesome  ulcer,  termed 

POLL-EVIL. 

From  the  horse  rubbing  and  sometimes  striking  his  poll  against  the 
lower  edge  of  the  manger,  or  hanging  back  in  the  stall,  and  bruising  the 


THE    POLL-EVIL.  153 

part  with  the  iialter;  or  from  the  unfrequent  and  painful  stretching  of  th? 
iigaments  and  muscles,  by  unnecetisary  tight  reining,  and  occasionally,  we 
fear,  from  a  violent  blow  on  the  poll,  carelessly  or  wantonly  inflicted, 
inflammation  comes  on,  and  a  swelling  appears,  hot,  tender,  and  painful. 
We  have  just  stated,  that  the  ligament  of  the  neck  passes  over  the  atlas,  or 
first  bone,  without  being  attached  to  it,  and  the  seat  of  the  inflammation  is 
between  the  ligament  and  the  bone  beneath  ;  and,  being  thus  deeply  situ- 
ated, it  is  of  course  serious  in  its  nature,  and  consequently  very  difficult  of 
treatment. 

The  first  thing  to  be  attempted  is  to  abate  the  inflammation  by  bleeding, 
physic,  and  the  application  of  cold  lotions  to  the  part.  By  these  meana 
the  tumour  will  sometimes  be  dispersed.  This  system,  however,  must  not 
\)e  pursued  too  far.  If  the  swelling  increases,  and  the  heat  and  tender- 
ness likewise  increase,  matter  will  form  in  the  tumour;  and  then  our 
object  will  be  to  hasten  its  formation  by  warm  fomentations,  poultices,  or 
stimulating  embrocations.  As  soon  as  the  matter  is  formed,  which  may  be 
known  by  the  softness  of  the  tumour,  and  before  it  has  time  to  spread 
around  and  eat  into  the  neighbouring  parts,  it  should  be  evacuated  :  and 
now  comes  the  whole  art  of  treating  the  poll-evil ;  i]ie  opening  into  the 
tumour  nmsi  he  so  contrived  that  all  tlie  matter  shall  run  out,  and  continue 
afterwards  to  run  out  as  it  is  formed,  and  not  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ulcer,  irritating  and  corroding  it.  This  can  be  effected  by  a  seton  alone. 
The  needle  should  enter  at  the  top  of  the  tumour,  penetrate  through  its  bot- 
tom, and  be  brought  out  at  the  side  of  tiie  neck,  a  little  below  the  abscess. 
Without  any  thing  more  than  this,  except  frequent  fomentation  with  warm 
water,  to  keep  the  part  clean,  and  to  obviate  inflammation,  poll-evil,  in  its 
early  stage,  will  frequently  be  cured.  If  the  ulcer  has  deepened  and 
spread,  and  threatens  to  eat  into  the  ligaments  of  the  joints  of  the  neck,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  stimulate  its  surface,  and  perhaps  painfully  so,  in 
order  to  bring  it  to  a  healthy  state,  and  dispose  it  to  fill  up  ;  and,  in  extreme 
cases,  even  the  scalding  mixture  of  the  farrier  may  be  called  into  requisi- 
tion. This,  however,  will  be  ineffectual,  except  the  pus  or  matter  is  enabled, 
by  the  use  of  setons,  perfectly  to  run  out  of  the  wound  ;  and  the  application 
of  these  setons  will  require  the  skill  and  anatomical  knowledge  of^the  vete- 
rinary surgeon.  In  very  desperate  cases,  the  wound  may  not  be  fairly 
exposed  to  the  action  of  our  caustic  applications,  without  the  division  of  the 
ligament  of  the  neck,  by  which  we  have  described  the  head  as  being  almos^l^ 
entirely  supported.  This,  however,  may  be  done  with  perfect  safety,  for 
although  the  ligament  is  carried  on  to  the  occipital  bone,  and  some  strength 
is  gained  by  this  prolongation  of  it,  the  main  stress  is  on  the  second  bone  ; 
and  the  head  will  continue  to  be  supported,  although  the  ligament  should  be 
divided  between  the  second  bone  and  the  head.  The  divided  ligament 
will  soon  unite  again,  and  its  former  usefulness  will  be  restored  when  the 
wound  is  healed. 

The  second  bone  of  the  neck  is  the  dentata,  having  a  process  like  a  tooth, 
by  which  it  forms  a  joint  with  the  first  bone.  In  the  formation  of  tliat 
joint,  a  portion  of  the  spinal  marrow,  which  runs  through  a  canal  in  the 
centre  of  all  these  bones,  is  exposed,  or  covered  only  by  ligament ;  and  by 
the  division  of  the  marrow  at  this  spot,  an  animal  is  instantly  and  humanely 
destroyed.  The  operation  is  called  pithing,  from  the  name  (the  pith)  given' 
by  butchers  to  the  spinal  marrow. 

The  other  neck,  or  rack  bones,  as  they  are  denominated  by  the  farrier,. 
B.  p.  63,  are  of  a  strangely  irregular  shape,  yet  bearing  considerable  resem- 
blance to  each  other.     They  consist  of  a  central  bone,  perforated  for  tb^ 
id 


154 


THE  HORSE 


passage  of  the  spinal  marrow,  with  a  ridge  on  the  top  for  the  attachment  oi 
the  ligament  of  the  neck,  and  four  irregular  plates  or  processes  from  the 
sides  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  ;  at  the  base  of  one  of  whicli,  on  either 
side,  are  holes  for  the  passage  of  large  arteries  and  veins.  At  the  upper 
end  of  each,  is  a  round  head  or  ball,  at  the  lower  end,  a  cavity  or  cup,  and 
the  head  of  one  being  received  into  the  cup  of  the  other,  they  are  united 
together,  forming  so  many  joints.  They  are  likewise  joined  together  by 
ligaments  from  these  processes,  as  well  as  the  proper  ligaments  of  the 
joints,  and  so  securely,  that  no  dislocation  can  take  place  between  any  of 
them,  except  tlie  first  and  second,  the  consequence  of  which  would  be  the 
immediate  death  of  the  animal. 

The  last,  or  seventli  bone,  has  the  elevation  on  the  back  or  top  of  it  con- 
tinued into  a  long  and  sharp  prolongation  (a  spinous  process);  and  is  the 
beginning  of  that  ridge  of  bones  denominated  the  withers  (see  cut,  p.  63) ; 
and  as  it  is  the  base  of  the  column  of  neck-bones,  and  there  must  be  great 
pressure  on  it  from  the  weight  of  the  head  and  neck,  it  is  curiously  contrived 
to  rest  upon  and  unite  with  the  two  first  ribs,  which  also  we  shall  presently 
describe  as  being  peculiarly  and  strongly  constructed. 


THE  MUSCLES  AND  PROPER  FORM  OF  THE  NECK. 

The  bones  which  we  have  just  mentioned  serve  as  the  frame  work  to 
which  are  attached  numerous  muscles  concerned  in  all  (.he  motions  of  the 
head  and  neck.  The  power  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck  is  precisely  adapted 
to  the  weight  of  the  head  and  neck.  They  are  supported  by  it,  without 
muscular  aid,  and  without  fatigue  to  the  animal ;  but  to  raise  the  head 
higher,  or  to  lower  it,  or  to  turn  it  in  every  direction,  a  complicated  system 
of  muscles  was  necessary.  Those  whose  office  it  is  to  raise  the  head,  are 
most  numerous  and  powerful,  and  are  placed  on  the  upper  and  side  part  of 
the  neck.     Our  cut,  p.  119,  gives  a  few  of  them. 

c  marks  a  tendon  common  to  two  of  the  most  important  of  them,  the 
splenitis,  or  splint-like  muscle,  and  the  complexiis  major,  or  larger  compli- 
cated muscle.  The  splenius  constitutes  the  principal  bulk  of  the  neck 
above,  rising  from  the  ligament  of  the  neck    all  the  way  down  it,   and 

going  to  the  processes  of  all  the 
bones  of  the  neck,  but  the  first, 
and  flat  tendons  running  from 
the  upper  part  of  it,  to  the  first 
bone  of  the  neck,  and  to  a  pro- 
cess of  the  temporal  bone  of  the 
head.  Its  action  is  sufficiently 
evident,  namely,  very  powerfully 
to  elevate  the  head  and  neck. 
The  principal  beauty  of  the  neck 
depends  on  this  muscle.  It  was 
most  admirably  developed  in 
the  horse  of  whose  neck  the  an- 
ne.xed  cut  gives  an  accurate  de- 
lineation. 

If  the  curve  were  quite  regu 
lar  from  the  poll  to  the  withers, 
we  should  call  it  a  perfect  neck. 
It  is  rather  a  long  neck,  and 
we    do  not  like    it  the    less    for 


THE  FORM  OF  THE  NECK.  I55 

that.  In  the  carriage-horse,  a  neck  that  is  not  half  concealed  by  the  collar 
is  inJispensable,  so  lar  as  appearance  goes ;  and  it  is  only  the  horse  with  a 
neck  of  tolerable  length,  that  will  bear  to  be  reined  up,  so  as  to  give  this 
part  tliat  arched  and  beautiful  appearance  which  fashion  demands.  It 
is  no  detriment  to  the  riding-liorse,  and  there  are  few  horses  of  extraordi- 
nary speed  which  have  not  the  neck  rather  long.  Tiie  race-horse  at  the 
top  of  his  speed  not  only  extends  it  as  far  as  he  can,  that  the  air-passages 
may  be  as  straight  as  he  can  make  them,  and  that  he  may  therefore  be 
able  to  breathe  more  freely,  but  the  weight  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the 
effect  increasing  with  their  distance  from  the  trunk,  add  materially  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  animal's  motion,  by  throwing  his  weight  considerably  for- 
ward. It  has  been  said,  that  a  horse  with  a  long  neck  will  bear  heavy  on 
the  hand.  We  do  not  believe  that  either  the  length  of  the  neck,  or  even 
the  bulk  of  the  head,  has  any  influence  in  causing  this.  They  are  both 
counterbalanced  by  the  power  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck.  The  setting 
Oil  of  the  head  is  most  of  all  connected  with  heavy  bearing  on  the  hand, 
and  a  short-necked  horse  will  bear  heavily,  because,  from  the  thickness  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  consequent  on  its  shortness,  the  head  cannot  be 
rightly  placed.  The  head  and  neck,  however,  should  be  proportioned  to 
each  other.  .\  short  head  on  a  long  neck,  or  a  long  head  on  a  short  neck, 
would  equally  offend  the  eye. 

Connected  with  this  sp/enius  muscle,  and  partly  produced  by  it,  we 
would  direct  the  attention  of  the  i*eader  to  the  thickness  and  muscularity 
of  the  neck  in  this  cut,  as  it  springs  from  the  shoulders ;  the  height  at  which 
it  comes  out  from  them,  forming  nearly  a  line  with  the  withers;  and  th? 
manner  in  which  it  tapers  as  it  approaches  the  head,  and  this  muscla 
diminishing  in  size.  The  neck  of  a  well  formed  hoise,  however  tine  at  the 
top,  should  be  muscular  at  the  bottom,  or  the  horse  to  which  it  belongs  will 
generally  be  weak  and  worthless.  Necks  devoid  of  this  muscularity  are 
called  loose  necks  by  horsemen,  and  are  always  considered  a  very  serious 
objection  to  the  animal.  If  the  neck  be  thin  and  lean  at  the  upper  part,  and 
be  otherwise  well-shaped,  the  horse  will  usually  carry  himself  well,  and  the 
head  will  be  properly  curved  for  beauty  of  appearance  and  ease  of  riding. 
When  an  instance  to  the  contrary  occurs,  it  is  generally  to  be  traced  to 
very  improper  management,  or  to  the  space  between  the  jaws  being  un- 
naturally small. 

The  splenius  muscle,  although  the  main  agent  in  raising  the  head  and 
neck,  maybe  too  large,  or  covered  with  too  much  cellular  substance  or  fat, 
and  give  an  appearance  of  heaviness  or  even  clumsiness  to  the  neck.  This 
peculiarity  of  form  constitutes  the  distinction  between  the  perfect  horse  and 
the  mare,  and  also  the  gelding,  unless  castrated  at  a  very  late  period. 
Horses  with  thick,  heavy  crests  are  usually  slow  and  sluggish. 

This  tendon,  c,  belongs  also  to  another  muscle,  which  makes  up  the 
principal  bulk  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  is  called  the  complexus 
major,  or  larger  complicated  muscle.  It  arises  partly  as  low  as  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  four  or  five  first  bones  of  the  back,  and  from  the  five 
lower  bones  of  the  neck  ;  and  the  fibres  from  these  various  sources  uniting 
together,  form  a  very  large  and  powerful  muscle,  the  largest  and  strongest 
in  the  neck.  As  it  approaches  the  head,  it  lessens  in  bulk,  and  terminates 
partly  with  the  splenius  in  this  tendon,  but  is  principally  inserted  into  the 
back  part  of  the  occipital  bone,  by  the  side  of  the  ligament  of  the  neck. 
\n  our  cut,  p.  154,  almost  its  whole  course  can  be  distinctly  traced.  Its 
office  is  to  raise  the  neck  and  elevate  the  head  ;  and  being  inserted 
mto  such  a  part  of  the  occiput,  it  will  more  particularly  protrude  the  nose, 


InG 


Tilt.  HORSE. 


\\liilo  it  raises  the  head.  Its  action,  however,  may  be  too  poworful  ;  ii 
may  be  habitually  so,  and  then  it  may  produce  dclbrmity.  The  back  of 
the  liead  being  thus  pulled  back,  and  tiie  muzzle  protruded,  the  hor.se 
cannot  by  possibility  carry  his  head  well  ;  he  will  become  what  is  tcchni- 
callv  called  a  star-gazer;  heavy  in  hand,  boring  upon  the  bit,  and  unsafe. 
To  remedy  this,  recourse  is  had,  and  in  a  majority  of  cases  without  avail, 
to  the  martingale,  against  which  the  horse  is  continually  fighting,  and 
which  is  often  a  complete  annoyance  to  the  rider.  Such  a  horse  is  almost 
useless  for  harness. 

Inseparable  from  this  is  another  sad  defect,  so  far  as  the  beauty  :f  the 
horse  is  concerned;  he  becomes  ewe-necked;  he  has  a  neck  like  a  ewe ; 
not  arched  above,  and  straight  below,  until  near  to  the  head,  but  hollowed 
above  and  projecting  below  ;  and  the  neck  rising  low  out  of  the  chest,  even 
lower  sometimes  than  the  points  of  the  shoulders.  There  can  scarcely  be 
any  thing  more  unsightly  in  a  horse.  The  head  of  such  a  horse  cari  never 
be  got  down;  and  the  bearing  rein  of  harness  must  be  to  him  a  source  of 
constant  torture. 

Among  the  muscles  employed  in  raising  the  head,  are  the  complexus 
7nhiores,  smaller,  complicated,  and  the  recti,  straight,  and  the  oblique  mus- 
cles of  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  and  belonging  princij)ally  to  the  two  first 
bones  of  the  neck,  and  portions  of  which  may  be  seen  under  the  tendon  of 
the  splenius  c,  and  between  it  and  the  ligament  a. 

Among  the  nmscles  employed  in  lowering  the  head,  some  of  which  are 
given  in  the  same  cut,  is  the  sler7io-maxiUaris,  d,  belonging  to  the  breast- 
bone and  the  upper-jaw.  It  can  likewise  be  traced,  although  not  quite  dis- 
tincily,  in  the  cut,  page  154.  It  lies  immediately  under  the  skin.  It  arises 
from  the  cartilage  pi'ojecting  from,  or  constituting  the  front  of  the  breast- 
bone, (H,  p.  63),  and  proceeds  up  the  neck,  of  no  great  bulk  or  strength: 
for  when  the  weight  of  the  head  is  so  nicely  balanced  by  the  power  of  the 
ligament,  a  little  addition  to  that  weight  will  pull  it  down  ;  whereas  the 
muscles  that  raise  the  head  must  necessarily  have  very  great  strength,  for 
ihey  will  have  all  its  weight  to  support.  About  three-fourths  of  its  length 
upward,  it  changes  to  a  flat  tendon,  which  is  seen  (rf,  p.  119)  to  insinuate 
itself  between  the  parotid  and  submaxillary  glands,  in  order  to  be  inserted 
into  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  used  in  bending  the  head  towards 
the  chest. 

Another  muscle,  the  termination  of  which  Is  seen,  is  the  levator  humeri, 
raiser  of  the  shoulder,  b.  This  is  a  much  larger  muscle  than  the  last, 
because  it  has  more  duty  to  perform.  It  rises  from  the  back  of  the  head 
and  lour  first  bones  of  the  neck  and  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  and  is 
carried  down  to  the  shoulder,  mixing  itself  partly  with  some  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder,  and  finally  continued  down  to  and  terminating  on  the 
humerus  (J,  p.  63).  Its  office  is  double  :  if  we  suppose  the  horse  in  action, 
and  the  head  and  neck  fixed  points,  the  contraction  of  this  muscle  will 
draw  forward  the  shoulder  and  arm:  if  the  horse  be  standing,  and 
the  shoulder  and  arm  be  fixed  points,  this  muscle  will  depress  the  head 
and  neck. 

Little  more  of  a  practical  nature  could  be  said  of  the  muscles  of  the 
neck,  although  they  would  be  proper  and  interesting  studies  for  the  anato- 
mist;  and  therefore  we  will  only  observe  that  thev  are  all  in  pairs.  One 
of  them  is  found  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  the  office  which  we  have 
f\ttributed  to  them  can  only  be  accomplished  when  both  act  together  ;  but 
Bupposing  that  one  alone  of  the  elevating  muscles  should  act,  the  head 
would  be  raised,  but  it  would  at  the  same  time  be  turned  towards  that  side. 


BLOOD-VESSELS  OF  THE  NECK.  157 

If  only  one  of  the  depressor  muscles  were  to  act,  the  head  would  be  bent 
down,  but  it  would  likewise  be  turned  towards  that  side.  Then  it  will  b* 
easily  seen  that  by  this  simple  method  of  having  the  muscles  in  pairs,  pro- 
vision is  made  for  every  kind  of  motion,  upwards,  downwards,  or  on  either 
side,  for  which  the  animal  can  possibly  have  occasion. 

This  is  tlie  proper  place  to  speak  of  the  mane,  that  long  hair  which  covers 
the  crest  of  the  neck,  and  adds  so  much  to  tlie  beauty  of  the  animal.  It 
sometimes  grows  to  a  considerable  length.  There  is  a  horse  in  the  king's 
stables,  the  hair  of  whose  mane  is  more  than  a  yard  in  length;  and  it  is 
said  that  a  horse  was  once  exhibited  with  a  mane  three  or  four  yards 
long.  The  mane  is  apt  to  become  entangled,  if  it  be  not  regularly 
combed.  The  teeth  of  the  comb  should  be  large  and  sufficiently  far  apart. 
There  never  can  be  occasion  to  pull  the  mane,  as  grooms  are  too  much 
accustomed  to  do,  tugging  it  out  in  little  parcels.  It  will  then  never  lie 
smooth.  A  strong  comb,  with  only  two  or  three  teeth  in  it,  will  keep  it 
sufficiently  thin  and  smooth. 

THE  BLOOD-VESSELS  OF  THE  NECK. 

Running  down  the  inner  part  of  the  neck  are  the  principal  blood-vessels 
going  to  and  returning  from  the  head  with  the  windpipe  and  gullet. 
Our  cut  could  not  give  a  view  of  the  arteries  which  carry  the  blood  from 
the  heart  to  the  head,  because  they  are  too  deeply  seated.  The  external 
arteries  are  the  carotid,  of  which  there  are  two.  They  ascend  the  neck  on 
either  side,  close  to  the  windpipe,  until  they  have  reached  the  middle  of 
the  neck,  where  they  somewhat  diverge,  and  lie  more  deeply ;  they  are 
covered  by  the  sterno-maxillaris  muscle,  which  we  have  just  described; 
and  are  separated  from  the  jugulars,  by  a  small  portion  of  muscular  sub- 
stance. Having  reached  tlie  larynx,  they  divide  into  two  branches,  the 
external  and  the  internal ;  the  first  goes  to  every  part  of  the  face  and  the 
second  to  the  brain. 

The  vertebral  arteries  run  through  canals  in  the  bones  of  the  neck, 
supplying  the  neighbouring  parts  as  they  climb,  and  at  length  enter  the 
skull  at  the  large  hole  in  the  occipital  bone,  and  ramify  on  and  supply 
the  brain. 

We  can  conceive  few  cases  in  which  it  would  be  either  necessary  or  jus- 
tifiable to  bleed  from  an  artery.  Even  in  mad-staggers  the  bleeding  is  more 
practicable,  safer,  and  more  effiictual,  from  the  jugular  vein  than  from  the 
temporal  or  any  other  artery.  If  an  artery  be  opened  in  the  direction  in 
which  it  runs,  there  is  sometimes  very  great  difficulty  in  stopping  the  bleed- 
ing; it  has  even  been  necessary  to  tie  the  vessel  in  order  to  accomplish 
this  purpose.  If  the  artery  be  cut  across,  its  coats  are  so  elastic  that  the 
two  ends  are  immediately  drawn  apart  under  the  flesh  on  each  side,  and  are 
thereby  closed  ;   and  after  the  first  gush  of  blood,  no  more  can  be  obtained. 

THE  VEINS  OF  THE  NECK. 

The  external  veins  which  return  the  blood  from  the  head  to  the  heart 
are  the  jugulars.  The  horse  has  but  one  on  either  side.  The  human 
being  and  the  ox  have  two.  It  is  the  principal  vessel  by  which  the  blood 
is  conveyed  from  the  head.  The  jugular  is  said  to  ta-ke  its  rise  from  the 
•.ase  of  the  skull ;  it  then  descends,  receiving  other  branches  in  its  way 
towards  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  and  behind  the  parotid  gland  ;  and  emergmg 
from  that  as  seen  at  t,  p.  1.50,  and  being  united  to  a  large  branch  from  ths 


158  THE  HORSE. 

face,  11  dkes  its  course  down  the  neck.  Veterinary  surgeons  and  horse- 
men  li^ve  agreed  to  adopt  the  jugular,  a  little  way  below  the  union  ol 
these  two  branches,  as  the  place  for  bleeding;  and  a  very  convenient 
one  it  is ;  for  it  is  easily  got  at,  and  the  vessel  is  large.  Of  the  manner 
of  bleeding,  and  the  states  of  constitution  and  disease  in  which  it  is  proper, 
we  shall  speak  hereafter,  confining  ourselves  at  present  to  an  occasional 
consequence  of  bleeding,  namely, 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  VEIN. 

It  is  usual  and  proper,  after  bleeding,  to  bring  the  edges  of  the  cut  care- 
fully together,  and  to  hold  them  in  contact  by  inserting  a  pin  through  tlie 
skin  with  a  little  tow  twisted  round  it.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  bun- 
dred  the  wound  quickly  heals,  and  gives  no  trouble;  but  in  a  few  instances, 
from  using  a  blunt  instrument,  or  a  dirty  or  rusty  one  ;  or  striking  too  hard, 
and  bruising  the  vein  with  a  thick  part  of  the  fleam  ;  or  pulling  the  skin 
too  far  from  the  neck,  and  suffering  some  blood  to  insinuate  itself  ini  •  the 
cellular  texture ;  or  neglecting  to  tie  the  horse  up  for  a  little  whil&,  and 
thereby  enabling  him  to  rub  the  bleeding  place  against  the  mangei,  and 
tear  out  the  pin  ;  or  from  the  animal  being  worked  immediately  afterward, 
and  the  collar  pressing  the  blood  against  the  orifice;  or  the  reins  oi  the 
bridle  rubbing  against  it ;  or  having  several  blows  clumsily  given,  and  a  large 
and  ragged  wound  made ;  or  from  some  disposition  to  inflammation  about 
the  horse,  for  the  bleeder  is  not  always  in  fault,  the  wound  does  not  heal. 
The  edges  of  it  separate,  and  are  swelled  and  red ;  a  discharge  of  thin 
bloody  fluid  proceeds  from  the  cut,  followed  perhaps  in  a  few  days  by  mat- 
Jer;  the  neck  swells,  and  is  hot  and  tender;  the  vein,  particularly  abovn 
the  wound  is  hard  and  cordy ;  the  cordiness  of  the  vein  increases,  morr 
and  more  upward ;  and  little  abscesses  begin  to  form  about  the  origina' 
wound.  This  is  sometimes  a  very  serious  case,  for  the  inflammation  con- 
tinues to  spread  upwards,  and  destroys  the  horse.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
why  it  spreads  upward,  because  the  blood  has  run  off  below  the  wound,  and 
nothing  remains  there  to  irritate ;  but  the  vein  becoming  thickened  in  its 
coats,  and  diminished  in  its  capacity,  and  at  length  quite  closed  by  the 
inflammation,  the  blood  descending  from  the  head,  and  pressing  upon  the 
closed  part,  will  coagulate;  and  that  clot  of  blood  will  gradually  increase, 
and  the  obstruction,  and  the  inflammation  produced  by  that  obstruction  will 
increase,  and  that  necessarily  upward. 

Human  surgeons  say  that  inflammation  of  a  vein  spreads  lowards  the 
heart.  In  the  horse,  and  we  will  venture  to  say  in  every  animal,  it  spreads 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  coagulation  is  formed,  and  that  in  the  jugulai 
must  be  upward,  although  from  the  heart.  In  the  veins  of  the  arm  and  leg 
it  will  likewise  spread  upward,  and  then  towards  the  heart,  because  the 
coagulation  takes  place  in  that  direction. 

The  application  of  the  hot  iron  to  the  orifice  of  the  wound  will  sometimes 
stimulate  it  and  cause  its  edges  to  unite.  When  this  fails,  and  the  swelling 
is  large,  and  abscesses  have  formed,  it  is  for  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  decide 
liow  far  he  will  introduce  setons  into  them,  or  inject  a  caustic  liquid,  or  dis- 
sect out  the  diseased  portion  of  the  vein. 

Should  the  vein  be  destroyed,  the  horse  will  not  be  irreparably  injured  ; 
and  perhaps,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  scarcely  injured  at  all ;  for  nature 
is  ingenious  in  making  provision  to  carry  on  the  circulation  of  blood.  All  the 
vessels  conveying  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  different  parts  of  the  frame, 
or  bringing  it  back  again  to  the  heart,  communicate  with  each  othej    bv  30 


THE  VVINDPIPE.  15& 

many  channels,  and  in  such  various  ways,  that  it  is  impossible  by  the  closure 
or  loss  of  any  one  of  them  materially  to  impede  the  flow  of  the  vital  cur- 
rent.  If  the  jugular  be  destroyed,  the  blood  will  circulate  through  other 
vessels  almost  as  freely  as  before. 

THE  WINDPIPE. 

Ii:  the  fore  part  of  the  throat  (b,  p.  68)  is  placed  a  curiously  constructeu 
tube,  extending  from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  to  the  lungs,  and  designea 
for  the  conveyance  of  air  to  and  from  these  organs.  The  windpipe  of  the 
horse  is  composed  of  nearly  sixty  rings  of  cartilage,  connected  together  by 
strong  and  elasMc  liga:r.ents.  The  rings  are  broad  in  front,  narrowing 
behind,  and  there  overlapping  each  other,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  considera- 
ble extension  and  contraction  ;  and  across  the  posterior  part  run  strong 
muscular  fibres,  which  give  to  that  portion  of  the  tube  a  power  of  action, 
depending  not  indeed  on  the  will,  but  on  sympathy  with  other  parts  cor. 
cerned  in  breathing. 

This  singular  and  beautiful  mechanism  deserves  serious  attention.  It  is 
necessary  for  the  comfort,  and  even  the  existence  of  the  animal,  that  this 
air-tube  should  be  free  from  compression,  and  always  open;  and  it  is 
attached  to  the  neck,  long,  and  capable  of  the  most  varied  motion.  Would 
any  tube  composed  of  a  uniform  substance,  however  elastic,  maintain  its 
form  and  size  amidst  all  these  complicated  motions  ?  When  the  horse  is 
browsing,  the  windpipe  is  an  inch  or  more  longer  than  when  the  neck  is 
arched  ;  there  is,  therefore,  the  ligamentous  substance  between  the  circular 
rings,  which  will  lengthen  the  tube  when  required,  and  immediately  con- 
tract  to  its  former  dimensions  when  the  force  that  caused  the  elongation  is 
removed.  When  the  head  is  bent,  and  the  neck  is  arched,  and  in  various 
poshions  of  the  neck,  a  portion  of  the  windpipe  is  violently  pressed  upon; 
Jierefore  there  are  the  cartilaginous  rings — cartilaginous  that  they  may 
yield  to  pressure,  and  immediately  recover  their  form  when  the  pressure  is 
removed  ;  and  lapping  over  each  other,  that  the  difference  of  calibre  or  size 
in  the  tube  may  be  as  great  as  the  necessities  of  the  animal  may  occasion- 
ally require,  and  muscular  at  the  back,  that  all  these  powers  of  elasticity 
may  be  exerted  to  the  fullest  extent.  The  cartilaginous  rings,  again,  are 
broad  and  strong  in  front,  where  danger  may  threaten,  and  softer  and 
more  yielding  behind,  where  the  bones  of  the  neck  afford  secure  protection. 

The  windpipe  is  lined  by  a  membrane,  likewise  curiously  contrived.  It 
is  smooth  and  plain  in  front  under  the  broad  cartilaginous  rings,  and  where 
little  change  of  dimension  can  take  place  ;  but  behind,  it  is  puckered  into 
several  folds,  running  down  the  windpipe,  and  not  across  it,  and  adapting 
itself  easily  to  any  change  in  the  size  of  the  tube. 

Then  it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  the  windpipe  of  a  good  horse  should  be 
large,  to  admit  the  passage  of  a  greater  quantity  of  air;  and  in  horses  from 
which  speed  is  required,  as  is  in  the  blood-horse,  the  windpipe  is  compara- 
tively larger  than  in  other  breeds  devoted  to  slower  work. 

The  windpipe  should  project  from  the  neck.  It  should  be  as  it  weie 
detached  from  the  neck,  for  two  important  reasons;  first,  that  it  may  easily 
enter  between  the  channels  of  the  jaw,  so  that  the  horse  may  be  reined  up 
without  suffering  inconvenience  ;  and  next,  that  being  more  loosely  attached 
to  the  neck,  it  may  more  readily  adapt  itself  to  the  changes  required,  than 
if  it  were  enveloped  by  fat  or  muscle,  to  a  certain  degree  unyielding:  there- 
fore, in  every  well-formed  neck,  and  it  will  be  seen  in  the  cut,  (p.  154,)  it 
Is  indispensable  that  the  windpipe  should  be  prominent  and  loose  on  the  neck. 


160  TIIR  HORSE. 

VVe  do  not  require  this  in  tlie  heavy  cart-horse,  and  we  do  not  often  find  it 
because  lie  is  not  so  much  exposed  to  those  circumstances  which  will  hurry 
respiration,  and  require  an  enlargement  in  the  size  of  the  principal  air-tube. 

THE  LARYNX. 

At  the  top  of  the  windpipe  is  placed  the  larynx,  which  has  been  partially 
described.  It  is  situated  where  from  the  sudden  bending  or  motion  of  the 
head  it  is  liable  to  more  frequent  and  to  greater  injury  than  the  windpipe; 
and  therefore  it  is  composed  of  stronger  cartilages  than  that  tube.  First  is 
the  thyroid,  or  helmet-shaped  cartilage,  forming  the  front  and  side  parts  of 
(he  larynx,  and  protecting  the  other  parts  of  the  larynx  (see  l,p.  68).  Its 
bulk  and  strength  are  apparent  on  the  slightest  handling. 

Immediately  below  the  thyroid,  and  with  its  broad  part  behind,  is  the 
cricoid,  ring-like  cartilage  (11,  p.  68).  This  is  likewise  for  the  purpose  of 
strength  in  a  part  so  exposed  to  injury,  but  not  so  strong  as  the  thyroid 
because  so  much  danger  cannot  threaten  from  behind.  Of  the  epiglottis, 
or  covering  of  the  entrance  into  the  wind-pipe  (2,  p.  68),  and  of  the  aryte- 
noid, or  funnel-shaped  cartilages  forming  that  opening  (3,  p.  68),  we  have 
already  spoken. 

ROARING. 

The  larynx  and  upper  part  of  the  Avindpipe  are  subject  to  various  dis- 
eases. The  first  we  shall  mention  is  Roaring  ;  so  called  from  a  peculiar 
sound  uttered  by  the  horse  when  briskly  trotted  or  galloped,  particularly  up 
hill.  In  moderate  exercise  it  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  perceived,  but  when 
the  animal  is  in  brisk  exercise  it  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  several 
yards.  It  may  easily  be  detected  by  striking  the  horse  suddenly,  or  even 
threatening  him  with  a  stick,  when  he  will  utter  a  singular  grunt  or  groan. 

It  is  usually  explained  as  the  consequence  of  inflammation  of  the  part. 
A  fluid,  rapidly  changes  into  a  tough  viscid  substance,  is  thrown  out,  and 
adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  larynx  and  upper  part  of  the  windpipe,  materi- 
ally  obstructing  the  passage,  and  sometimes  running  across  it  in  bands. 
When  the  horse  is  blown,  or  his  breathing  much  hurried,  the  air  whistles 
through  these  obstructions.  We  believe  this  to  be  the  most  general  cause 
of  the  disease,  and  a  roarer  is  evidently  unsound,  for  he  is  incapable  of  the 
exertion  which  may  not  only  be  occasionally,  but  ordinarily  required  of  him. 

Much  light,  however,  has  lately  been  thrown  on  other  causes  of  this  com- 
plaint. Many  roarers  have  been  examined  after  death,  and  no  vestige  of 
these  bands  have  been  found  ;  but  some  have  had  the  shape  of  the  larynx 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe  materially  deformed,  crooked  and  com- 
pressed; and  others  have  presented  no  appearance  of  disease.  Then  we 
liave  been  compelled  to  look  out  for  other  causes  of  roaring,  and  some 
very  probable  ones  have  been  readily  found.  The  parts  may  have  been 
subject  to  inflammation,  and  some  parts  of  the  air-tube  may  have  become 
thickened  and  inelastic.  In  this  way  the  inflammation  of  strangles  may 
have  been  communicated  to  the  larynx  or  windpipe,  followed  by  some 
alteration  of  structure.       Roaring  is  no  unusual  consequence  of  strangles. 

A  more  frequent  cause,  and  previously  unsuspected,  is  tight  reining. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  more  carriage-horses  become  roarers, 
than  those  that  are  used  for  the  saddle  alone  ;  and  the  explanation  of  thi.« 
at  once  presents  itself  in  the  continued  and  painful  pressure  on  these  parts, 
caused  by  reining  in  the  carriage-horse,  and  teaching  him  to  'lea-    himself 


ROARING.  lei 

well.  We  have  seen  the  larynx,  and  that  portion  of  the  windpipe  imma 
dialely  beneath  it,  flattened,  and  bent,  and  twisted  in  the  strangest  way, 
which  could  not  have  been  produced  by  disease,  but  by  mechanical 
injury  alone.  The  mischief  is  usually  done  with  young  horses.  The 
arched  neck  and  elevated  head  of  the  carriage-horse  is  an  unnatural  posi- 
tion, from  which  the  animal  most  habituated  to  it  is  eager  to  be  relieved 
Horse-breakers,  and  coachmen,  and  carters,  should  be  made  to  understand, 
that  when  the  horse's  head  is  first  confined  by  the  bearing- rein,  great  gen- 
tleness, and  care,  and  caution,  are  necessary.  Injury  must  be  done  if  the 
throat  be  violently  pressed  upon,  and  especially  when  it  is  exposed  to  addi- 
tional danger  from  the  impatience  of  the  animal,  unused  to  control,  and  suf- 
fering pain.  The  head  of  the  riding-horse  is  gradually  brought  to  its  proper 
place  by  the  hands  of  the  teacher,  who  skilfully  increases,  or  relaxes  the  pres- 
sure, and  humours  and  plays  with  the  mouth  ;  but  the  poor  carriage-horse  is 
confined  by  a  rein  that  never  slackens,  and  his  nose  is  bent  in  at  the  expense 
of  the  larynx  and  windpipe,  and  the  injury  is  materially  increased,  if  the 
head  be  not  naturally  well  set  on,  or  if  the  neck  be  thick,  or  the  jaws  narrow. 

The  shape  of  the  larynx  and  windpipe  will  occasionally  be  altered,  if 
they  be  thus  squeezed  between  the  jaws,  and  the  bones  of  the  neck  ;  or  the 
muscles  wiiich  expand  the  opening  into  the  windpipe  for  the  purpose  of 
natural  breathing,  and  especially  of  quick  or  hurried  breathing,  will  be  so 
compressed,  that  they  will  be  incapable  of  full  action,  and  by  degrees  will 
lose  the  power  of  action,  even  when  not  pressed  upon,  and,  in  fact,  become 
palsied;  and  therefore,  the  opening  not  being  sufficiently  enlarged  during 
the  rapid  breathing  of  the  animal,  moving  with  speed,  the  air  will  rush 
violently  through  the  diminished  aperture,  and  the  sound  termed  roaring 
will  he  produced. 

It  IS  a  common  opinion  that  crib-biting  frequently  terminates  in  roaring. 
There  is  nothing  in  crib-biting  that  can  possibly  lead  to  roaring;  but  there 
is  a  n.ethod  adopted  to  cure  crib-biting,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more 
likely  to  produce  it :  we  mean  the  straps  which  are  so  tightly  buckled  round 
the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  and  which  must  compress,  and  sometimes  distort 
or  paralyze  the  larynx. 

Th<".  habit  of  coughing  a  horse,  to  ascertain  the  state  of  his  wind,  is  an 
occasional  cause  of  roaring.  The  larynx  or  trachea  is  violently  and  pain- 
fully  squeezed  in  this  operation ;  and  the  violence  being  often  repeated, 
inflammation  and  injury  may  ensue. 

The  treatment  of  roaring  is  very  unsatisfactory.  If  we  have  been  correct 
in  our  account  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  disease,  a  cure  seems  to  be 
perfectly  out  of  the  question.  If  it  arise  from  a  distorted  larynx,  there  is 
no  mechanical  contrivance  that  can  restore  the  natural  and  perfect  struct- 
ure •  if  from  a  band  or  ring  of  lymph  diminishing  the  size  of  the  passage, 
we  know  not  by  what  means  that  can  be  removed ;  or  if  the  muscles  of  the 
larynx  be  palsied,  we  know  not  the  stimulus  that  can  rouse  them  again  to 
action,  or  the  manner  in  which  that  stimulus  is  to  be  applied. 

In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  whether  it  proceed  from  violent  pressure 
on  the  part  by  improper  curbing,  or  be  connected  with,  or  consequent  on 
catarrh  or  strangles,  or  the  enlargement  of  some  neighbouring  part,  inflam- 
mation will  be  present,  and  we  shall  be  justified  in  having  recourse  to  those 
measures  which  will  abate  inflammation.  Bleeding  will  not  be  improper 
if  roaring  is  the  consequence  of  previous  disease ;  it  will  be  indispensable, 
if  it  be  connected  with  present  disease  of  the  chest.  The  degree  to  which 
the  bleeding  should  be  carried  will  depend  on  the  degree  of  general  or  local 
inflammation.  To  bleeding  should  succeed  purging,  and  to  this,  medicines 
ihat  will  lessen  the  force  of  tne  circulation — as  nitre,  emetic- tartar,  and 


162  THE  HORSE. 

digitalis  These  should  be  followed  by  blisters,  to  remove  the  inflammation, 
if  possible,  from  an  internal  and  important  part  to  the  skin.  The  blisters 
may  at  lirst  be  confined  to  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  but,  if  unsuccessful 
there,  they  should  extend  over  the  whole  length  of  the  windpipe.  In  extreme 
cases,  and  where  the  obstruction  seems  to  threaten  suffocation,  we  may  be 
justified  in  cutting  into  the  windpipe,  and  either  introducing  a  tube  into 
"the  opening,  or  cutting  out  a  portion  of  one  of  the  rings.  This  operation, 
however,  the  agriculturist  will  scarcely  dare  to  perform,  although  it  is 
simple  enough  to  him  who  understands  the  anatomy  of  the  neck.  It  is 
called  bronckolomy.  By  means  of  it,  the  animal  will  be  enabled  to  breathe 
through  an  aperture  below  the  seat  of  inflammation,  or  the  distorted  and 
obstructed  part ;  and  time  will  be  given  for  the  adoption  of  other  modes  of 
relief  or  cure.  Some  practitioners  have  talked  of  cutting  into  the  wind- 
pipe, to  extract  the  band  or  ring  of  coagulated  matter  that  obstructs  the 
passage  ;  we  can  only  say,  that  if  they  happen  to  hit  upon  the  precise  situa- 
tion  of  this  ring  or  band,  they  will  be  more  fortunate  than  their  folly  deserves. 
Another  circumstance  should  be  mentioned,  and  the  breeder  should  not 
forget  it,  that  the  roarer,  whether  horse  or  mare,  will  often  entail  this  disease 
on  its  progeny.  This  entailment  of  disease  by  the  parent  on  offspring  is  a 
subject  which  has  not  suffiiciently  engaged  the  attention,  or  entered  into  l^e 
calculation,  of  the  agriculturist. 

THE   ESOPHAGUS,  OVx  GULLET. 

The  gullet  extends  from  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  to  the  stomach,  and 
conveys  the  food  from  the  one  to  the  other.  At  the  top  of  the  neck,  it  is 
immediately  behind  the  windpipe,  but  it  soon  inclines  to  the  left,  and  runs 
down  the  neck  close  to  the  windpipe,  and  on  its  left ;  therefore  when  we 
give  a  ball  to  a  horse,  we  watch  the  left  side  of  the  neck  to  see  whether  it 
passes  down  the  gullet.  Having  entered  the  chest  between  the  first  two 
ribs,  the  gullet  passes  along  the  upper  part  of  it,  and  then  piercing  the 
diaphragm,  or  midriff",  enters  the  stomach.  It  is  composed  of  three  coats 
— the  outer  one  of  slight  loose  cellular  substance :  the  middle  one  mus- 
cular, and  divided  into  two  distinct  layers,  the  outermost  layer  having 
the  fibres  lengthways,  by  which  the  gullet  may  be  shortened,  and  in 
shortening,  widened  for  the  reception  of  the  food ;  the  fibres  of  the  inner 
layer  running  circularly  round  the  tube,  so  that  the  portion  immediately 
above  a  pellet  of  food,  will  by  contvaction  force  the  food  downward,  and  by 
successive  actions  drive  it  into  the  stomach.  The  inner  coat,  which  is  a 
continuation  of  the  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  lies  in  folds  or  plaits,  extend- 
ing lengthways.  The  muscular  coat  being  highly  elastic,  readily  gives 
way  to  the  pressure  of  the  food,  and  these  plaits  enable  the  inner  or  cuti- 
cular  coat,  likewise  sufficiently  to  dilate. 

The  gullet  has  in  a  few  cases  been  strictured,  or  contracted  in  some  part, 
so  that  'The  food  could  only  be  swallowed  in  small  quantities,  and  with 
great  difficulty.  If  the  stricture  be  near  the  entrance  into  the  stomach, 
there  is  no  remedy,  for  the  part  cannot  be  got  at.  If  it  be  higher  up,  a 
veterinary  surgeon  alone  can  determine  how  far  relief  is  practicable.  Sub- 
stances have  sometimes  stuck  in  the  gullet.  Bran  and  chaff*  swallowed 
greedily,  or  in  too  large  or  hard  a  ball,  having  remained  in  some  part  of  the 
gullet,  and  caused  very  alarming  symptoms.  The  tube  used  for  the  hove 
in  cattle,  will  sometimes  dislodge  this  foreign  substance:  but  should  this 
be  impracticable,  the  gullet  must  be  opened,  which  a  scientific  practitioner 
alone  is  competent  to  perform. 


THE  CHEST.  163 

CHAPTER    X. 

THE  CHEST  AND  ITS  CONTENTS— THE  HEART  AND  THE  LUNGS 


d 


CUT    OF    THE    CHEST. 


h 

a      The  first  rib. 

h     Cartilages  of  the  eleven  hiiulermost  ox  false  ribs,  connected  together,  uniting-  wiih 

that  of  the  seventh  or  last  true  rib. 
c      The  breast-bone. 
d     The  lop  or  point  of  the  withers,  which  are  formed  by  the  lengthened  spinous  or  upright 

processes  of  the  ten  or  eleven  first  bones  of  the  back.     The  bones  of  the  back  arc 

eighteen  in  number. 
e      The  ribs,  usually  eighteen  on  each  side;  the  seven  first  united  to  the  breast-bone  by 

cartilage;  the  cartilages  of  the  remaining  eleven  united  to  each  other,  as  at  b. 
f    That  portion  of  the  spine  where  the  loins  commence,  and  composed  of  five  bones. 
g     The  bones  forming  the  hip  or  haunch,  a*id  into  the  hole  at  the  bottom  of  which  the 

head  of  the  thigh-bone  is  received. 
\     The  portion  of  the  spine  belonging  to  the  haunch,  and  consisting  of  five  pieces. 
The  bones  of  the  tail,  usually  thirteen  in  number. 

The  form  of  the  chest  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  contains  the 
heart  and  the  lungs: — the  one  employed  in  circulating  the  blood,  and  the 
other  in  restoring  to  it  the  povver  of  supporting  life  ;  and  on  the  size  and  the 
soundness  of  these  organs,  the  health  and  the  strength  of  the  animal  princi- 
pally  depend.  The  speed  and  wind  of  the  horse  are  most  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  size  of  the  lungs.  In  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  air 
which  they  contain,  and  the  less  frequent  necessity  of  renewing  that  air  by 
the  act  of  breathing,  will  the  animal  be  at  his  ease,  or  distressed,  when 
violent  exertion  is  demanded  of  him.  Therefore,  one  of  the  first  things 
which  the  judge  of  the  horse  examines,  is  the  capacity  of  the  chest;  and 
if  he  finds  considerable  depth  in  the  girth,  and  roundness  behind  the  point 
of  the  elbow — the  horse  carrying  what  is  called  a  good  barrel — he  is  satis- 
fied as  to  the  capacity  of  the  chest.  The  form  of  the  chest  has  as  much  to 
do  with  the  value  of  the  horse  as  its  capacity.  An  ox  may  have  a  chest 
rounded  before  as  well  as  behind,  and  then  there  will  be  room  enough  for 
the  heart  to  circulate,  and  the  lungs  to  purify  sufficient  blood  to  clothe  him 
with  all  the  muscle  and  fat  he  was  intended  to  yield  :  we  require  from  him 
no  speed,  and,  therefore,  his  legs  will  not  fail  him,  should  too  much  weight 
be  thrown  on  them,  nor  will  he  be  disposed  to  stumble  and  fall.  One  prin- 
cipal quality  of  the  horse,  however,  is  his  speed ;  and  if  undue  weight  be 
thrown  before,  his  legs  and  feet  will  be  battered,  and  injured,  and  worn  out 
by  the  unavoidable  concusMon  to  which  they  will  be  exposed  in  the  trot  or 
the  gallop;  and  likewise  the  centre  or  bulk  of  his  weigiit  will  be  too  easily 
thrown  beyond  the  natural  situation  of  his  feet,  and  as  a  matter  of  coursp 
he  will  be  rendered  exceedingly  unsafe.     Therefore,  for  the  light  carriage 


,(J4  THE  HORSE. 

and  llie  saddle,  although  we  want  capacity  of  chest,  we  want  it  not  too 
much  before.  A  moderate  breadth,  with  depth  at  the  girth,  and  a  swelling 
out  or  barrelling  beiiind  the  elbow,  will  be  the  most  desirable  form.  Horses 
with  narrow  chests  may  have  plenty  of  spirit,  and  willingness  for  work ; 
but  they  have  not  the  appetite  or  the  endurance  of  those  whose  breast  is 
moderately  wide. 

The  heavy  cart  or  dray-horse,  whose  power  of  draught  is  equal  to  the 
weight  wliieh  he  can  throw  into  the  collar,  requires  the  broad  chest,  not  only 
that  his  weight  may  be  thrown  more  before,  but  that  by  the  increased  capa- 
city of  his  chest  he  may  obtain  that  bulk  and  size  which  will  enable  him  to 
press  with  the  requisite  force  upon  the  collar. 

Depth  of  chest  has  another  advantage:  it  not  only  gives  increased  capa- 
city to  the  cavity  within  it,  but  increased  room  for  the  insertion  of  those 
muscles  on  and  between  the  ribs,  by  the  action  of  which  the  chest  is  alter- 
nately expanded  and  contracted  in  the  act  of  breathing,  and  tiie  action  of 
which  is  so  necessary  when  the  breathing  is  quickened  by  exercise. 

Again,  depth  of  chest  will  admit  of  a  great  deal  more  increased  expan- 
sion than  will  a  chest  approaching  to  a  circular  form.  That  which  is  some- 
what straight  may  be  easily  bent  into  a  circle  ;  but  that  which  is  already 
rounded,  can  scarcely  be  made  more  so :  therefore  it  is  that  the  heavy 
horse,  with  all  his  capaciousness  of  chest,  is  easily  blown,  and  incapable  of 
speed,  because  all  this  expanse  was  employed  in  the  accumulation  of  flesh 
and  fat,  and  can  be  very  little  increased  when  exertion  causes  the  flow  and 
the  change  of  blood  to  be  considerably  more  rapid.  The  flatter  chest  may 
be  readily  expanded,  as  the  circumstances  of  the  animal  may  require.  A 
well-qualified  judge  of  the  horse  never  likes  to  see  a  chest  too  high  from  the 
ground  and  legs  too  long.  The  animal  may  be  free  and  speedy,  but  there 
is  not  sufficient  capacity  of  chest  to  render  him  a  good  feeder,  or  to  give  him 
much  endurance. 

The  next  point  of  consequence,  regarding  the  capacity  of  the  chest,  is  the 
length  or  shortness  of  the  carcase,  or  the  extent  of  the  ribs  from  the  elbow 
backward.  Some  horses  are  what  is  called  ribbed  home  ;  there  is  but  Uttle 
space  (see  cuts,  pp.  03  and  163)  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone.  In 
others  the  distance  is  considerably  greater,  which  is  evident  by  the  falling 
in  of  the  flank.  The  question  here  is,  what  is  the  service  required  from 
the  horse?  If  he  have  to  carry  a  heavy  weight,  and  much  work  to  do,  let 
him  be  ribbed  home ;  let  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone  be  almost  close  to 
each  other.  There  is  more  capacity  of  chest  and  of  belly ;  there  is  less 
distance  between  the  points  of  support;  and  there  is  more  strength  and 
endurance.  A  hackney  (and  we  would  almost  say  a  hunter)  can  scarcely 
be  too  well  ribbed  home. 

If  speed,  however,  be  required,  there  must  be  room  for  the  full  action 
of  the  hinder  limbs ;  and  this  can  only  exist  when  there  is  sufficient  space 
between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-bone.  The  owner  of  the  horse  must  make 
up  his  mind  as  to  what  he  wants  from  him,  and  be  satisfied  if  he  obtains 
that;  but  let  him  be  assured  that  he  cannot  have  every  thing:  this  would 
require  those  difierences  of  conformation  that  cannot  possibly  exist  in  the 
same  animal. 

The  thorax,  or  chest,  is  formed  by  the  spine,  f,  above ;  the  ribs,  e,  on 
either  side ;  and  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  c,  beneath. 

THE  SPINE  AND  BACK. 

The  spine  or  back-bone  consists  of  a  chain  of  bones  from  the  poll  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.    We  have  described  the  bones  of  the  neck,  oud  wo  .viU 


THE  SPIME.  165 

now  proceed  to  that  portion  of  the  spine  which  forms  the  roof  of  the  che^t 
and  belly.  It  consists  of  twenty-three  bones  from  the  neck  to  the  hauncn  ; 
eighteen,  called  dorsal  velerbra,  composing  the  back;  and  five  lumbar ver. 
tebrcB,  occupying  the  loins.  On  this  part  of  the  animal  the  weight  or  bur- 
den is  laid,  and  there  are  two  principal  things  to  be  considered,  easiness  of 
carriage  and  strength.  If  the  back  were  composed  of  unyielding  materials, 
if  it  resembled  a  bar  of  wood  or  iron,  the  jar  or  jolting,  in  the  rapid  motion 
of  the  animal,  could  not  possibly  be  endured.  To  avoid  this,  as  well  as  to 
assist  in  turning,  the  back  is  divided  into  numerous  bones;  and  between 
each  pair  of  bones,  there  is  interposed  a  cartilaginous  substance,  most  highly 
elastic,  whicii  will  yield  and  give  way  to  every  jar,  not  so  much  as  to 
occasion  insecurity  between  the  bones,  or  to  permit  considerable  motion 
between  any  one  pair;  yet  forming  altogether  an  aggregate  mass  of  elas- 
ticity, so  springy  that  the  rider  sits  almost  undisturbed,  however  high  may 
be  the  action,  or  however  rapid  the  pace. 

Strength  is  as  important  as  ease  ;  therefore  these  bones  are  united  togeth- 
er  with  peculiar  firmness.  The  round  head  of  one  is  exactly  fitted  to  the 
cup  or  cavity  of  that  immediately  before  it ;  and  between  them  is  placed 
the  elastic  ligamentous  substance  we  have  just  described,  so  strong,  that  in 
endeavouring  to  separate  the  bones  of  the  back,  the  bones  will  break  sooner 
than  this  substance  will  give  way.  Beside  this  there  are  ligaments  run- 
ning along  the  broad  under  surface  of  these  bones;  ligaments  between  each 
of  the  transverse  processes,  or  side  projections  of  the  bones;  and  ligaments 
between  tbe  spinous  processes  or  upright  projections;  and  a  continuation  of 
the  strong  ligament  of  the  neck,  running  along  the  whole  course  of  the 
back  and  loins  above  these,  lengthening  and  contracting,  as  in  the  neck, 
with  the  motions  of  the  animal,  and  forming  a  powerful  bond  of  union 
between  the  bones. 

By  these  means  the  hunter  will  carry  a  heavy  man  without  fatigue  or 
strain  through  a  long  chase;  and  those  shocks  and  jars  are  avoided  which 
would  be  annoying  to  the  rider,  and  injurious  and  speedily  fatal  to  the  horse. 

These  provisions,  however,  although  adequate  to  common  or  even  severe 
exertion,  will  not  protect  the  animal  from  the  consequences  of  brutal  usage; 
and,  therefore,  if  the  horse  be  much  overweighted,  or  violently  exercised, 
or  too  suddenly  pulled  upon  his  haunches,  these  ligaments  are  strained: 
inflammation  follows;  and  the  ligament  becomes  changed  to  bone,  and  the 
joints  of  the  back  lose  their  springiness  and  ease  of  motion  ;  or  rather  in 
point  of  fact  cease  to  exist.  On  account  of  tlie  too  hard  service  required 
from  them,  and  especially  before  they  have  gained  their  full  strength,  there 
are  i'ew  old  horses,  that  have  not  some  of  the  bones  of  tiie  back  or  loins 
anchylosed,  united  together  by  bony  matter,  and  not  by  ligament.  When 
this  exists  to  any  considerable  extent  the  horse  is  not  pleasant  to  ride ;  he 
turns  with  difficulty  in  his  stall ;  he  is  unwilling  to  lie  down,  or  when  down 
to  rise  again  ;  and  he  has  a  curious  straddling  action.  Such  horses  are 
said  to  be  broke?}  backed,  or  chinked  in  the  chine. 

Fracture  of  the  bones  of  the  back  rarely  occurs,  on  account  of  their 
being  so  strongly  united  by  ligaments,  and  defended  by  muscular  substance. 
If  a  fracture  of  these  bones  does  happen,  it  is  during  the  violent  struggles 
after  the  horse  has  been  cast  for  an  operation. 

The  length  of  the  back  is  an  important  consideration.  A  long-backed 
horse  will  be  easy  in  his  paces,  because  the  increased  distance  between  the 
fore  and  hind  legs,  which  are  the  supports  of  the  spine,  will  afford  greater 
room  for  the  play  of  the  joints  of  the  back.  A  long  spring  has  much  more 
play  than  a  short  one,  and  will  better  obviate  concussion.  A  long-backed 
iiorsp  is  likewise  formed   for  speed,  for  there  is  room   for  him  to  bring  hi? 


106  THE  HORSE. 

hinder  legs  moie  under  him  in  the  act  of  gallopping,  and  thus  more  power 
fully  propel  or  drive  forward  the  body :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  long- 
Dacked  horse  will  be  weak  in  tlie  back,  and  easily  overweighted.  A  long 
spring  may  be  easily  bent  and  broken.  The  weight  of  the  rider,  likewise, 
placed  further  from  the  extremities,  will  act  with  meclianical  disadvantage 
upon  them,  and  be  more  likely  to  strain  them.  A  short-backed  horse  may 
be  a  good  hackney,  and  be  able  to  carry  the  heaviest  weight,  and  possess 
great  endurance;  but  his  paces  will  not  be  so  easy,  nor  his  speed  so  great, 
and  he  may  be  apt  to  overreach  himself. 

The  comparative  advantage  of  a  long  or  short  carcase  depends  entirely 
on  the  use  for  which  tiie  horse  is  intended.  For  general  purposes  the  horse 
with  a  short  carcase  is  very  properly  preferred.  He  will  possess  health 
and  strength;  for  horses  of  tliis  make  are  proverbially  hardy.  He  will 
have  sufficient  ease  not  to  fatigue  the  rider,  and  speed  for  every  ordinary 
purpose.  Length  of  back  will  always  be  desirable  when  there  is  more 
than  usual  substance  generally,  and  particularly  when  the  loins  are  wide, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  loins  large  and  swelling.  The  two  requisites, 
strength  and  speed,  will  then  probably  be  united. 

The  back  should  be  depressed  a  little  immediately  behind  the  withers ; 
and  then  continue  in  an  almost  straight  line  to  the  loins.  This  is  the  form 
most  consistent  with  beauty  and  strength.  Some  horses  have  a  very  con- 
siderable hollow  behind  the  withers.  They  are  said  to  be  saddle-hacked. 
It  seems  as  if  a  depression  were  purposely  made  for  the  saddle.  Such 
horses  are  evidently  easy  goers,  for  this  curve  inward  must  necessarily 
increase  the  play  of  the  joints  of  the  back  ;  but  in  the  same  proportion  they 
must  be  weak,  and  liable  to  sprain.  To  the  general  appearance  of  the  horse, 
this  defect  is  not  in  any  degree  injurious ;  for  the  hollow  of  the  back  is 
uniformly  accompanied  by  a  beautifully  arched  crest. 

A  few  horses  have  the  curve  outward.  They  are  said  to  be  roach-hacked, 
from  the  supposed  resemblance  to  the  arched  back  of  a  roach.  This  a 
very  serious  defect ;  altogether  incompatible  with  beauty,  and  materially 
diminishing  the  usefulness  of  the  animal.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  pre- 
vent the  saddle  from  being  thrown  on  the  shoulders,  or  the  back  from  being 
galled,  the  elasticity  of  the  spine  is  destroyed ;  the  rump  is  badly  set  on; 
the  hinder  legs  are  too  much  under  the  animal ;  he  is  continually  over- 
reaching himself,  and  his  head  is  carried  awkwardly  low. 

THE  LOINS. 

The  loins  are  attentively  examined  by  every  good  horseman.  They  can 
scarcely  be  too  broad  and  muscular.  The  strength  of  the  back,  and  the 
strength  of  the  hinder  extremities,  will  depend  materially  on  this.  The 
breadth  of  the  loins  is  regulated  by  the  length  of  the  transverse  or  side  pro- 
cesses of  that  part.  The  bodies  of  the  bones  of  the  loins  are  likewise  larger 
than  those  of  the  back;  and  a  more  dove-tailed  kind  of  union  subsists 
between  these  bones,  than  between  those  of  the  back.  Every  provision  is 
made  for  strength  here.  The  union  of  the  back  and  loins  should  be  care- 
fully remarked.  There  is  sometimes  a  depression  between  tliem :  a  kind 
of  line  is  drawn  across,  which  shows  imperfection  in  the  construction  of  the 
spine,  and  is  regarded  as  an  indication  of  weakness 

THE  WITHERS. 

The  spinous  or  upright  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertehru;,  or  Ijonos  of  tlie 
back,  abcM  •;  the   upper  part  of  the  shoulder,  are   as    remarkable   for  thei' 


THE  WITHERS.  16? 

'engtii  as  are  the  transverse  or  side  processes  of  the  bones  of  the  loins; 
They  are  flattened  and  terminated  by  rough,  blunted  extremities.  The 
elevated  riilge  wliicli  tiiey  form  is  called  ihe  withers.  It  will  be  seen  in  the 
cuts  (pp.  63  and  103),  that  the  spine  of  the  first  bone  of  the  back  has  but 
little  elevation,  and  is  sliarp  and  upright.  The  second  is  longer,  and  inclined 
backward  ;  the  third  and  fourth  increase  in  length,  and  the  fifth  is  the  long- 
est;  they  then  gradually  sliorten  until  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth,  which 
becomes  level  with  tiie  bones  of  the  loins. 

High  withers  have  been  always,  in  the  mind  of  the  judge  of  the  horse, 
associated  witligood  action,  and  generally  with  speed.  The  reason  is  plain 
enough  ;  they  afford  larger  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of 
the  back ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  withers,  these  muscles 
act  with  greater  advantage.  The  rising  of  the  fore  parts  of  the  horse,  even 
in  the  trot,  and  more  especially  in  the  gallop,  depends  not  merely  on  the 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  legs  and  shoulders,  but  on  tliose  of  the  loins, 
inserted  into  the  spinous  processes  of  these  bones  of  the  back,  and  acting  with 
greater  power  in  proportion  as  these  processes,  constituting  the  withers,  are 
lengthened.  The  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  the  power  is  applied  will  be 
lon-ger;  and  we  well  know  that  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  this  arm  will 
be  the  ease  with  which  the  weight  is  raised.  Therefore  good  and  high 
action  will  depend  much  on  elevated  withers. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  speed  will  likewise  be  promoted  by 
the  same  conformation.  The  power  of  tiie  horse  is  in  his  hinder  quarters. 
In  them  lies  the  main-spring  of  the  frame,  and  the  fore-quarters  are  only 
elevated  and  thrown  forward  to  receive  the  weight  forced  on  them  by  the 
action  of  the  hinder  quarters.  In  proportion,  however,  as  the  fore-quarters 
are  elevated,  wiil  they  be  thrown  farther  forward,  or,  in  other  words,  will 
the  stride  of  the  horse  be  lengthened  :  they  are  elevated  and  thrown  forward 
in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  withers,  and  therefore  in  this  point  of 
view  the  form  of  the  withers  is  very  much  connected  with  speed.  Yet 
many  racers  have  the  forehand  low.  The  unrivalled  Eclipse  (see  p.  47) 
was  a  remarkable  instance  of  this ;  but  the  ample  and  finely  proportioned 
quarters,  and  the  muscularity  of  the  thigh  and  fore-arm,  rendered  the  aid 
to  be  derived  from  the  withers  perfectly  unnecessary.  The  heavy  draught- 
horse  does  not  require  elevated  withers.  His  utility  depends  on  the  power 
of  depressing  his  fore-quarters,  and  throwing  their  weight  fully  into  the 
collar;  but  for  common  work  in  the  hackney,  in  the  farmer's  horse,  and  in 
the  hunter,  well-formed  withers  will  be  an  essential  advantage,  as  con- 
tributing to  good  and  safe  action,  and  likewise  to  speed. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  BACK. 

The  most  important  muscles  which  belong  to  this  part  of  the  frame  can 
be  very  imperfectly  delineated  in  any  cut ;  we  have  endeavoured,  however, 
to  give  as  complete  a  view  of  them,  and  of  all  the  superficial  muscles  of  the 
frame,  as  we  could.  They  are  principally  those  which  e.xtend  from  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  ligament  of  the  neck,  along  the  whole  of  the  back  and 
loins;  and  likewise  from  the  last  cervical  bone;  the  superjida/is  and  trans- 
versalis  costarum,  or  superficial  and  transverse  muscles  of  the  ribs,  going 
from  this  ligament  to  the  upper  part  of  the  ribs,  to  elevate  them,  and  so 
assist  in  the  expansion  of  the  chest ;  also,  the  large  mass  of  muscle,  the  hn- 
gissimus  dorsi,  or  the  longest  muscle  of  the  back,  from  the  spinous  and 
transverse  processes  of  the  vertebroe  to  the  ribs,  and  by  which  all  th<' 
motions  of  the  spine,  and  back,  and  loins,  of  which  we  have  spoken,  aro 
principully  produced;   by  which  tiie  fore-quarters  are  raised  upon  the  hi'id, 


168  THE  HORSE. 

or  the  bind  upon  the  fore,  according  as  either  of  them  is  made  a  fixed  poini. 
This  is  the  principal  agent  in  rearing  and  liicking. 

CUT    OF    TilE    iMUSCLES    OF    THE    HORSE. 


The  last  we  shall  mention  is  the  spinalis  dorsi,  the  spinal  muscle  of  the 
back,  from  the  spinous  processes  of  some  of  the  last  bones  of  the  back,  to 
those  of  the  fore  part;  thick  and  strong  about  the  withers,  and  broadly 
attached  to  them ;  and  more  powerfully  attached,  and  more  strongly  acting 
in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  withers;  and  proceeding  on  to  the  three 
lowest  bones  of  the  neck,  and  therefore  mainly  concerned,  as  we  have 
described,  in  elevating  the  fore-quarters,  and  producing  high  and  safe  action, 
and  contributing  to  speed. 

Before  we  quite  leave  the  roof  of  the  chest,  we  will  speak  of  some  acci- 
dents or  diseases  to  which  it  is  exposed.    The  first  is  of  a  very  serious  nature. 

FISTULOUS  WITHERS. 

When  the  saddle  has  been  suffered  to  press  long  upon  the  withers,  a 
tumour  will  be  formed,  hot  and  exceedingly  tender.  It  may  sometimes  be 
dispersed  by  the  cooling  applications  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  poll- 
evil  (p.  153);  but  if,  in  despite  of  these,  the  swelling  should  remain  sta- 
tionary, and  more  especially  if  it  should  become  larger  and  more  tender, 
warm  fomentations  and  poultices  and  stimulating  embrocations  should  be 
applied  diligently  to  it,  as  to  the  tumour  of  poll-evil,  in  order  to  hasten  the 
formation  of  matter.  As  soon  as  the  matter  can  be  fairly  detected,  a  seton 
should  be  passed  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  tumour,  so  that  the  whole 
of  the  matter  may  run  out,  and  continue  to  run  out  as  it  is  afterwards 
formed.  The  after  treatment  must  be  precisely  that  which  we  have 
recommended  for  a  similar  disease  in  the  noil. 


THE  RIBS.  16ft 

■  In  neglected  fistulous  withers  the  ulcer  may  be  larger  anc  de^er,  ano 
more  destructive  than  in  poll-evil.  It  may  burrow  beneath  the  shoulder- 
blade  and  the  matter  may  appear  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder  or  the  elb)w  ; 
or  the  bones  of  the  withers  may  become  carious. 

WARBLES,  SITFASTS,  AND  SADDLE  GALLS 

On  other  parts  o^  the  back,  tumours  and  very  troublesome  ulcers  may 
be  produced  by  the  same  cause.  The  little  tumours  resulting  from  the 
pressure  of  the  saddle  are  called  warbles,  and  when  they  ulcerate  they  fre- 
quently become  sitfasts.  The  ulcer  has  a  portion  of  callous  skin  in  the 
centre  of  it,  resembling  leather  in  its  appearance,  and  so  closely  adhering 
as  not  to  be  separated  without  great  force  or  absolute  dissection  ;  and 
hence  the  name  given  to  this  peculiar  ulcer.  Warbles  are  too  often  but 
little  regarded.  They  will  frequently  disappear  without  medical  treatment, 
but  they  will,  at  other  times,  degenerate  into  sitfasts.  If  it  be  practicable, 
the  horse  should  have  rest,  or  at  all  events,  the  stuffing  of  the  saddle  should 
be  so  contrived  that  every  degree  of  pressure  be  removed  from  the  part : 
then  goulard  and  vinegar  or  brine  should  be  frequently  applied  for  tho 
purpose  of  dispelling  the  enlargement.  Should  this  prove  ineffective,  and 
the  silfast  appear,  let  it  by  no  means  be  torn  out,  but  apply  a  mild  blister, 
which  will  cause  it  speedily  to  separate  ;  and  then  let  the  wound  be  dressed 
with  friar's  balsam,  or  Turner's  cerate,  or  both. 

For  saddle  galls  there  is  no  better  application  than  strong  salt  and  water, 
mixed  with  a  fourth-part  of  the  tincture  of  myrrh.  Common  sense  and 
common  humanity  would  suggest  the  necessity  of  chambering  the  saddle 
and  tiie  collar,  and  not  suffering  the  animal,  with  sore  places  as  broad 
as  the  hand,  to  be  unnecessarily  tortured  by  the  rubbing  of  the  rough  and 
hardened  stuffing, 

THE  RIBS. 

The  ribs  constitute  the  sides  of  the  chest.  They  are  usually  eighteen  on 
either  side,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  nineteen  or  twenty.  They  are  crooked 
or  twisted  in  their  figure,  but  so  united  to  the  spine  by  a  true  joint,  the 
head  of  each  rib  being  received  between  the  bodies  of  two  of  the  bones  of 
the  back,  that  they  form  so  many  arches,  differing  in  roundness  in  different 
horses.  The  first  rib  (a)  is  placed  at  the  base  of  the  column  of  the  neck, 
and  is  short  and  strong,  in  order  to  support  the  weight  and  pressure  of  the" 
head  and  neck,  and  to  be  a  fixed  point  for  the  other  ribs  to  act  upon  in' 
expanding  and  contracting  the  chest.  The  second  is  longer  and  straight, 
to  assist  in  the  same  office,  and  to  sustain  the  stress  which  arises  from  the- 
suspension  of  the  trunk  beneath  the  shoulders.  The  other  ribs  (e)  have 
the  arched  form  which  we  have  described.  The  lower  extremity  of  the  rib' 
is  attached  to  or  composed  of  cartilage,  a  yielding  elastic  substance,  to 
enable  the  ribs  to  be  more  easily  moved  by  the  muscles  of  respiration,  and' 
to  bring  them  back  again  to  their  natural  situation  and  shape  when  thi? 
muscles  cease  to  act.  These  cartilages  are  received  into,  and  constitute- 
joints  with  the  sternum  or  breast-bone,  formed  almost  in  the  shape  of  the 
prow  of  a  ship  (c),  and  with  a  projection  of  cartilage  at  each  end.  The 
projection  before  is  evident  to  the  eye  in  the  living  horse,  and  is  called  the 
point  of  the  breast.  This  is  occasionally  injured  by  blows,  or  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  collar,  and  first  a  tumour,  and  then  an  ulcer  is  formed,  which  is- 
very  apt  to  become  fistulous,  and  must  be  treated  like  poll-evil  or  fistulous- 
vithers. 

M 


•  70  THE  HORSE, 

The  breast-bone  is  in  the  colt  composed  of  six  bones,  whicli  in  the  full 
grown  liorse  unite  into  one.  Seven  or  eight  of  the  ribs,  the  nuni  »er  occa- 
sionally varying,  are  attached  to  the  sternum  by  very  strong  ligaments. 
These  are  called  tlie  true  ribs,  and  they  increase  in  length  from  the  first  to 
the  seventh.  The  remaining  ten  or  eleven  are  called  ^a/se  ribs;  they 
become  gradually  shorter,  aud  narrower,  and  rounder;  and  their  direction 
is  more  backward,  in  order  to  increase  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  and  belly, 
and  to  strengthen  the  roof  of  the  belly.  Their  cartilages  are  not  attachetl 
to  the  breast-bone,  but  to  each  other,  and  yet  connected  with  the  breast, 
bone,  and  sharing  in  all  its  motions  by  means  of  the  cartilage  of  the  last 
true  rib,  with  which  they  all  unite.  In  consequence  of  these  shorter  libs, 
with  long  elastic  cartilages,  the  bulk  of  the  chest  and  of  the  belly  is  mate- 
rially increased,  and  the  ribs  are  much  more  easily  moved. 

Between  the  ribs,  and  mainly  contributing  to  their  motion,  are  two 
layers  of  muscles,  the  iniercostals  (between  the  ribs).  According  as  the 
ribs  are  brought  nearer  to,  or  recede  from  each  other,  the  cavity  of  the 
chest  will  be  increased  or  diminished.  These  two  layers  are  curiously 
contrived.  If  the  fibres  ran  straight  across  from  rib  to  rib,  tliey  would  be 
exceedingly  short ;  a  short  muscle  could  have  but  little  contraction,  and 
a  very  slight  change  of  form  or  dimension  could  be  produced.  They 
run  diagonally  from  rib  to  rib,  and  thus  are  more  than  double  the  length 
that  they  could  otherwise  have  been  ;  and  so  the  degree  of  contraction  is 
doubled,  and  the  ribs  are  moved  through  a  greater  space.  More  perfectly 
to  produce  this  effect,  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  outer  layer  run  one  way, 
and  those  of  the  inner  layer  a  contrary,  crossing  each  other  in  the  fcDrm  of 
an  X.  When  these  muscles  contract,  as  they  act  from  the  fore  ribs  upon 
the  hinder  ones,  although  the  ribs  are  brought  nearer  to  each  other,  they 
are  thrown  outward,  and  the  real  effect  is  to  expand,  and  not  to  contract 
the  cavity  of  the  chest.  This  is,  perhaps,  somewhat  difficult  to  imagine, 
but  it  is  the  actual  explanation  of  the  matter.  The  ribs  are  drawn  power- 
fully forward,  and  when  drawn  forward,  they  must  be  thrown  outward,  and 
the  chest  is  necessarily  expanded. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  BREAST. 

Of  the  proper  form  of  the  trunk  we  have  already  spoken.  There  arc 
some  important  muscles  attached  to  the  breast,  and  therefore,  every  horse 
should  have  a  breast  tolerably  expanded.  In  the  cut,  page  154,  and  in  that 
at  page  168,  are  seen  a  very  important  pair  of  muscles,  the  pectomks  trans- 
versi,  or  pectoral  muscles,  forming  two  prominences  in  the  front  of  the  chest, 
and  extending  backward  between  the  legs.  They  come  from  the  fore  and 
upper  part  of  the  breast-bone  ;  go  across  the  inward  part  of  the  arm,  and 
reach  from  the  elbow  almost  down  to  the  knee.  They  confine  the  arm  to 
the  side  in  the  rapid  motion  of  the  horse,  and  prevent  him  from  being, 
what  horsemen  would  call,  and  what  is  seen  in  a  horse  pushed  beyond  his 
natural  power,  "  all  abroad."  Other  muscles,  pectorales  magni  et  parr?, 
the  great  and  little  pectorals,  rather  above  but  behind  these,  go  from  tlie 
breast-bone  to  the  arm,  to  draw  back  the  point  of  the  slioulder,  and 
bring  the  shoulder  upright.  Another  and  smaller  muscle  goes  from  tlie 
breast-bone  to  the  shoulder,  to  assist  in  the  same  office.  A  horse,  there- 
fore, thin  and  narrow  in  the  breast,  must  be  deficient  in  important  muscular 
power. 

Between  the  legs  and  along  the  breast-bone  is  the  proper  place  in  v  bion 
10  insert  rowels,  in  cases  of  inflamed  lungs. 


THE  HEART.  JiJ  | 


CHEST-FOUNDER. 

These  muscles  are  occasionally  the  seat  of  a  singular  and  somewhat 
mysterious  disease.  The  old  farriers  used  to  call  it  anticor  and  chest- 
founder.  The  horse  has  considerable  stiffness  in  moving,  evidently  no 
referable  to  the  feet.  There  is  tenderness  about  the  muscles  of  the  breast 
and  occasionally  sivelling,  and  after  a  while,  the  muscles  of  the  ciie.'v 
waste  consideral)ly.  We  believe  it  to  be  nothing  more  than  rheumatism 
produced  by  suffering  the  horse  to  remain  too  long  tied  up,  and  exposed  to 
the  cold,  or  riding  him  against  a  very  bleak  wind.  Sometimes  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  fever  accompanies  this;  but  bleeding,  physic,  a  rowel 
in  tile  chest,  warm  embrocations  over  the  parts  affected,  warm  stabling, 
and  warm  clothing,  with  doses  of  a  drachm  or  two  of  antimonial  powder, 
will  soon  subdue  the  complaint. 

DROPSY  OF  THE  SKIN  OF  THE   CHEST. 

Dropsical  swellings  often  appear  between  the  fore-legs,  and  on  the  chest. 
They  are  etfusions  of  fluid  underneath  the  skin.  They  accompany  various 
diseases,  particularly  when  the  animal  is  weakened  by  them,  and  sometimes 
appear  when  there  is  no  other  disease  than  the  debility,  which,  in  the 
spring  and  fall  of  the  year,  accompanies  the  changing  of  the  coat.  T\\e 
treatment  will  vary  with  the  cause  of  the  affection,  or  the  accompanying 
disease.  Small  punctures  with  the  lancet  will  seldom  do  harm  ;  friction 
of  the  part,  if  it  can  be  borne,  will  be  serviceable  ;  mild  exercise  should 
be  used  ;  diuretics  given,  mixed  with  some  cordial,  with  liberal  food,  as 
carrots,  malt  mashes,  and  occasionally  a  very  mild  dose  of  physic,  and  that 
followed  by  tonics  and  cordials,  witii  diuretics.  The  vegetable  tonics,  as 
gentian  and  columbo  with  ginger,  will  be  most  effectual. 

The  cavity  of  the  trunk  consists  of  two  compartments,  divided  from  each 
other  by  the  diaphragm  or  midrijf.  The  first,  into  which  we  have  traced 
the  gullet  and  the  windpipe,  contains  the  iieart  and  the  lungs.  It  is  lined 
by  a  delicate  membrane,  called  the  pleura  (the  side,  or  membrane  of  the 
side),  which  likewise  extends  over  and  affords  a  covering  to  the  lungs. 
A  portion  of  it,  dipping  down  from  its  attachment  to  the  spine,  separates 
the  chest  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  contains  one  of  the  lobes  or  divi- 
sions  of  the  lungs  ;  and  this  portion,  the  mediastinum  (standing  in  the  middle), 
forms  a  kind  of  bag  enveloping  the  heart.  The  use  of  this  membrane  is  to 
throw  out  a  fluid  to  moisten  the  ditTerent  surfaces,  and  prevent  all  dangerous 
friction  or  rubbing  between  these  important  parts ;  and,  also,  to  support 
these  organs  in  their  natural  situation. 

THE  HEART. 

The  heart  is  placed  between  a  doubling  of  the  pleura,  and  is  likewise  sur- 
rounded by  a  membrane  or  bag  of  its  own,  called  the  pericardium  (about 
the  heart).  This  likewise  throws  out  a  fluid,  for  the  purposes  above  men- 
tioned. When  the  pericardium  or  the  heart  itself  becomes  inflamed,  this 
secretion  is  much  increased  ;  and  so  much  fluid  accumulates  as  to  obstruct 
.he  beating  of  the  heart.  This  disease  is  called  dropsy  of  the  heart.  It 
•s  not  easily  distinguished  from  inflammation  of  the  lungs  ;  but  this  is  a 
natter  of  little  consequence,  for  the  treatment  would  be  nearly  the  same 
ii>  both. 

The  heart  is  the  engine  by  which  the  blood  is  circulated  tiirough  the 
Game       It  is  composed  of  four  cavities  two  above  called  auricles,  froni  their 


172  THE   HORSE. 

Kiipposci  reseml .lance  to  a  dog's  oar,  and  two  ventricles  or  little  bellies, 
occupyi/ig  the  substance  of  the  heart.  The  blood  whic.i  has  circulated 
through  the  frame,  and  nourished  it,  returns  to  the  heart  through  the 
veins.  It  enters  the  auricle  on  tlie  right  side,  where  it  accumulates 
as  in  a  reservoir,  until  there  is  enough  to  fill  the  ventricle  below.  The 
auricle  then  contracts,  and  throws  the  blood  into  the  ventricle.  Thai 
contracts  in  its  turn,  and  drives  the  blood,  not  back  again  into  the  auricle, 
for  there  is  as  complete  a  valve  as  that  in  the  sucker  of  a  pump  to  prevent 
this,  but  through  an  aperture  that  leads  to  tiie  lungs.  The  blood  traverses, 
as  we  shall  presently  see,  all  the  little  vessels  and  cells  of  the  lungs,  and 
undergoes  an  important  change  there,  and  is  carried  to  the  left  auricle  ; 
thence  it  descends  to  the  left  ventricle,  and  by  the  powerful  closing  of  the 
ventricle,  is  propelled  into  the  arteries.  The  first  artery,  the  aorta,  rises 
from  the  left  ventricle,  and  the  blood,  by  the  force  communicated  to  it,  by 
the  sudden  contraction  of  the  ventricle,  and  assisted  by  the  elastic  power 
of  the  arteries  which  keeps  them  open  and  free  from  obstruction,  and 
also  by  the  pressure  of  the  muscular  and  elastic  coats,  iendeavouring  to 
return  to  their  former  dimensions,  pursues  its  course  through  every  part  of 
the  frame. 

The  heart  is  subject  to  disease.  It  powerfully  sympathizes  with  the 
maladies  of  every  part.  An  injury  of  the  foot  will  speedily  double  \hc 
quickness  of  the  beatings  or  pulsations  of  the  heart.  It  sometimes  is  in- 
flamed, without  previous  affection  of  any  other  part.  This  is  not  a  frequent, 
but  a  most  dangerous  disease,  and  is  characterized  by  a  pulse  quick  and 
strong,  and  a  bounding  action  of  the  heart  that  may  occasionally  be  seen 
at  the  side,  and  even  heard  at  the  distance  of  several  yards!  There  is  also 
a  peculiar  alertness  and  quickness  in  every  motion  of  the  animal ;  and  an 
energy  of  expression  in  the  countenance  exceedingly  remarkable.  Speedy 
and  copious  blood-letting  will  alone  avail  to  save  the  horse  ;  for  the  heart, 
over  excited  and  called  on  to  perform  this  double  work,  must  soon  be 
exhausted. 

THE  ARTERIES. 

The  vessels  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  are  called  arteries  (keep- 
ing air,  the  ancients  thought  that  they  contained  air).  They  are  composed 
of  three  coats  ;  the  outer  or  elastic  is  that  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
yield  to  the  gush  of  blood,  and  enlarge  their  dimensions  as  it  is  forced 
along  them,  and  by  which  also  they  contract  again  as  soon  as  the  gush  of 
blood  has  passed  ;  the  middle  coat  is  the  muscular,  by  which  this  contrac- 
tion is  more  powerfully  performed,  and  the  blood  urged  on  in  its  course; 
the  inner  or  membranous  coat  is  the  mere  lining  of  the  tube. 

This  yielding  of  the  artery  to  the  gush  of  blood,  forced  into  it  by  the 
contraction  of  the  heart,  constitutes 

THE  PULSE. 

The  pulse  is  a  very  useful  assistant  to  the  practitioner  of  human  medicine, 
and  much  more  so  to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  whose  patients  cannot  describe 
either  the  seat  or  degree  of  ailment  or  pain.  The  number  of  pulsations 
in  any  artery  will  give  the  number  of  the  beatings  of  the  heart,  and  so 
express  the  irritation  of  that  organ,  and  of  the  frame  generally.  In  a 
state  of  health,  the  heart  beats  in  the  farmer's  horse  about  thirty-six  times 
in  a  minute.  In  the  smaller,  and  in  the  thorough-bred  horse,  the  pulsations 
are  forty  or  forty-two.  This  is  said  to  be  the  standard  pulse,  the  pulse  of 
health.     It  varies  singularly  little  in  horses  of  the  same  size  and  bree-i,  and 


THE  PULSE.  173 

fvhere  it  is  found  there  can  be  little  inaterially  wrong.  The  mosi  conve- 
nient place  to  feel  the  pulse,  is  at  the  lower  jaw  (p.  119),  a  little  behind  the 
spot  where  the  submaxillary  artery  and  vein,  and  the  parotid  duct,  come 
from  under  the  jaw.  There  the  number  of  pulsations  will  be  easily 
counted,  and  the  character  of  the  pulse,  a  matter  of  fully  equal  importance, 
will  be  clearly  ascertained.  Many  horsemen  put  the  hand  to  the  side. 
They  can  certainly  count  the  pulse  there,  but  they  can  do  nothing  more. 
We  must  be  able  to  press  the  artery  against  some  hard  body,  as  tl:e  jaw. 
bone,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  manner  in  which  the  blood  flows  through 
't,  and  the  quantity  that  flows. 

When  the  pulse  reaches  flfty  or  fifty-five,  some  degree  of  fever  may  be 
apprehended,  and  proper  precautijn  should  be  taken.  Seventy  or  seventy- 
five  will  indicate  a  somewliat  dangerous  state,  and  put  the  owner  and  the. 
surgeon  not  a  little  on  the  alert.  Few  horses  long  survive  a  pulse  of  one 
hundred,  for  by  this  excessive  action  the  energies  of  nature  are  speedily 
worn  out. 

Some  things,  however,  should  be  taken  into  account  in  forming  our  con- 
clusion from  the  frequency  of  the  pulse.  Exercise,  a  warm  stable,  fear, 
will  wonderfully  increase  tlie  number  of  pulsations. 

,  When  a  careless,  brutal  fellow  goes  up  to  a  horse,  and  speaks  hastily  to 
him,  and  handles  him  roughly,  he  adds  ten  beats  per  minute  to  the  pulse; 
and  will  often  be  misled  in  the  opinion  he  may  form  of  the  state  of  the  ani- 
mal. A  judicious  person  will  approach  the  patient  gently,  and  pat  and 
soo'Ji  him,  and  even  then  the  circulation,  probably,  will  be  a  little  disturbed  ; 
and  he  should  take  the  additional  precaution  of  noting  the  number  and 
quality  of  the  pulse,  a  second  time,  before  he  leaves  the  animal. 

If  a  quick  pulse  indicate  irritation  and  fever,  a  slow  pulse  will  likewise 
characterize  diseases  of  an  opposite  character.  It  accompanies  the  sleepy 
stage  of  staggers,  and  every  malady  connected  with  deficiency  of  nervous 
energy. 

The  heart  may  not  only  be  excited  to  more  frequent,  but  also  to  more 
violent  action.  It  may  contract  more  powerfully  upon  the  blood,  which 
will  be  driven  with  greater  force  through  the  arteries,  and  the  expansion  of 
the  vessels  will  be  greater  and  more  sudden.  Then  we  have  the  hard  pulse, 
the  sure  indicator  of  considerable  fever,  and  calling  for  the  immediate  and 
free  use  of  the  lancet. 

Sometimes  the  pulse  may  be  hard  and  jerking,  and  yet  small.  The 
stream,  though  forcible,  is  not  great.  The  heart  is  so  irritable,  that  it  con- 
tracts before  the  ventricle  is  properly  filled.  The  practitioner  knows  that  this 
sliows  a  dangerous  state  of  disease.  It  is  an  almost  invariable  accompani- 
ment of  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

A  weak  pulse,  when  the  arterial  stream  flows  slowly,  is  caused  by  the 
feeble  action  of  the  heart.  It  is  the  reverse  of  fever,  and  expressive  of 
lebility. 

The  oppressed  pulse  is  when  the  arteries  seem  to  be  fully  distended  with 
blood  ;  there  is  obstruction  somewhere,  and  the  action  of  the  heart  can 
ftardly  force  the  stream  along,  or  communicate  pulsation  to  the  current. 
This  is  the  case  in  sudden  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  They  are  overloaded 
and  gorged  with  blood,  which  cannot  find  its  way  through  their  minute 
vessels.  This  accounts  for  the  well-known  fact  of  a  copious  bleeding 
increasing  a  pulse  previously  oppressed.  A  portion  being  removed  from  the 
distended  and  choked  vessels,  the  remainder  is  able  to  flow  on. 
.  There  are  many  other  varieties  of  the  pulse,  which  it  would  be  tedious 
nere  to  particularize,  and  we  will  conclude  our  remarks  on  it  by  observing 
th  If,  during  the  act  of  bleeding,  its  state   should  be  carefully  observed..; 


174  THE  HORSE. 

Many  \3.t.  iiiary  surgeons,  and  gentlemen  too,  are  apt  to  order  a  certain 
quantity  oi  blood  to  be  taken  away,  but  do  not  condescend  to  superintend 
the  operation.  This  is  unpardonable  in  the  surgeon,  and  censurable  in  the 
owner  of  the  horse.  The  horse  is  bled  for  some  particular  purpose.  There 
is  some  state  of  disease  indicated  by  a  peculiar  quality  of  the  pulse,  whici 
we  are  endeavouring  to  alter.  The  most  experienced  practitioner  cannot 
tell  what  quantity  of  blood  must  be  abstracted  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 
The  change  of  the  pulse  can  alone  indicate  when  the  object  is  accomplished  ; 
therefore  the  operator  should  have  his  finger  on  the  artery  during  the  act 
of  bleeding,  and,  comparatively  regardless  of  the  quantity,  continue  to  tak« 
blood,  until,  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  the  oppressed  pulse  becomes  fuUei 
and  more  distinct,  or  the  strong  pulse  of  considerable  fever  is  evide^itly 
softer,  or  the  animal  exhibits  symptoms  of  faintness. 

The  arteries  divide  as  they  proceed  through  the  frame,  and  branch  out 
into  in)mmerable  minute  tubes,  termed  capillaries  (hair-like  tubes),  and  ihoy 
even  become  so  small  as  to  elude  the  sight.  The  slightest  puhcture  cannot 
be  inflicted  without  wounding  some  of  them. 

In  these  little  tubes,  the  nourislmient  of  the  body,  and  tht  separation  of 
all  the  various  secretions  is  performed,  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  the 
blood  is  changed  ;  and  when  these  capillaries  unite  together,  and  begin  to 
enlarge,  it  is  found  to  be  no  longer  arterial,  or  of  a  florid  /ed  colour,  but 
venous,  or  of  a  blacker  hue.  Therefore,  the  principal  termination  of  the 
arteries  is  in  veins.  The  point  where  the  one  ends,  and  the  other  com- 
mences, cannot  be  ascertained ;  it  is  when  the  red  artei-ial  blood,  havmg 
discharged  its  function,  is  changed  to  venous  or  black  blood  ;  but  this  is  a 
process  gradually  performed,  and  therefore  the  vessel  is  gradually  changing 
its  character. 

Branches  from  the  ganglial  or  sympathetic  nerves  wmd  round  these  ves 
sels,  and  endue  them  with  energy  to  discharge  their  functions.  When  the 
nerves  communicate  too  much  energy,  and  these  vesstls  consequently  act 
with  too  much  power,  injiammation  is  produced.  If  this  disturbed  action  be 
confined  to  a  small  space,  or  a  single  organ,  it  is  said  to  be  local,  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  eye,  or  of  the  lungs ;  when  this  inordinate  action  spreads 
from  its  original  seat,  and  embraces  the  whole  of  tht,  arterial  system,  fevei 
is  said  to  be  present,  and  which  usually  increases  in  proportion  as  the  locaJ 
disturbance  increases,  and  subsides  with  it. 

INFLAIklMATION. 

Local  inflammation  is  characterized  by  redness*,  swelling,  heat,  and  pain 
The  redness  proceeds  from  the  increased  quantity  of  blood  flowing  through 
the  part,  occasioned  by  the  increased  action  of  the  vessels.  The  swelling 
arises  from  the  same  cause,  and  from  the  deposit  of  fluid  in  the  neighbour, 
mg  substance.  The  natural  heat  of  the  body  is  produced  by  the  gradual 
change  which  takes  place  in  the  blood,  in  passing  from  an  arterial  to  a 
venous  state.  If  more  blood  be  driven  through  the  capillaries  of  an  inflamed 
part,  and  in  which  this  change  is  effected,  more  heat  will  necessarily  be 
produced  there ;  and  the  pain  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  distension  and 
pressure  which  must  be  produced,  and  the  participation  of  the  nerves  in  the 
disturbance  of  the  surrounding  parts. 

We  have  spoken  of  some  of  these  local  inflammations,  and  shall  speak 
of  others  when  describing  the  structure  of  the  parts  that  are  occasional!} 
attacked  by  them.  The  treatment  will  in  some  degree  vary  with  the  part 
attacked  and  the  degree  of  the  inflammation  ;  but  it  will  necessarily  include 
the  following  particulars. 


INFLAMMATION.  i75 

If  inflammation  consist  of  increased  flow  of  blood  lO  and  ihrougyi  the 
part,  tlie  ready  vvay  to  abate  the  inflammation  is  to  lessen  the  quantity  of 
blood.  If  we  take  away  the  fuel,  the  fire  will  go  out.  All  other  meaiusare 
comparatively  unimportant  compared  with  bleeding.  Blood  may  be  taken 
from  the  jugular,  and  so  the  general  quantity  may  be  lessened;  but  if  u 
can  be  taken  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  part,  it  will  be  productive  of 
tenfold  benefit.  One  quart  of  blood  taken  from  the  foot  in  acute  founder 
by  unloading  the  vessels  of  the  inflamed  part,  and  enabling  them  to  contract, 
and,  in  that  contraction,  to  acquire  tone  and  power  to  resist  the  future  dis- 
tension, will  do  more  good  than  five  quarts  taken  from  the  general  circula- 
tion. An  ounce  of  blood  obtained  by  scarifying  the  swelled  vessels  of  the 
inflamed  eye,  will  give  as  much  relief  as  a  copious  bleeding  from  the  jugu- 
'ar.  It  is  a  principle  in  the  animal  frame  which  should  never  be  lost  sight 
of  by  the  veterinary  surgeon,  or  the  horseman,  that  if  by  bleeding  the  pro- 
cess of  inflammation  can  be  once  checked,  if  it  can  be  suspended  but  for  a 
little  while,  although  it  may  return,  it  never  returns  with  the  same  degree 
of  violence,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  got  rid  of  at  once.  Hence  the  neces- 
sity of  bleeding  early  and  bleeding  largely,  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
or  of  the  bowels,  or  of  the  brain,  or  of  any  important  organ.  Many  horses 
are  lost  for  want  of  bleeding,  or  from  insufficient  bleeding,  but  we  never 
knew  one  materially  injured  by  the  most  copious  abstraction  of  blood  in 
the  early  stage  of  acute  inflammation.  The  horse  will  bear,  and  with  advan- 
tage, the  loss  of  an  almost  incredible  quantity  of  blood.  Four  quarts 
taken  from  him  will  be  comparatively  little  more  than  one  pound  taken  from 
tlie  human  being.  We  can  scarcely  conceive  a  considerable  inflammation 
of  any  part  of  the  horse,  either  proceeding  from  sprains,  contusions,  or  any 
other  cause,  in  which  bleeding,  local  (if  possible)  or  general,  or  both,  will 
not  be  of  essential  service. 

Next  in  importance  to  bleeding  is  purging.  Something  may  be  removed 
from  the  bowels,  the  retention  of  which  would  increase  the  general  irrita- 
tion and  fever;  the  blood  will  be  materially  lessened,  for  the  quantity  ot 
serous  or  watery  fluid  which  is  separated  from  it  by  a  brisk  purge,  the 
action  of  which  in  the  horse  continues  probably  for  more  than  twenty-foui 
hours,  is  enormous;  and  while  the  blood  is  thus  determined  to  the  bowels, 
less  even  of  that  which  remains  will  flow  through  the  inflamed  part.  When 
the  circulation  is  directed  to  one  set  of  vessels,  it  is  proportionably  dimin- 
ished in  other  parts.  It  was  first  directed  to  the  inflamed  parts,  and  they 
were  overloaded  and  injured  :  it  is  now  directed  to  the  bowels,  and  the 
inflamed  parts  are  relieved.  While  the  purging  continues,  there  is  also 
some  degree  of  languor  and  sickness  felt,  and  the  force  of  the  circulation  is 
thereby  diminished,  and  the  general  excitement  lessened.  The  farmer  will, 
therefore,  see  the  importance  of  physic  in  every  case  of  considerable  exter. 
nal  inflammation.  If  the  horse  is  laid  by  for  a  few  days  from  injury  of  the 
foot,  or  sprain,  or  poll-evil,  or  wound,  or  almost  any  cause  of  inflammation, 
a  physic  ball  should  be  given. 

In  cases  of  internal  inflammation,  much  judgment  is  required  to  deter- 
mine when  a  purgative  may  be  beneficial  or  injurious.  In  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  or  bowels  it  should  never  be  given.  There  is  so  strong  a  sym- 
pathy between  the  various  contents  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  tliat  no  one 
of  them  can  be  inflamed  to  any  great  extent,  without  all  the  others  being 
disposed  to  become  inflamed  ;  and,  therefore,  a  dose  of  physic  in  inflamed 
lungs  would  be  frequently  as  fatal  as  a  dose  of  poison.  The  excitement 
produced  on  the  bowels  by  the  purgative  will  soon  run  on  to  inflammation! 
which  no  medical  skill  can  stop. 

The  means  of  abating  external  inflammation  are  various  and  seemingly 


176  THE  HORSE.. 

contradictory.  The  heat  of  the  part  very  naturally  and  properly  led  to  the 
application  of  cold  embrocations  and  lotions.  Heat  has  a  strong  tendency 
to  equalize  itself,  or  to  leave  that  substance  which  has  a  too  great  quantity 
of  it,  or  little  capacity  to  retain  it,  for  another  which  has  less  of  it,  or  more 
capacity  to  retain  it.  Hence  the  advantage  of  cold  applications,  by  wiiich 
d  great  deal  of  unnatural  heat  is  speedily  taken  away  from  the  inflamed 
part.  The  foot  labouring  under  inflammation  is  put  into  cold  water;  or 
the  horse  is  made  to  stand  in  water  or  wet  clay,  and  various  cold  apj)lica. 
tions  are  used  to  sprains.  The  part  is  wetted  with  diluted  vinegar  or 
goulard,  or  salt  and  water.  We  believe  that  when  benefit  is  derived  from 
these  applications,  it  is  to  be  attributed  to  their  coldness  alone,  and  tliat 
water,  and  when  especially  cooled  below  the  natural  temperature,  is  quite 
as  good  as  any  thing  else.  An  ounce  of  nitre,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water 
will  lower  the  temperature  of  the  fluid  many  degrees;  but  the  lotion  mu^i 
be  applied  immediately  af  er  the  salt  has  been  dissolved  ;  and  it  should  be 
applied  in  such  a  way  that  the  inflamed  part  may  be  fully  exposed  to  the 
process  of  evaporation.  While  the  fluid  is  converted  into  vapour,  by  the 
heat  of  the  skin,  a  considerable  degree  of  cold  is  produced.  Let  the  limb 
or  the  part  have  a  full  benefit  of  this,  by  being  uncovered.  A  bandage 
may  be  afterwards  applied  to  strengthen  the  limb,  but  during  the  continu- 
ance of  active  inflammation  it  will  only  confine  the  heat  of  the  part,  or  pre- 
vent the  part  from  benefitting  by  the  salutary  influence  of  the  cold  pro- 
duced by  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 

Sometimes,  however,  we  resort  to  warm  fomentations,  and  if  benefit  be 
derived  from  their  use,  it  is  to  be  traced  to  the  warmth  of  the  fluid,  and  not 
to  any  medicinal  property  in  it ;  and  warm  water  will  do  as  much  good  to 
the  horse  who  has  so  thick  a  skin,  as  a  decoction  of  camomile,  or  marsh- 
mallow,  or  even  poppy-heads,  or  any  nostrum  that  the  farrier  may  recom- 
mend. Fomentations  increase  the  warmth  of  the  skin,  and  open  the  pores 
of  it,  and  promote  perspiration,  and  so  lessen  the  tension  and  swelling  of 
the  part,  assuage  pain,  and  relieve  inflammation.  Fomentations,  to  be  use- 
ful, should  be  long  and  frequently  employed,  and  at  as  great  a  degree  of 
heat  as  can  be  used  without  giving  the  animal  pain.  Poultices  are  nothing 
but  more  permanent  or  longer-continued  fomentations.  The  part  is  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  warmth  and  moisture  for  many  hours  or  days  without 
intermission,  and  perspiration  being  so  long  kept  up,  the  distended  vessels 
will  be  materially  relieved.  The  advantage  derived  from  a  poultice  is 
attributed  to  the  heat  and  moisture,  which,  by  means  of  it,  can  be  long 
applied  to  the  skin,  and  it  should  be  composed  of  materials  which  will  best 
afford  this  heat  and  moisture.  The  bran  poultice  of  the  farrier  will  there- 
fore be  objectionable.  It  is  never  perfectly  in  contact  with  the  skin,  and  it 
becomes  nearly  dry  in  a  few  hours,  and  then  it  is  injurious.  Linseed-meal 
is  a  much  better  material  for  a  poultice  ;  it  will  remain  moist  for  twenty-four 
hours.  The  poultice  is  easily  made  by  pouring  hot  water  on  the  meal,  a 
little  at  a  time,  and  moulding  it  well  with  the  hand  until  the  cataplasm 
attains  its  proper  consistence. 

It  is  often  very  difficult  to  decide  when  a  cold  or  hot  application  is  to  be 
used,  and  no  general  rule  can  laid  be  down,  except  that  in  cases  of  superficial 
inflammation,  and  in  the  early  stage,  cold  lotions  will  be  preferable ;  but 
when  the  inflammation  is  deeper  seated,  or  fully  established,  warm  foment- 
ations may  be  most  serviceal)le. 

Stimulating  applications  are  frequently  used  in  local  inflammation.  We 
have  shown  the  action  of  a  blister  in  hastening  the  suppuratina  of  the 
luinour  of  straigles.     When  the   inflammation  is  deeply   sef-ed,  a  stinii* 


FEVER.  177 

laling  application  to  the  slvin  will  cause  some  irritation  and  inflainmulion 
there,  and  lessen  or  sometimes  remove  the  original  one ;  hence  the  use  oi* 
rowels  and  blisters  in  inflammation  of  the  chest.  Inflammation  to  a  high 
degree  cannot  exist  in  parts  so  near  to  each  other.  If  we  excite  it  in  one, 
we  shall  abate  it  in  the  other;  and  also  by  the  discharge  which  we  establish 
from  the  one,  we  shall  lessen  the  determination  of  blood  to  the  other. 

With  one  caution,  we  will  dismiss  this  part  of  our  subject:  stimulating 
and  blistering  applications  should  never  be  applied  to  a  part  already 
inflamed  :  we  shall  not  put  out  a  fire  by  heaping  more  fuel  upon  it.  Hence 
tlie  miscliief  which  the  farrier  often  does  by  rubbing  his  abominable  oils 
on  a  recent  sprain,  hot  and  tender.  Many  a  horse  has  been  ruined  by  this 
absurd  treatment.  When  the  heat  and  tenderness  have  disappeared  by  the 
use  of  cold  lotions  or  fomentations,  and  the  leg  or  sprained  part  remains 
enlarged,  or  even  bony  matter  threatens  to  be  deposited,  we  may  be  justified 
in  exciting  inflammation  of  the  skin,  by  a  blister,  in  order  to  rouse  the 
deeper  seated  absorbents  to  action,  and  enable  them  to  take  up  this  deposit ; 
but  we  would  again  state  it,  as  a  well-established  principle,  tliat,  except  to 
hasten  the  natural  process  and  etTects  of  inflammation,  a  blister,  or  stimu- 
lating application,  should,  in  the  treatment  of  the  horse,  never  be  applied 
to  a  part  already  inflamed. 

FEVER. 

Fever  is  general  increased  arterial  action,  either  without  any  local  affec- 
tion, or  in  consequence  of  the  sympathy  of  the  system  with  inflammation  in 
.some  particular  part. 

The  first  is  pure  fever.  Some  have  denied  that  it  exists  in  the  horse, 
but  they  must  have  been  strangely  careless  observers  of  the  diseases  of 
that  animal.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is,  that  the  usual  stable  management 
and  general  treatment  of  the  horse  are  so  al)surd,  that  various  parts  of  him 
are  rendered  so  liable  to  take  on  inflammation,  that  pure  fever  will  exist  but 
a  very  little  time  without  degenerating  into  inflammation  of  these  parts. 
The  lungs  are  so  weakened  by  the  heated  and  foul  air  of  the  ill-ventilated 
stable,  and  by  sudden  changes  from  almost  insufferable  heat  to  intense 
cold,  and  the  feet  are  so  injured  by  hard  usage  and  injudicious  shoeing, 
that,  sharing  from  the  beginning  in  the  general  vascular  excitement  which 
characterizes  fever,  tliey  soon  become  excited  far  beyond  other  portions  of 
the  frame ;  and  that  which  commenced  as  fever  becomes  inflammation  of 
the  lungs  or  feet.  Pure  fever,  however,  is  sometimes  seen,  and  runs  its 
course  as  fever. 

It  begins  frequently  with  a  cold  or  shivering  fit,  although  this  is  not 
essential  to  fever.  Tiie  horse  is  dull,  unwilling  to  move,  with  a  sta/ing  coat, 
and  cold  legs  and  feet.  This  is  succeeded  by  warmth  of  the  body  ;  unequal 
distribution  of  warmth  to  the  legs;  one  hot,  and  tlie  other  three  cold,  or 
some  unnaturally  warm,  and  others  unusually  cold,  although  not  the  deathy 
coldness  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  ;  the  pulse  quick,  soft,  and  often  indis- 
tinct;  breathing  somewhat  laborious;  but  no  cough,  or  pawing,  or  looking 
at  the  flanks.  The  animal  will  scarcely  eat,  and  is  very  costive.  While 
tiie  state  of  pure  fever  lasts,  the  shivering  fit  returns  at  nearly  the  same  hour 
every  day,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  warm  one,  and  that,  often,  I)y  a  very 
sligiit  sweating  one  ;  and  this  goes  on  for  several  days  until  local  inflamma- 
iion  appears,  or  the  fever  gradually  subsides.  No  horse  ever  died  of  pure 
rever ;  if  he  is  not  destroyed  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  feet  or  bowels, 
»ucceeding  to  the  fever,  he  gradually  recovers. 

VVliat  we  have  said  of  the  treatment  of  local  inflammation  will  suflRcicntly 


178  THE  HORSE. 

Indii  a  0  t)  t4  wliich  we  snould  recommend  in  fever.  Fever  is  general 
increased  action  of  tlie  heart  and  arteries,  and  theiefore  evidently  appears 
the  necessity  for  bleeding,  regulating  the  quantity  of  blood  taken  by  the 
degree  of  fever,  and  usually  continuing  to  take  it  (the  finger  being  kept  on 
the  artery)  until  some  impression  is  made  upon  the  system.  The  bowels 
should  be  gently  opened  ;  but  the  danger  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and 
the  uniformly  injurious  consequence  of  purgation  in  that  disease,  will  pre- 
vent the  administration  of  an  active  purgative.  One  drachm  and  a  half  of 
aloes  may  be  given  morning  and  night,  with  the  proper  fever  medicine,  until 
tiie  bowels  are  slightly  i-elaxed  ;  after  which,  nothing  more  of  an  aperient 
quality  should  be  administered.  Digitalis,  emetic  tartar,  and  nitre,  should 
be  given  morning  and  night,  in  proportions  regulated  by  the  circumstances 
of  the  case,  and  these  should  give  way  to  white  hellebore,  in  doses  of  half  a 
drachm  twice  in  the  day,  if  symptoms  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  should 
appear.  The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed,  but  be  placed  in  a  cool  and 
well-ventilated  stable. ' 

Symptomatic  fever  is  generally  increased  arterial  action,  proceeding  from 
some  local  cause.  No  organ  of  consequence  can  be  long  disordered  or 
inflamed  without  the  neighbouring  parts  being  disturbed,  and  the  whole 
system  gradually  participating  in  the  disturbance.  Inflammation  of  the  feet 
or  of  the  lungs  never  existed  long  as  to  any  material  extent,  without  being 
accompanied  by  some  degree  of  fever. 

The  treatment  of  symptomatic  fever  should  resemble  that  of  simple  fever, 
except  that  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  part  ori- 
ginally  diseased.  If  the  inflammation  which  existed  there  can  be  subdued, 
the  general  disturbance  will  usually  cease. 

The  arteries  terminate  occasionally  in  openings  on  difl'erent  surfaces  of 
the  body.  On  the  skin  they  pour  out  the  perspiration,  and  on  the  diOerent 
cavities  of  the  frame  they  yield  the  moisture  which  prevents  friction.  In 
other  parts  they  terminate  in  glands,  in  which  a  fluid  essentially  ditTerenl 
from  the  blood  is  secreted  or  separated  from  it :  such  are  the  parotid  and 
salivary  glands,  the  kidneys,  the  spleen,  and  the  various  organs  or  labora- 
tories  which  provide  so  many  and  such  difl'erent  secretions  for  the  multi- 
farious purposes  of  lifej   but  the  usual  termination  of  arteries  is  in  veins. 

THE  VEINS. 

These  vessels  carry  back  to  the  heart  the  blood  which  had  been  con- 
veyed to  the  different  parts  by  the  arteries.  They  have  but  two  coats,  a 
muscular  and  a  membranous ;  both  of  them  are  thin,  and  comparatively 
weak.  They  are  more  numerous  and  much  larger  than  the  arteries,  and 
consequently  the  blood,  lessened  in  quantity  by  the  various  secretions  sepa- 
rated from  it,  flows  more  slowly  through  them.  It  is  forced  on  partly  by 
the  first  impulse  communicated  to  it  by  the  heart;  partly,  in  the  extremities 
and  external  portions  of  the  frame,  by  the  pressure  of  the  muscles ;  and 
in  the  cavity  of  the  chest  its  motion  is  assisted  or  principally  caused  by  the 
sudden  opening  of  the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  after  they  have  closed  upon 
and  driven  out  their  contents,  and  thereby  causing  a  vacuum  which  the 
olood  rushes  on  to  fill.  There  are  curious  valves  in  the  veins  which  pre- 
vent  the  blood  from  flowing  backward. 

BOG  AND  BLOOD-SPAVIN. 

The  veins  of  the  horse,  although  their  coats  are  thin,  compared  with 
those  of  the  arteries   are  not  subject  to  the  enlargements  (varicose  vems) 


BLEEDING  )  - '» 

which  are  so  frequent,  and  often  so  painful,  in  thf  legs  of  the  human  oeirig 
The  legs  of  the  horse  may  exhibit  many  of  the  injurious  consequences  o> 
hard  work,  but  the  veins  will,  with  one  exception,  be  unaltered  in  structure 
Attached  to  the  extremities  of  most  of  the  tendons,  and  between  the  tendonf 
and  other  parts,  are  little  bags,  containing  a  mucous  substance,  to  enable 
the  tendons  to  slide  over  each  other  without  friction,  and  to  move  easily  on 
the  neighbouring  parts.  From  violent  exercise,  these  little  bags  are  liable 
to  enlarge,  Windgalls  and  thoroughpins  are  instances  of  this.  There  is 
one  of  them  on  the  inside  of  the  hock  at  the  bending :  this  sometimes 
becomes  considerably  increased  in  size,  and  the  enlargement  is  called  a  bog- 
spavin.  A  vein  passes  over  this  bag,  which  is  pressed  between  the  enlarge- 
ment and  the  skin,  and  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  it  is  impeded  ; 
the  vein  is,  consequently,  distended  by  the  accumulated  blood,  and  the 
distension  reaches  from  this  bag  as  low  down  as  the  next  valve.  This 
is  called  a  blood-spavin.  Blood-spavin  then  is  the  consequence  of  bog- 
spavin.  It  very  rarely  occurs,  and  is,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  con- 
founded with  bog-spavin. 

Blood-spavin  does  not  always  cause  lameness,  except  the  horse  is  very 
hard  worked,  and  then  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  lameness  should  not  be 
attributed  to  the  enlarged  mucous  bag,  rather  than  to  the  distended  vein. 
Both  of  these  diseases,  however,  render  a  horse  unsound,  aad  materially 
lessen  his  value. 

Old  farriers  used  to  tie  the  vein,  and  so  cut  off  altogether  the  flow  of  the 
blood.  Some  of  them,  a  little  more  rational,  used  to  dissect  out  the  bag 
which  caused  the  distension  of  the  vein:  but  the  modern  and  more  prudent 
way  is  to  endeavour  to  promote  the  absorption  of  the  contents  of  the  bag. 
This  may  be  attempted  by  pressure  long  applied.  A  bandage  may  be  con- 
trived  to  take  in  the  whole  of  the  hock,  except  its  point ;  and  a  compress 
made  of  folded  linen  being  placed  on  the  bog-spavin,  may  confine  the  prin- 
cipal pressure  to  that  part.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  adapt  a  bandage 
to  a  joint  which  admits  of  such  extensive  motion  ;  therefore,  most  practition- 
ers  apply  two  or  three  successive  blisters  over  the  enlargement,  when  it 
usually  disappears  ;  but  unfortunately  it  returns  again  if  any  extraordinary 
exertion  is  required  from  the  horse. 

Of  the  wounds  of  veins,  and  their  consequent  inflammation,  we  have 
spoken  when  describing  the  veins  of  the  neck.  The  veins  are  selected  in 
preference  to  the  arteries  for  the  purpose  of  bleeding,  because  they  are 
more  superficial  and  larger,  and  blood  can  be  more  easily  and  certainly 
procured  from  them,  and  the  flow  of  blood  be  more  easily  stopped. 

BLEEDING. 

This  operation  is  performed  with  a  fleam  or  a  lancet.  The  first  is  the 
common  instrument,  and  the  safest,  except  in  skilful  hands.  The  lancet, 
however,  has  a  more  surgical  appearance,  and  will  be  adopted  by  the  vete- 
rinary practitioner.  A  bloodstick,  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  loaded  at  one  end 
with  lead,  is  used  to  strike  the  fleam  into  the  vein.  This  is  sometimes 
done  with  too  great  violence,  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  coat  of  the  vein  is 
wounded.  Bad  cases  of  inflammation  have  resulted  from  this.  If  the  fist 
be  doubled,  and  the  fleam  is  sharp,  and  struck  with  sufficient  force  w.th  tiie 
lower  part  of  the  hand,  the  bloodstick  may  be  dispensed  with. 

For  general  bleeding,  the  jugular  vein  is  selected.  The  horse  is  blind, 
folded  on  the  side  on  which  he  is  to  be  bled,  or  his  head  turned  well  away; 
the  hair  is  smoothed  along  the  course  of  the  vein  with  the  moistened 
finger :  then  with  the  third  and  little  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  which  holds 


'  60  THE   HORSE. 

the  fieam,  pressure  is  made  on  the  vein  sufficient  to  bring  it  fairly  into 
view,  but  not  to  swell  it  too  much,  for  then,  presenting  a  rounded  surface,  ii 
would  be  apt  to  roll  or  slip  under  the  blow.  The  point  to  be  selected  is 
about  two  inclies  below  the  union  of  the  two  portions  of  the  jugular  at  the 
angle  of  the  jaw  (see  cut,  p.  119).  The  fleam  is  to  be  placed  in  a  direct 
line  with  the  course  of  the  vein,  and  over  the  precise  centre  of  the  vein, 
as  close  to  it  as  possible,  but  its  point  not  absolutely  touching  the  vein.  ,  A 
sharp  rap  with  the  bloodstick  or  the  hand  on  that  part  of  the  back  of  the 
fleam  immediately  over  the  blade,  will  cut  through  the  vein,  and  the  blood 
^vill  flow.  A  fleam  with  a  large  blade  should  always  be  preferred,  for  the 
operation  will  be  materially  sliortened,  wliich  will  be  a  matter  of  some  con- 
sequence with  a  restive  horse  ;  and  a  quantity  of  blood  drawn  speedily  will 
have  far  more  effect  on  the  system  than  double  the  weight  slowly  taken  ; 
while  the  wound  will  heal  just  as  readily  as  if  made  by  a  smaller  instru- 
ment. There  is  no  occasion  to  press  so  hard  against  the  neck  with  the  pail 
x)r  can  as  some  do:  a  slight  pressure,  if  the  incision  has  been  large  enough, 
and  straight,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  vein,  will  cause  the  blood  to  flow 
sufficiently  fast;  or,  the  finger  being  introduced  into  the  mouth,  between 
the  tushes  and  the  grinders,  and  gently  moved  about,  will  keep  the  mouth 
in  motion,  and  hasten  the  rapidity  of  the  stream  by  the  action  and  pressure 
of  the  neighbouring  muscles. 

When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken,  the  edges  of  the  wound  should  be 
brought  closely  and  exactly  together,  and  kept  together  by  a  small,  sharp 
pin  being  passed  through  them.  Round  this  a  little  tow,  or  a  few  hairs 
from  the  mane  of  the  horse,  should  be  wrapped,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole 
of  the  incision  ;  and  the  head  of  the  horse  should  be  tied  up  for  several 
hours,  to  prevent  his  rubbing  the  part  against  the  manger.  In  bringing 
the  edges  of  the  Wound  together,  and  introducing  the  pin,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  draw  the  skin  too  much  from  the  neck,  as  blood  will  insinuate 
itself  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles  beneath,  and  cause  an  unsightly 
and  sometimes  troublesome  swelling. 

The  blood  should  be  received  into  a  vessel,  the  dimensions  of  which  are 
exactly  known,  so  that  the  operator  may  be  able  to  calculate  at  every  period 
of  the  bleeding  the  quantity  that  is  subtracted.  Care  likewise  should  be 
taken  that  the  blood  flow  in  a  regular  stream  into  the  centre  of  the  vessel ; 
for  if  it  be  suffered  to  trickle  down  the  sides,  it  will  not  afterwards  undergo 
those  changes  by  which  we  partially  judge  of  the  extent  of  inflammation. 
The  pulse,  however,  and  the  symptoms  of  the  case  collectively,  will  form  a 
better  criterion  than  any  change  in  the  blood.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the 
operation,  the  edges  of  the  wound  will  hava  united,  and  the  pin  should  be 
withdrawn.  When  the  bleeding  is  to  be  repealed,  if  more  than  three  or  four 
hours  have  elapsed,  it  will  be  more  prudent  to  make  a  fresh  incision  rather 
than  to  open  the  old  wound. 

Few  directions  are  necessary  for  the  use  of  the  lancet.  They  who  are 
competent  to  operate  with  it,  will  scarcely  require  any.  If  the  point  be 
sufficiently  sharp,  the  lancet  can  scarcely  be  too 'broad-shouldered  ;  and  an 
abscess-lancet  will  generally  make  a  freer  incision  than  that  in  common  use. 
A  spring-lancet  has  lately  been  invented,  by  which  any  one  may  bleed  from 
the  jugular,  or  from  a  smaller  vein,  safely  and  certainly.  Whatever  instru- 
ment  be  adopted,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  have  it  perfectly  clean 
and  very  sharp.  It  should  always  be  carefully  wiped  and  dried  immedj 
ately  after  the  operation ;  otherwise,  in  a  very  short  time,  the  edges  wiU 
begin  to  corrode. 

For  general  bleeding,  the  jugular  vein  is  selected,  as  the  largest  super- 
ficial  vein,  and  the  most  easily  got  at.     In  every  affection  of  I'le  heai. 


THE  LUNGS.  \    1 

and  in  cases  of  fever  or  extended  inflammatory  action,  it  is  decidedly 
tlie  best  place  for  bleeding.  In  local  inflammation  blood  may  be  takei' 
from  any  of  the  superficial  veins.  In  supposed  atiections  of  the  slioulder, 
or  of  tlie  fore-leg  or  foot,  the  p/ate  vein,  wliich  comes  from  the  inside  of 
the  arm,  and  runs  upwards  directly  in  front  of  it  towards  the  jugular 
may  be  opened.  In  atiections  of  the  hinder  extremity,  blood  is  some 
times  abstracted  from  the  saplmna,  or  thigh-vein,  wliich  runs  across  the 
inside  of  the  thigh.  In  foot  cases  it  may  be  tai<en  from  the  coronet,  or 
much  more  safety,  from  tlie  toe ;  not  by  cutting  out,  as  the  farrier  does,  a 
piece  of  the  sole  at  the  top  of  the  frog,  which  sometimes  causes  a  wound 
diflicult  to  heal,  and  followed  by  festering,  and  even  by  canker:  hut  cutting 
down  with  a  fine  drawing-knife,  called  a  searcher,  at  the  union  betweeu 
the  crust  and  the  sole  at  the  very  toe  until  the  blood  flows,  and,  if  neces- 
sary,  encouraging  its  discharge  by  dipping  the  foot  in  warm  water.  The 
mesh-work  of  both  arteries  and  veins  will  be  here  divided,  and  blood  is 
generally  obtained  in  any  quantity  that  may  be  needed.  The  bleeding 
may  be  stopped  with  the  greatest  ease,  by  placing  a  bit  of  tow  in  the  little 
groove  that  has  been  cut,  and  tacking  the  shoe  over  it. 

THE  LUNGS. 

The  chest,  likewise,  contains  the  lungs,  ir.ost  important  from  the  office 
which  they  discharge,  and  the  diseases  to  which  they  are  liable.  There  are 
two  lungs,  the  right  and  the  left,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  medias- 
tinum..  The  right  lung  is  larger  than  the  left,  because  the  heart,  inclining 
to  the  left,  leaves  less  room  on  that  side  of  the  chest.  Each  of  the  lungs  is 
likewise  partially  divided  into  lobes ;  the  right  lung  contains  three,  and  the 
left  two.  When  the  windpipe  enters  the  chest,  it  divides  into  two  parts,  one 
going  to  each  lung  ;  and  wiien  these  reach  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  they 
separate  into  innumerable  branches,  each  terminating  in  a  little  bag  or 
cell.  These  branches,  with  the  cells  attached  to  them,  bear  no  slight  re- 
semblance to  bunches  of  minute  grapes.  Around  these  cells  spread  count- 
less blood-vessels,  being  the  extreme  ramifications  of  those  which  conveyed 
the  blood  from  the  right  side  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs,  and  the  commence- 
ment of  those  whichcarry  it  back  from  the  lungs  to  the  left  side  of  the 
heart ;  and  the  cells  and  the  blood-vessels  are  connected  together  by  an 
intervening  substance  of  a  fibrous  and  cellular  texture. 

The  office  of  the  lungs  may  be  very  shortly  stated.  The  blood  passing 
through  the  capillaries  of  the  body,  and  contributing  to  the  nourishment  of 
the  frame,  and  furnishing  all  the  secretions,  becomes,  as  we  have  described, 
changed.  It  is  no  longer  able  to  support  life:  it  is  possessed  ol  a  poi- 
sonous principle,  and  that  principle  is  a  superabundance  of  a  substance 
called  carbon,  which  must  be  got  rid  of  before  the  blood  can  again  be 
jsefully  employed.  There  is  an  ingredient  in  the  atmospheric  air,  called 
oxygen,  which  has  a  strong  attraction  for  this  carbon,  and  which  will  unite 
with  it  wherever  it  finds  it.  The  chest  enlarges  by  the  action  of  the  dia- 
phragm,  and  the  intercostal  and  other  muscles,  as  we  have  narrated  ;  and 
the  lungs  expanding  \vith  the  chest,  in  order  to  fill  up  the  vacuum  which 
would  otherwise  exist  between  them  and  the  sides  of  the  chest,  those  cells 
enlarge,  and  a  kind  of  vacuum  is  formed  in  each  of  them,  and  the  air 
rushed  down  and  fills  them;  and  being  divided  from  the  venous  and 
poisoned  blood  by  these  membranes  alone,  it  is  enabled  to  act  upon  ihe 
olood,  and  attracts  from  it  this  carbon,  and  thus  purifies  it,  and  renders  it 
arterial  blood,  and  fit  for  the  purposes  of  life.  This  being  accomplished, 
the  chest  contracts,  and  the  lungs  are  pressed  into  smaller  compass,  an  J 


182 


THE  HORSE. 


a  portion  of  the  air,  impregnated  with  the  carbon,  and  rendered  poisonoufj 
in  its  turn,  is  squeezed  out.  Presently  the  chest  expands  again,  and  the 
lungs  expand  with  it,  and  fresh  pure  air  is  admitted,  whicli  is  shortly 
pressed  out  again,  empoisoned  by  the  carbon  of  the  blood ;  and  these 
ilternate  expansions  and  contractions  constitute  the  act  of  breathing. 

When  the  animal  powerfully  exerts  himself,  a  more  ample  supply  of 
pure  blood  is  required  to  sustain  the  energies  of  life,  and  the  action  <ji'  the 
muscles  forces  the  blood  more  rapidly  through  the  veins  ;  hence  the  quick 
and  deep  breathing  of  a  horse  at  speed  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  a  capacious 
chest,  in  order  to  yield  an  adequate  supply,  and  the  connexion  of  this 
capacity  of  the  chest  with  the  speed  and  the  endurance  of  the  horse;  hence 
the  wonderful  relief  which  the  mere  loosening  of  the  girths  afibrds  to  a  horse 
blown  and  distressed,  enabling  the  chest  to  expand  and  to  contract  to  a 
greater  extent,  in  order  to  yield  more  purified  blood,  and  hence  the  relief 
afforded  by  even  a  short  period  of  rest,  during  which  this  expenditure  is 
not  required,  and  the  almost  exhausted  energies  of  these  organs  have  time 
to  recover.  Hence,  likewise,  appears  the  necessity  of  an  ample  chest  for 
the  accumulation  of  much  flesh  and  fat ;  for,  if  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  blood  be  employed  in  the  growth  of  the  animal,  and  it  be  thus  rapidly 
changed,  there  must  be  provision  for  its  rapid  purification,  and  that  can 
only  be  effected  by  the  increased  bulk  of  the  lungs,  and  the  corresponding 
largeness  of  the  chest  to  contain  them. 

The  diseases  of  these  organs  are  among  the  most  serious  to  which  the 
horse  is  exposed,  and  interfere  most  with  his  usefulness.  A  glandered 
horse  may  be,  and  often  is,  too  long  employed  in  our  service ;  a  blind 
horse,  under  the  guidance  of  the  driver,  may  employ  both  his  strength  and 
his  speed  for  our  benefit ;  but  a  horse  with  diseased  lungs  is  worth  nothing 
at  all,  and  hence  some  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the  veterinary  practi- 
tioner  has  to  struggle.  A  surgeon  who  practises  on  the  human  body  will 
obtain  the  gratitude  of  his  patient,  if  he  so  far  remove  a  severe  affection  as 
to  enable  him  to  live  on  with  a  certain  degree  of  comfort,  although  his 
activity  and  his  power  of  exertion  may  be  considerably  impaired  ;  but  the 
veterinary  surgeon  is  thought  to  have  done  nothing,  unless  he  renders  the 
animal  perfectly  sound — unless,  in  fact,  he  does  that  which  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  to  accomplish. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS. 

There  is  no  animal  among  all  those  whom  we  have  subdued  that,  pre- 
vious to  his  breaking  in,  is  so  free  from  disease  as  the  horse  ;  there  is  no 
animal  which,  after  he  has  been  enlisted  in  our  service,  is  so  liable  to  disease, 
and  especially  of  the  lungs.  How  do  we  account  for  this  ?  Few  things 
can  be  more  injurious  to  the  delicate  membrane  that  lines  the  cells  of  the 
lungs,  than  the  sudden  change  from  heat  to  cold,  to  which,  under  the 
usual  stable  management,  the  horse  is  subject.  In  the  spring  and  autumn, 
the  temperature  or  heat  of  most  stables  is  several  degrees  higher  than  that 
of  the  open  air ;  in  winter  it  is  frequently  more  than  thirty  degrees.  The 
necessary  effect  of  this  must  be  to  weaken  and  exhaust  the  energies  of  the 
parts  most  exposed  to  the  infiuence  of  these  changes,  and  they  are  the 
lungs.  It  is,  however,  not  only  heated,  but  empoisoned,  air  that  the  horso 
respires;  composed  of  his  own  contaminated  breath,  and  of  vapours  from 
his  dung,  and  particularly  from  his  urine,  strongly  impregnated  with  harts- 
horn, painful  to  the  eyes  and  irritating  to  the  chest. 

There  is  likewise  an  intimate  connection  between  the  lungs  and  the  func- 
tions of  the  skin.      When  the  insensible  perspiration   is  sudderiiy  stofpoil. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  183 

cold  and  cough  are  the  first  consequences.  What  must  inevitably  happen 
to  the  horse  tliat  stands,  twenty  hours  out  of  the  four-and-twenty,  in  a 
hea'.ed  atmosphere,  and  stands  there  warmly  clothed,  and  every  pore  of 
his  skin  opened,  and  the  insensible  perspiration,  and  the  sensible  too,  pro 
fusely  pouring  out,  and  then,  with  his  coat  stripped  from  his  back,  is  turned 
shivering  into  a  nipping  winter's  air  ?  The  discharge  from  the  skin  is  at 
once  arrested,  and  the  revulsion,  or  pernicious  etTect  of  the  sudden  stoppage 
of  a  natural  evacuation,  tails  on  the  lungs,  too  much  weakened,  and  disposed 
to  inflammation  by  heated  air  and  poisonous  fumes. 

These  simple  observations  are  pregnant  with  interest  and  instruction 
to  all  connected  with  horses.  He  who  would  have  his  stud  free  from 
disease,  and  especially  disease  of  the  lungs,  must  pursue  two  objects, 
coolness  and  cleanliness.  In  the  gentleman's  stable,  the  first  of  these  is 
studiously  avoided,  from  the  prejudice  or  tlie  idleness  of  the  groom, 
and  from  these  stables  proceed  most  of  the  cases  of  inflamed  lungs; 
especially  when  this  heat  is  combined  with  that  temporary  but  mischiev- 
ous  nuisance,  the  repeated  breathing  of  th*^  same  air  during  the  night, 
and  that  air  more  vitiated  by  the  fumes  of  the  dung  and  urine.  In  the 
stables  of  tiie  post-master,  where  not  only  closeness  and  heat,  but  the  filth 
that  would  not  be  endured  in  a  gentleman's  establishment,  are  found,  both 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  glanders  prevail ;  and  in  the  stables  of  many 
agriculturists,  cool  enough  from  the  poverty  or  the  carelessness  of  the  owner, 
but  choked  with  filth,  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  seldom  seen,  but  mange, 
glanders,  and  flircy  abound. 

Inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs  is  sometimes  sudden  in  its 
attack,  but  generally  preceded  by  symptoms  of  fever.  The  pulse  is  occa- 
sionally not  much  increased  in  frequency,  but  oppressed  and  indistinct; 
the  artery  is  plainly  to  be  felt  under  the  finger,  and  of  its  usual  size,  but 
the  pulse  no  longer  indicates  the  expansion  of  the  vessel,  as  it  yields  to  the 
gush  of  blood,  and  its  contraction  when  the  blood  has  passed  ;  it  is  rather 
a  vibration  or  thi-ill,  communicated  to  a  fluid  already  over-distending  the 
artery  ;  in  a  few  cases,  even  this  almost  eludes  the  most  delicate  touch, 
and  scarcely  any  pulsation  is  to  be  detected.  The  extremities  arc  cold; 
the  nostril  is  expanded  ;  the  head  thrust  out,  and  the  flanks  begin  to  heave. 
There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  working  of  the  flank.  It  is  not  the  deep 
laborious  breathing  of  fever,  nor  the  irregular  beating  of  broken  wind, 
in  which  the  air  appears  to  be  drawn  in  by  one  effort,  while  two  seem  to 
be  necessary  to  expel  it;  but  it  is  a  quick,  hurried  motion,  evidently 
expressive  of  pain,  and  of  inability  to  complete  the  action,  on  account 
of  the  pain,  or  of  some  mechanical  obstruction.  The  membrane  of  the 
nose  is  of  an  intensely  florid  red — more  vivid  in  the  inside  corners  of  the 
nostrils,  and  remaining  concentrated  there,  if  at  times  it  should  seem  to 
fade  away  higher  up.  The  countenance  is  singularly  anxious,  nnd  indica- 
tive of  suffering,  and  many  a  mournful  look  is  directed  at  the  flanks.  The 
horse  stands  in  a  singular  manner,  stiff",  with  his  fore-legs  abroad,  that  the 
chest  may  be  expanded  as  much  as  possible,  and  he  is  unwilling  to  move, 
lest  for  a  moment  he  should  lose  the  assistance  of  the  muscles  of  the  arms 
and  shoulders,  in  producing  that  expansion  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  he 
obstinately  stands  up  day  after  day,  and  night  after  night;  or,  if  he  lies 
down  from  absolute  fatigue,  it  is  but  for  a  moment. 

In  many  Instances,  however,  the  approach  of  the  disease  is  very  treach 
erods,  and  the  most  careful  practitioner  may  be  deceived.  The  groom 
may  perceive  that  tlie  horse  is  somewhat  off"  his  feed,  and  dull,  but  he  pays 
little  attention  to  it;  or  if  it  arrests  his  notice,  he  only  finds  tliat  the  coat 
Btar<is  a  little,  that  the  legs  are  colder  than   usual,  and   the  breathinj;  in  a 


184  THE  HORSE. 

Blight  degree  quickened  and  shortened.  In  other  cases,  the  symptoms  ar» 
those  of  common  fever,  catarrh,  or  distemper  ;  and  the  characteristics  of 
true  inflammation  of  the  lungs  appear  late  and  unexpectedly.  The  cold 
leg  and  ear,  the  quickened,  not  deepened  inspiration,  the  disinclination 
lo  lie  down,  and  the  anxious  countenance,  will  always  alarm  the  expen- 
enced  observer. 

Whatever  may  be  the  state  of  the  pulse  at  first,  it  soon  becomes 
oppressed,  irregular,  indistinct,  and  at  length  almost  imperceptible.  The 
heart  is  labouring  in  vain  to  push  on  the  column  of  blood  with  which  the 
vessels  are  distended,  and  the  flow  of  which  is  obstructed  by  the  clogged, 
up  passages  of  the  lungs.  The  legs  and  ears  which  were  cold  before, 
become  more  intensely  so — ^it  is  a  clayey,  deathy  coldness.  The  mouth 
soon  participates  in  it,  and  the  breath  too.  The  bright  red  of  the  nostril 
fades  away,  or  darkens  to  a  livid  purple.  The  animal  grinds  his  teeth. 
He  still  persists  in  standing,  although  he  often  staggers  and  almost  falls ;  al 
length  lie  drops,  and  after  a  few  struggles  dies. 

Tiie  duration  of  the  disease  is  singularly  uncertain.  It  will  occasionally 
destroy  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  the  lungs  present  one  con- 
fused  and  disorganized  mass  of  blackness,  and  would  lead  the  inexperienced 
person  lo  imagine  that  long  inflammation  had  gradually  so  completely 
broken  down  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  Such  a  horse  is  said  to  die  rotten, 
and  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  that  he  must  have  been  un. 
sound  for  a  great  while,  and  probably  before  he  came  into  his  last  owner's 
possession,  and  some  expensive  law-suits  have  been  instituted  on  this 
.ground.  Let  our  readers,  however,  be  assured,  that  this  black  decom- 
posed appearance  of  the  lungs  proves  no  disease  of  long  standing,  but 
inflammation  intense  in  its  nature,  and  that  has  very  speedily  run  its 
course.  The  horse  has  died  from  suffocation,  every  portion  of  the  lungs 
being  choked  up  with  this  black  blood,  which  has  even  broken  into  and 
filled  all  the  air-cells  by  means  of  which  it  should  have  been  purified. 

More  frequently  the  disease  lasts  a  little  longer.  The  lungs  are  suffi- 
ciently  pervious  for  some  blood  to  be  transmitted ;  but  the  inflammation 
is  too  great  to  be  subdued,  or  proper  means  have  not  been  taken  to  subdue 
it ;  and  it  runs  its  usual  course,  and  proceeds  to  actual  mortification, 
and  the  lungs  are  found  not  only  black,  but  putrid.  This,  too,  would 
prove  recent  and  violent  inflammation,  and  not  any  old  and  unsuspected 
disease.  This  termination  would  be  indicated,  a  day  or  two  before  the 
death  of  the  animal,  by  the  fetid  breath,  and  the  offensive  discharge 
from  the  nose. 

A  frequent,  and  to  the  practitioner  and  the  owner  a  most  annoying 
termination  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  is  dropsy  in  the  chest.  The 
disease  seems  to  be  subdued;  the  horse  is  more  lively  ;  his  appetite  returns; 
his  legs  and  ears  become  warm ;  and  those  about  him  are  deceived  into 
the  belief  that  he  is  doing  well :  nay,  the  most  skilful  surgeon  is  sometimes 
deceived.  The  anxiety  to  save  his  patient  makes  him  hope  for  the  best, 
although  the  coat  continues  unhealthy,  there  is  a  yellow  discharge  from 
the  nostrd,  the  pulse  is  irregular,  and  the  horse  is  frightened  if  suddenly 
moved,  and  especially  if  his  head  be  considerably  raised  in  the  act  of 
drenching,  and  he  rarely  or  never  lies  down.  Many  days  or  some  weeks 
will  pass  on,  with  these  contradictory  and  unsatisfactory  appearances ;  and 
a  judgment  of  tbe  result  can  only  be  formed  by  balancing  them  against  each 
other.  At  length  the  patient  shivers,  the  old  symptoms  return,  and  he  very 
soon  dies.  On  opening  him,  both  sides  of  the  chest  are  found  nearly  filled 
with  fluid,  impeding  the  pulsation  of  the  heart,  and  the  expansion  of  the 
lungs,  and  destroying  the  horse  by  suffocation.  * 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  ISa 

Although  the  life  of  tlie  horse  may  be  saved,  the  consequen  'es  of  ir.flaivi. 
Illation  of  the  lungs  may  often  materially  lessen,  or  even  destroy  the  useful 
ness  of  the  animal.  As  in  many  e.xternal  inflammations  considerable 
thickening  of  the  part  long  remains,  so  a  deposit  of  the  coagulable  portion 
of  the  blood  may  be  left  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  occupying  the  place  of 
<nany  of  the  air-cells,  and  preventing  the  contraction  and  closing  of  others. 
This  produces  the  peculiarity  of  breathing,  almost  incompatible  with  speed 
or  continuance,  called  thick  wind;  and  frequently  precedes  broken  wind, 
when,  from  the  violent  action  of  the  lungs,  and  that  action  thus  impeded  by 
the  obstruction  we  have  described,  some  of  the  air-cells  become  ruptured. 
Too  frequently,  considerable  irritability  remains  in  the  membrane  lining 
the  air-cells,  and  in  other  portions  of  the  air-passages,  and  a  cough  is 
establislied,  which,  from  its  continuance,  and  the  difficulty  of  its  removal, 
is  called  chronic  cough.  We  have  already  considered  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  as  one  of  the  causes  of  roaring. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  must  evidently  be  of  the 
most  decisive  kind.  We  have  to  struggle  with  a  disease  intense  in  its  charac- 
ter, and  we  must  attempt  radically  to  cure,  and  not  merely  to  palliate  it.  We 
must  look  to  the  future  usefulness  of  the  horse,  and  not  to  the  possibility 
of  his  being  enabled  to  drag  on  an  existence  almost  uncomfortable  to  him- 
self.  Supposing  the  attack  to  have  just  commenced,  the  horse  should  be 
bled,  not  only  until  the  pulse  begins  to  rise,  but  until  it  afterwards  begins  to 
flutter  or  to  stop,  or  the  animal  is  evidently  faint.  The  effect  of  the  bleed- 
ing, and  not  the  quantity  of  blood  taken,  should  be  regarded  ;  for  the 
inflammation  being  subdued,  the  lost  blood  will  soon  be  supplied  again. 
This  is  one  of  the  cases  in  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  sur. 
geon  or  owner,  should  stand  by  with  his  finger  on  the  pulse,  and  mark  the 
etTect  that  is  produced.  If,  six  hours  afterwards,  the  horse  continues  to 
stand  stiff,  and  heaves  as  quickly  and  laboriously  as  before,  and  the  legs 
are  as  intensely  cold,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  as  red,  the  bleeding 
should  be  repeated,  until  the  same  effect  again  follows.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  inflammation  will  be  now  subdued.  A  third  bleeding  may,  how- 
ever, sometimes  be  necessary,  but  must  not  be  carried  to  the  same  extent, 
for  it  is  possible,  by  too  great  evacuation  of  blood,  to  subdue  not  merely 
tlie  disease,  but  the  powers  of  nature.  If,  after  this,  the  legs  become  cold,, 
and  the  heaving  returns,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  reddens,  and  the 
horse  persists  in  standing,  bleedings  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  quarts 
will  be  advisable,  to  prevent  the  re-establishment  of  the  disease.  In  all  these 
bleedings,  let  not  the  necessity  of  a  broad-shouldered  fleam  or  lancet, 
and  a  full  stream  of  blood,  be  forgotten.  These  are  circumstances  of  far 
more  importance  than  is  generally  imagined.  The  appearance  of  the 
blood  will  be  some  guide  in  our  treatment  of  the  case.  The  thickness  of 
the  adhesive,  buffy,  yellow-coloured  coat,  which  in  a  few  hours  will  appear 
on  it,  will  mark  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  the  extent  of  the  inflam- 
mation; but  let  it  be  remembered  that  only  which  existed  at  the  time  of 
bleeding.  Not  regardless  of  the  appearance  of  the  blood,  but  not  putting 
loo  much  faith  in  it,  we  must  look  to  the  horse  to  determine  how  far  thai 
inflammation  may  have  been  diminished,  or  a  repetition  of  the  bleeding  be 
necessary. 

W^hen  the  bleeding  has  evidently  taken  effect,  we  must  consider  by  what 
means  we  may  further  abate,  or  prevent  the  return  of  the  inflammation. 
We  should  blister  the  whole  of  the  brisket,  and  the  sides,  as  iiigh  up  as  the 
elbows.  Blisters  are  far  preferable  to  rowels.  They  act  on  a  ino  -e  exten- 
sive surface;  they  produce  a  great  deal  more  inflammation  ;  and  they  arp 
speedier  in  their  action. 
N 


180  THE  HORSE. 

To  insure  the  full  operation  of  the  blister,  the  hair  must  be  closel\ 
shaveJ,  and  an  ointment,  composed  of  one  part  of  Spanish  flics  and  four  of 
lard  and  one  of  resin,  well  rubbed  in.  The  lard  and  the  resin  should  be 
melted  together,  and  the  powdered  flies  afterwards  added. 

To  form  a  rowel,  the  skin  is  raised  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  and, 
with  a  lancet,  or  with  scissors  contrived  for  the  purpose,  a  slit  is  cut  an  inch 
in  length.  The  finger,  or  the  handle  of  the  improved  rowelling  scissors, 
which  are  to  be  procured  fi'om  any  veterinary  instrument-maker,  is  intro- 
duced, and  the  skin  is  forcibly  separated  from  the  muscular  or  cellular 
substance  beneath,  until  there  is  a  circular  cavity  two  or  three  inches  wide. 
Into  this  a  piece  of  tow  is  inserted,  sufiicient  to  fill  it,  and  previously 
smeared  with  blister  ointment.  This  causes  considerable  inflammation  anti 
discharge.  If  a  little  of  the  tow  be  left  sticking  out  of  the  incision,  the 
discharge  will  conveniently  dribble  down  it.  The  tow  should  be  changed 
every  day  with  or  without  the  ointment,  according  to  the  action  of  the 
rowel,  or  the  urgency  of  the  case.  The  large  piece  of  stifl'  leather  witli 
a  hole  in  its  centre,  used  by  the  farrier,  is  objectionable,  as  not  being  easily 
changed,  and  frequently,  in  the  extraction  of  it,  tearing  the  skin,  so  as  to 
cause  a  lasting  blemish. 

The  blister  sometimes  will  not  rise.  It  will  not  when  the  inflanmiation 
of  the  chest  is  at  its  greatest  intensity :  too  much  action  is  going  on  there 
for  any  to  be  excited  elsewhere.  The  blister  occasionally  will  not  act  in 
the  later  stages  of  the  disease,  because  the  powers  of  nature  ai'e  exhausted. 
It  is  always  a  most  unfavourable  symptom  when  the  blisters  or  the  rowels 
do  not  take  effect.  The  best  time  for  the  application  of  the  blister,  is  when 
the  inflammation  is  somewhat  subdued  by  the  bleeding;  and  then  by  the 
irritation  which  it  excites,  and  in  a  part  so  near  the  original  seat  of  disease, 
the  inflammation  of  the  chest  is  either  abated  or  transferred  to  the  skin; 
for,  as  we  have  before  observed,  it  is  an  important  law  of  nature,  that  no 
two  violent  actions  of  diff'erent  kinds  can  take  place  in  the  frame  at  the 
same  time. 

Next  comes  the  aid  of  medicine.  If  the  patient  was  a  human  being, 
the  surgeon  would  immediately  purge  him.  We  must  not  do  this :  for 
from  sympathy  between  the  bowels  and  the  lungs  in  the  horse,  we  should 
either  produce  a  fatal  extension  of  inflammation,  or  a  transferring  of  it  in  a 
more  violent  form,  and  the  horse  would  assuredly  die.  We  must  back- 
rake,  administer  clysters,  or  perhaps  give  eight  ounces  of  Epsom  salts, 
dissolved  in  warm  gruel.  No  castor-oil  must  be  given.  It  may  be  a  mild 
and  safe  aperient  for  the  human  being :  it  is  a  very  dangerous  one  for 
the  horse. 

Having  a  little  relaxed  the  bowels,  we  eagerly  turn  to  cooling  or  sedative 
medicines.  The  farrier  gives  his  cordial  to  support  the  animal,  and  pre- 
vent rottenness.  He  adds  fuel  to  the  fire,  and  no  wonder  that  the  edifi_ce  is 
frequently  destroyed.  Nitre,  digitalis,  and  emetic  tartar  should  be  given 
in  the  doses  already  recommended,  and  persisted  in  until  an  intermittent 
state  of  the  pulse  is  produced.  Many  practitioners  give  hellebore  in  doses 
jf  half  a  drachm,  or  two  scruples,  every  six  or  eight  hours,  and  they  say 
with  considerable  advantage.  It  is  continued  until  the  horse  hangs  his 
liead,  and  saliva  drivels  from  his  moutli,  and  he  becomes  half  stui)id  and 
half  delirious.  These  symptoms  pass  over  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  chest  is  found  to  be  abated.  If  it  be  so,  it  is  on  the  principle 
of  the  blister:  the  determination  of  blood  to  the  head,  and  the  temporary 
exc'lemcnt  of  the  brain  or  its  membranes,  divert  the  inflammation,  or 
a  portion  of  it,  from  its  original  seat,  and  give  time  for  the  parts  some- 
what to   r^onvpr  their  tone.     We    confess   that  we    prefer    the    di},itali.s, 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS.  18T 

emptic  tartar,  and   nitre:  they  also  very  considerably  lower  the  [ulse,  and 
they  are  safe. 

It  is  of  importance  that  we  determine  the  blood,  or  a  portion  of  it,  from 
the  inflamed  and  over  distended  part  to  some  other  region.  On  this  princi- 
pie  we  warmly  clothe  tiie  horse  labouring  under  this  disease,  that  we  may 
cause  the  blood  to  circulate  freely  through  the  vessels  of  the  skin,  and  tl'iat 
we  may  keep  up  the  insensible  perspiiation,  and  perhaps  produce  some 
sweating.  But  do  we  put  the  horse  in  a  warm  placp?  No;  for  then  we 
should  bring  the  heated  and  poisoned  air  in  contact  with  the  inflamed  lungs, 
and  increase  the  excitement,  already  too  great.  It  is  an  absurd  practice  to 
shut  up  every  door  and  window,  and  exclude,  if  possible,  every  breath  ol 
air;  rather  let  every  door  and  window  be  thrown  open,  and  let  pure  and 
cold  air  And  access  to  these  heated  parts.  It  is  interesting  to  see  how 
eagerly  the  horse  avails  himself  of  the  relief  which  tliis  affords  him.  If 
no  direct  draft  blows  upon  him,  he  can  scarcely  be  placed  in  too  cool  a  box. 

Now  and  then  the  whole  skin  of  the  horse  may  be  rubbed  with  the  brush, 
if  it  does  not  teaze  and  hurry  him;  but  it  is  indispensable  that  the  legs 
should  be  frequently  and  well  hand-rubbed  to  restore  the  circulation  in  them, 
and  they  should  be  covered  with  thick  flannel  bandages.  As  to  food,  we  do 
not  want  him  to  take  any  at  first,  and  most  certainly  the  horse  should  not 
be  coaxed  to  eat.  .\  very  small  quantity  of  hay  may  be  given  to  amuse 
him,  or  a  cold  mash,  or  green  meat,  but  no!  a  particle  of  corn. 

In  eight-and-forty  hours  the  fate  of  the  patient  will  generally  be  decided. 
If  there  be  no  remission  of  symptoms,  the  inflammation  will  run  on  to 
congestion  of  the  lungs,  and  consequent  suffocation,  or  to  gangrene.  We 
must  in  this  case,  give  the  medicines  more  frequently;  repeat  the  blister; 
bleed,  if  the  state  of  the  animal  will  bear  it ;  and  rub  the  legs,  or  even  scald 
them.  U  the  strength  now  rapidly  declines,  the  horse  may  be  drenched 
with  gruel,  and  tonic  medicine  may  be  tried,  as  camomile  at  first,  and 
this  not  recalling  or  increasing  the  fever,  a  little  ginger  and  gentian  may 
be  added. 

Should  the  heaving  gradually  subside,  and  the  legs  get  warm,  and  the 
horse  lie  down,  and  the  inflammation  be  apparently  subsiding,  let  not  the 
owner  or  the  practitioner  be  in  too  great  haste  to  get  the  animal  well. 
Nature  will  slowly,  but  surely  and  safely,  restore  the  appetite  and  strength  ; 
and  it  is  very  easy  to  bring  back  the  malady  in  all  its  violence  by  attempt 
ing  to  hurry  her.  The  food  should  be  the  same,  cold  mashes,  green  meat, 
or  a  little  hay,  if  green  meat  cannot  be  procured,  and  thin  gruel  drunk 
from  the  pail,  not  given  as  a  drench.  Should  the  horse  be  very  weak,  or 
scarcely  eat,  tonics  may  be  tried.  The  way  should  be  felt  very  cautiously 
with  the  camomile,  and  the  sedative  medicine  again  be  resorted  to  if  there 
be  the  slightest  return  of  fever.  To  the  camomile,  the  gentian  and  ginger 
may  be  gradually  added,  but  no  mineral  tonic.  After  a  while,  hay  may  be 
offered,  and  a  little  corn,  and  the  horse  be  suffered  very  gradually  to  return 
to  his  former  habits. 

The  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  are  changes  from  cold  to  heat, 
or  heat  to  cold  ;  exposure  to  cold  while  the  horse  is  hot ;  washing  with  cold 
water  immediately  after  exercise;  sudden  exposure  to  cold,  after  coming 
from  a  very  hot  stable;  frequent  checks  while  hunting;  travelling  in  the 
face  of  a  cold  wind  ;  the  transference  of  general  fever  to  the  lungs,  pre- 
viously disposed  to  inflammation  from  the  usual  stable  management;  and 
neglected  catarrh,  or  catarrh  treated  with  stimulants  instead  of  cooling 
medicmes.  Any  change  from  heat  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  heat,  will  pro 
AncG.  it  almost  with  equal  certainty  ;  the  removal  from  a  warm  stable  to  a 
•jold  one.  or  from  a  cold  one  to  a  warmer;   from  grass  to  the  stable,  ami 


isa 


THE  HORSE. 


from  the  stable  to  grass,  will  equally  give  rise  to  disease  of  the  lungs.     Il 
is  generally  the  ctlect  of  our  erroneous  system  of  management. 

We  sliall  presently  state  the  symptoms  by  which  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  may  l^e  distinguished  from  catarriial  fever.  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  inflammation  of  tlie  bowels  by  the  pulse,  which,  in  the  latter  disease,  is 
small  and  wiry  ;  by  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  which  is  not  then  so  much 
reddened  ;  by  the  indications  of  pain,  as  kicking  at  the  belly,  stamping,  and 
rolhng ;  by  his  eager  scraping  of  the  litter,  and  by  the  belly  bein<i  painful 
to  the  touch,  and  also  hot,  when  the  bowels  are  inflamed. 

PLEURISY. 

Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs  ; 
but  inflammation  may  attack  the  membrane  covering  them  and  lining  the 
side  of  the  chest  {the  pleura),  and  be  principally  or  entirely  confined  to  that 
membrane.  This  is  termed  pleurisy.  The  causes  are  the  same  as  in 
inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  and  the  symptoms  are  not  very 
dissimilar.  The  guiding  distinction  will  be  the  pulse.  As  the  blood  in  this 
disease  still  traverses  the  lungs  without  obstruction,  we  have  not  the 
oppressed  pulse,  but  rather  the  hard  full  pulse  characteristic  of  inflamma- 
tion; the  extremities  are  cold,  but  not  so  cold;  the  membrane  of  the  udss, 
intensely  red  in  the  former  disease,  because  it  is  a  continuation  of  tha 
inflamed  lining  of  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs,  is  here  but  little  reddened, 
because  there  is  no  connection  between  them,  if  the  sides  be  pressed  upon 
in  pleurisy  pain  will  be  felt,  whicli  the  iiorse  will  express  by  a  kind  of  grunt, 
and  which  is  easily  explained  by  the  pressure  being  applied  so  close  to  tlie 
seat  of  disease.  The  manner  of  standing,  however,  will  remain  the  same, 
and  the  obstinacy  of  standing  the  same,  and  the  extension  of  the  neck,  and 
the  protrusion  of  the  nostril.  After  death,  the  pleura  of  the  ribs  and  the 
lungs  will  exhibit  stripes  or  patches  of  inflammation,  and  the  chest  will  be 
generally  filled  with  serous  fluid. 

Copious  bleeding  is  indicated  here,  as  in  inflammation  of  the  substance 
of  the  lungs.  Blisters  and  sedative  medicines  must  likewise  be  resorted 
to.  Tlie  only  important  difference  is,  that  aperients  may  be  administered 
with  more  safety  than  in  the  former  disease.  Puncturing  of  the  chest  to 
give  escape  to  the  fluid  that  is  thrown  out  in  it  may  be  attempted.  It  can- 
not do  harm,  but  it  has  verv  seldom  saved  or  much  prolonged  the  life  of 
the  animal.  If  the  operation  be  attempted,  it  should  be  as  soon  as  the 
presence  of  the  fluid  is  suspected,  and  the  means  by  which  this  may  be 
ascertained  we  have  already  described.  The  opening  should  be  effected 
with  the  common  trochar  used  for  tapping  in  dropsy  in  the  human  being, 
and  should  be  made  between  the  eighth  and  ninth  ribs,  and  close  to  the 
cartilages.    Diuretic  medicines  combined  with  tonics  sliould  be  administered. 

CATARFxH,  OR  CORLAIOX  COLD. 

This  is  a  complaint  of  frequent  occurrence,  generally  subdued  without 
much  difficulty,  but  often  becoming  of  serious  consequence  if  neglected. 
It  is  accompanied  by  a  little  increase  of  pulse ;  a  slight  discharge  from  the 
nose  and  eyes  ;  a  coat  somewhat  roughened  ;  a  diminution  of  appeiite,  and 
cough  sometimes  painful  and  frequent.  A  little  warmth,  a  kw  mashes, 
and  soiue  doses  of  the  medicine  recommended  under  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  will  speedily  effect  a  cure.  Should  the  cough  be  very  painful  and 
obstinate,  it  may  be  necessary  to  bleed  ;  but  then  the  disease  is  degenerating 
into  bronchitis  or  catarrhal  fever. 


CATARRHAL  FEVER.  18fl 

Tlie  LKvibions  of  the  windpipe  just  before  it  enters  the  lungs,  and  the 
numerous  vessels  into  whieh  it  immediately  afterwards  branches  out,  are 
called  the  branchial  tubes,  and  inflammation  of  the  membrane  that  lines 
them  is  termed 

BRONCHITIS. 

It  is  catarrh  extending  to  the  entrance  of  the  lungs.  Tt  is  characterized 
by  quicker  and  harder  breathing  than  catarrh  usually  presents,  and  by  a 
peculiar  wheezing,  which  is  relieved  by  the  coughing  up  of  mucus. 

It  is  to  be  treated  by  bleeding,  far  less  copious  than  in  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  or  even  in  catarrh.  The  horse  will  bear  to  lose  only  a  very 
small  quantity  of  Llood  when  labouring  under  inflammation  of  the  bronchial 
passages.  The  chest  should  be  blistered,  and  digitalis  given,  and  the  other 
treatment  similar  to  that  for  inflamed  lungs,  with  the  exception  of  the 
bleeding.      Thick  wind  is  a  frequent  consequence  of  neglected  bronchitis. 

CATARRHAL  FEVER. 

This  malady  has  various  names  among  horsemen,  as  epidemic,  calarrli, 
injluenza,  distemper.  By  the  latter  name  it  is  generally  distinguished  in 
racing  stables.  It  usually  commences,  like  inflammation  of  the  lungs 
and  fever,  with  a  shivering  fit ;  to  which  rapidly  succeeds  a  hot  mouth, 
greater  heat  of  the  skin  than  is  natural,  heaving  of  the  flanks,  and  cough. 
The  eyes  are  red  and  heavy,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  red,  but 
considerably  paler  than  that  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  even 
occasionally  bordering  on  a  livid  hue.  From  the  very  commencement  of 
ihe  disease  there  is  some  discharge  from  the  nose;  at  first  of  a  mere  watery 
nature,  but  some  thickening,  and  containing  flakes,  some  of  which  stick 
to  the  membrane  of  the  nose,  and  have  been  mistaken  for  ulcers.  This 
discharge,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  becomes  mattery  and  offensive. 
The  glands  likewise  of  the  throat  and  under-jaw  become  enlarged,  and  the 
membranes  of  the  nostril  and  the  throat  are  inflamed  and  tender,  and  there- 
fore the  food  is  "  quidded,"  and  there  is  difficulty  even  in  swallowing  water, 
particularly  if  it  be  cold.  The  horse  sips  and  slavers  in  the  pail,  and 
repeatedly  coughs  as  he  drinks.  The  cough  is  sometimes  frequent  and 
painful ;  so  much  so,  that  the  horse  repeatedly  stamps  with  his  feet,  ana 
shows  signs  of  impatience  and  suffering  in  the  act  of  coughing.  To  these 
symptoms  rapidly  succeeds  very  great  weakness.  The  horse  staggers,  and 
sometimes  almost  falls  as  he  moves  about  his  box  ;  or  he  supports  himself 
by  leaning  his  sides  or  his  quarters  against  the  box.  To  the  inexperienced 
observer  this  early  and  excessive  weakness  will  be  very  alarming,  and  he 
will  give  up  the  horse  as  lo."^.  The  legs  generally  swell,  and  enlargements 
appear  on  the  chest  and  belly.  These,  however,  are  generally  favourable. 
The  pulse  is  quickened.  It  rises  to  sixty  or  seventy,  but  the  number  of  its 
beatings,  and  the  character  of  the  pulse,  which  is  seldom  very  hard,  depend 
nmch  on  the  degree  of  fever  which  accompanies  the  disease. 

After  a  few  days  the  cough  becomes  less  frequent  and  painful ;  the  glanus 
of  the  throat  diminished  ;  the  horse  begins  to  eat  a  little  green  meat,  and 
is  more  cheerful.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  membrane  of  the  nose 
reddens,  or  streaks  of  red  run  through  the  lividness ;  and  the  legs  become 
cold,  and  the  countenance  haggard,  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  at 
fiand.  At  other  times  the  brefith  is  olFensive  ;  the  discharge  from  the  nose 
Dloody ;   the  evacuations  loose,  and  slimy,  and   bloody ;   and   the  animal  i« 


,.j(,  THE  HORSF. 

s].eedil^  destroyed.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  obscure.  It  mav  be  thi» 
consoqu(Mice  of  common  cold  ;  or  it  will  more  frequently  depend  on  some 
unexplained  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  About  the  middle  of  spring  and 
the  commencement  of  autumn  it  is  most  frequent.  Many  horses  in  the 
isame  district,  or  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  will  be  attacked  bv 
it.  If  the  spring  or  autumn  be  wet  and  variable,  almost  every  cold  will 
degenerate  into  it;  and  there  ai'e  too  many  circumstances  which  learl  us  to 
conclude  that  it  is  infectious.  A  lot  of  horses  was  once  bought  at  one  of 
ihe  fairs.  They  were  all  but  one  sent  imir  ediately  to  the  residence  of  the 
purchaser  at  a  considerable  distance.  The  remaining  one  was  employed 
for  some  purpose,  and  afterwards  sent  on  a  journey.  He  was  seized  with 
distemper,  and  on  recovering  sufficiently  to  travel,  he  was  taken  home. 
Three  months  had  now  elapsed  since  the  purchase,  and  the  other  horses 
had  been  perfectly  healthy ;  but  in  less  than  a  fortnight  after  this  horse 
arrived,  they  all  sickened  with  distemper. 

The  treatment  of  catarrhal  fever  requires  much  judgment.  It  is  clearly 
febrile  in  its  commencement;  but  it  speedily  assumes  the  character  of 
weakness.  We  will  suppose  that  the  disease  is  discovered  at  its  very 
commencement.  Bleeding  will  then  be  indispensable,  regulated  in  quantity 
by  the  degree  of  fever;  rarely  exceeding  four  quarts,  never  intentionally 
pursued  until  the  animal  is  faint,  and  immediately  stopped  when  *here 
is  the  slightest  appearance  of  faintness.  The  bleeding  should  be  repeated 
if  the  pulse  is  frequent  and  strong ;  or  if  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is 
getting  red,  and  the  legs  cold,  and  even  although  weakness  should  be 
rapidly  coming  on  ;  but  it  should  be  in  small  quantity,  and  the  eftect  of  it 
carefully  watched. 

If  the  disease  has  been  suffered  to  run  on  for  two  or  three  days,  and  the 
horse  begins  to  stagger,  the  practitioner  or  the  owner  will  consider  all  tht- 
symptoms  well  before  he  ventures  to  bleed.  Redness  of  the  nostril,  heat 
of  the  mouth,  quickness  and  force  of  pulse,  heaving  of  the  flanks,  or  cold- 
ness of  the  legs,  will  require  the  loss  of  blood,  notwithstanding  considerable 
weakness;  but  if  the  animal  is  quite  off  his  feed,  and  the  inside  of  the  nose 
is  livid,  and  he  is  fast  losing  condition  as  well  as  strength,  bleeding  will  be 
better  avoided. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  bowels  should  be  evacuated  ;  and  tliere  is 
not  so  much  danger  in  the  use  of  a  little  purgative  medicine  as  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs.  Two  drachms  of  Barbadoes  aloes  may  be  given  in 
the  form  of  ball,  or  in  solution  ;  and  in  twelve  hours  another  drachm  may 
be  given,  and  even  a  third  dose  twelve  hours  after  that,  if  the  fceces  have 
not  been  loosened  ;  taking  care  to  back-rake  the  animal,  and  to  administer 
injections  of  thin  gruel. 

The  sedative  medicines  at  first  exhibited  should  be  the  same  as  in 
Hiflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  in  the  same  quantity  ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
fever  begins  to  remit,  two  drachms  of  the  spirit  of  nitrous  ether  should  be 
added  to  each  dose ;  and,  the  weakness  increasing,  and  the  fever  still  more 
subsiding,  the  camomile  may  be  ventured  on,  but  with  caution.  Warm 
clothing  is  necessary,  and  particularly  about  the  head  ;  and  although  the 
box  should  still  be  airy,  it  should  not  be  so  cool  as  in  inflammation  of  the 
lungs.  If  the  throat  be  so  sore  that  the  animal  will  not  eat,  either  the 
parotid  or  the  submaxillary  glands,  or  both,  should  be  blistered.  It  will  be 
far  better  to  blister  them  at  once,  than  to  lose  time  by  the  use  of  weaker  and 
ineffective  applications.  The  discharge  from  the  nose  should  be  promoted, 
and  the  natural  progress  of  the  inflammation  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose 
and  throat  hastened  by  hot  mashes  being  frequently  put  in  the  manger. 


CATARRHAL  FEVER.  191 

jr,  if  the  horse  is  not  too  much  distressed  by  it,  hung  under  his  nostrils  in 
a  common  nose-bag.  When  this  is  resorted  to,  a  hood  about  tlie  htad  w  11 
be  particularly  necessary. 

A  great  deal  of  weakness  soon  follows  an  attack  of  catarrhal  fever,  aid 
it  will  then  be  necessary,  even  while  we  are  subduing  the  fever,  to  support 
the  strength  of  the  animal.  He  should  be  offered  bran-mashes,  mah- 
mashes,  damped  hay,  green  meat,  or  carrots.  If  he  refuses  to  talw 
them,  they  should  hr  insinuated  between  his  grinders ;  when,  being  com- 
pelled to  bruise  them  a  little  in  endeavouring  to  get  rid  of  tiiein,  and 
thus  experiencing  their  taste,  he  will  often  be  induced  to  eat  several  little 
portions.  If  he  obstinately  refuses  to  feed,  he  must  be  drenched  witii 
thick  gruel  ;  but  this  will  seldom  be  necessary  if  all  water  be  refused  him 
from  the  earliest  period  of  tiie  disease,  and  a  pail  with  thinner  gruel  be 
suspended  in  some  part  of  his  box.  When  he  finds  that  he  can  get  nothing 
else,  he  will  drink  sufficient  of  this  to  atTord  him  all  the  nutriment  ive 
require.  The  preservation  of  due  warmth  in  the  extremities  is  as  necessary 
here  as  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  should  be  attempted  by  warm 
bandages  and  frequent  hand-rubbing. 

The  terminations  of  this  disease  most  to  be  dreaded  are  inflammdtion 
of  the  lungs  and  putrid  fever.  We  know  how  best  to  guard  against  the 
former,  and  we  shall  presently  speak  of  the  latter.  When,  however,  the 
disease  hangs  long  upon  the  horse,  there  is  usually  much  mischief  done  in 
thf^  ehesx,  although  the  animF-l  may  reover.  Th>ck-wind,  liroken-wind, 
and  chronic  cough  are  its  occasional  consequences;  and  likewise,  as  the 
disease  has  affected  so  great  a  portion  of  the  air-passages,  a  peculiar  liability 
to  cold  and  cough,  and,  not  unfrequently,  an  unpleasant  and  troublesome 
discharge  from  the  nose  will  remain.  Of  the  latter  we  have  spoken  under 
the  title  of  na^al gket,  p.  121  ;  the  others  will  presently  come  under  con- 
sideration. The  farmer  will  not  forget  the  infectious  nature  of  this  disease, 
and  will  immediately  separate  the  sick  animal  from  his  companions. 

7^he  disease  with  which  catarrhal  fever  is  most  likely  to  be  confounded 
is  inflammation  of  the  lungs ;  and  as  the  treatment  of  the  two  is  in  some 
particulars  so  different,  the  farmer  should  be  enabled  readily  to  distinguish 
between  them.  If  a  little  care  be  used,  this  will  not  be  diflicult.  The 
febrile  character  of  the  pulse  ;  the  early  discharge  from  the  nose  ;  the  want 
of  intense  redness  in  the  lining  of  the  nose  ;  the  frequent  and  painful 
cough  ;  the  enlargement  of  the  glands,  and  soreness  of  the  throat ;  the 
rapid  loss  of  strength,  the  sometimes  constant,  and  at  others  variable 
warmth  of  the  legs;  the  restiveness  and  pawing,  will  sufficiently  distin- 
guish catarrhal  fever  from  the  oppressed  pulse,  red  nostril,  heaving  flank, 
little  cough,  fixedness  of  limbs,  and  coldness  of  the  extremities,  which 
accompany  and  characterize  inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

THE  MALIGNANT  EPIDEMIC. 

This  commences  with  nearly  the  same  symptoms  as  catarrhal  fever;  it 
probably  at  the  beginning  is  catarrhal  fever,  but  more  than  usually  violent, 
and  sooner  exhausting  the  powers  of  the  frame. 

Its  symptoms  are  rapid  loss  of  strength,  offensive  breath,  fetid  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  all  the  evacuations  becoming  highly  offensive,  the 
pulse  rapid,  small  and  weak,  and  the  animal  obstinately  refusing  to  eat. 
It  soon  runs  its  course.  Gangrene  soon  succeeds  to  inflammation,  and 
rapidly  spreads  from  the  part  first  inflamed  through  the  whole  of  the 
cellular  substance,  and  over  every  portion  of  the  frame.  When  veterinary 
science  was  in  its  infancy,  this  pest  used  periodically  to  appear,  and  carry 


192  THE  HORSE. 

ofi*  hundreds  of  horses;  and  that  breeder  is  fortunate,  who  dors  not  r.oM 
isonietimes  sullcr  from  its  ravages.  Tlie  treatment  of  it  is  very  unsatis- 
factory. The  prevention  may  be  a  little  more  in  our  power,  by  cndcav- 
curing  to  get  rid  of  the  previous  disease  by  one  bleeding,  when,  in  some 
seasons,  catarrhal  fever  appears  under  a  form  more  than  usually  violent; 
and  by  bleeding  with  extreme  caution,  or  not  bleeding  at  all,  when  debility 
begins  to  appear.  A  mild  purgative  may  be  first  administered  to  carry 
off  a  portion  of  the  offensive  matter  contained  in  the  bowels  ;  after  which, 
chalk,  and  ginger,  and  opium,  and  gentian,  and  columbo,  with  port-wine, 
may  be  plentifully  given,  with  green  meat,  or  thick-gruel  ;  but  except  the 
hor.se  be  valuable,  the  chance  of  saving  him  is  so  slight,  and  probably  the 
danger  of  spreading  the  pest  so  great,  that  prudence  will  prompt  his 
destruction. 

Most  frequent  in  occurrence  among  the  consequences  of  catarrhal  fever, 
and  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  is 

CHRONIC  COUGH. 

It  would  occupy  more  space  than  we  can  devote  to  this  part  of  our  subject, 
to  speak  of  all  the  causes  of  obstinate  cough.  The  irritability  of  so  great 
a  portion  of  the  air-passagqs,  occasioned  by  previous  and  violent  inflam- 
mation of  them,  is  the  most  frequent.  It  is  sometimes  connected  with 
worms.  There  is  much  sympathy  between  the  lungs  and  the  intestines, 
and  the  one  very  readily  participates  in  the  irritation  produced  in  the 
other.  That  it  is  caused  by  glanders,  can  be  easily  imagined,  because 
that  disease  is,  in  its  early  stage,  seated  in  or  near  the  principal  air-passages, 
and  little  time  passes  before  the  lungs  become  affected.  It  is  the  necessary 
attendant  of  thick-wind  and  broken-wind,  for  these  proceed  from  alterations 
of  the  structure  of  the  lungs. 

Notwithstanding  the  clearness  of  the  cause,  the  cure  is  not  so  evident. 
If  a  harsh,  hollow  cough  be  accompanied  bv  a  staring  coat,  and  the 
appearance  of  worms,  a  few  worm-balls  may  expel  these  parasites,  and 
remove  the  irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal.  If  it  proceed  from  irritability 
of  the  air-passages,  which  will  be  discovered  by  the  horse  coughing  after 
drinking,  or  when  he  first  goes  out  of  the  stable  in  the  morning,  or  by  his 
occasional  throwing  out  thick  mucus  irom  the  nose,  medicine  may  be 
given,  and  sometimes  with  advantage,  to  diminish  irritation  generally. 
Half-doses  of  the  digitalis,  emetic  tartar,  and  nitre,  given  every  night,  have 
had  a  very  beneficial  effect,  especially  when  made  up  with  tar,  which  seems 
to  have  a  powerful  influence  in  allaying  these  irritations.  These  balls 
should  be  regularly  given  for  a  considerable  time.  They  are  sufficiently 
powerful  to  quiet  slight  excitement  of  this  kind,  but  not  to  nauseate  the 
horse,  or  iiiterfere  in  the  slightest  degree  with  his  food  or  his  wcrk.  A 
blister,  extending  from  the  root  of  one  ear  to  that  of  the  other,  f^Aing  in 
the  whole  of  the  channel,  and  reaching  six  or  eight  inches  down  the  wind- 
pipe, has  been  tried,  and  not  without  good  effect,  on  the  supposition  that 
the  irritation  may  exist  in  the  fauces  or  the  larynx  ;  and  the  blister  has 
sometimes  been  extended  through  the  whole  course  of  the  windpipe,  until 
it  enters  the  chest. 

Feeding  has  much  influence  on  this  complaint.  Too  much  dry  meat, 
and  especially  chaff,  increases  it.  It  is  aggravated  when  the  horse  is 
suffered  to  eat  his  litter;  and  it  is  often  relieved  when  spring  tares  are 
given.     Carrots  afford  decided  relief. 

The  seat  of  the  disease,  however,  is  so  uncertain,  and  all  our  means  and 
'aiipliancos,  so  ineflicacious,  and  the  cough  itself  so  little  interfering,  and 


THICK-WIXD.  193 

Bometimes  interfering  not  at  all  with  the  health  of  the  animal,  that  it  is 
scarcely  wortli  wliile  to  persevere  in  any  mode  of  treatment  that  is  not 
evidently  attended  with  speedy  benefit.  The  principal  consideration  to 
induce  us  to  meddle  at  all  with  chronic  cough  is  the  knowledge  that  horses 
afllicted  with  it  are  more  liable  than  others  to  be  aflected  by  ciianges  of 
temperature,  and  that  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  of  the  respiratory  pas- 
sages,  often  assumes  in  them  a  very  alarming  character;  to  which,  perhaps 
we  may  add,  that  a  iiorsc  witii  a  chronic  cough  cannot  legally  or  properly 
be  warranted  sound. 

When  chronic  cough  chiefly  occurs  after  eating,  the  seat  of  the  disease 
is  evidently  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs.  The  stomach,  distended  w.th 
food,  presses  upon  tiie  diaphragm,  and  the  diaphragm  upon  the  lungs;  aid 
the  lungs,  already  labouring  under  some  congestion,  are  less  capable  of 
transmitting  the  air.  In  the  violent  effort  to  discharge  their  function, 
irritation  is  produced  ;  and  the  act  of  coughing  is  the  consequence  of  that 
irritation.     This  is  allied  with,  or  soon  runs  into. 

THICK-WIND. 

Thick-wind  consists  in  short,  frequent,  and  laborious  breathing,  and 
especially  when  the  animal  is  in  exercise ;  the  inspirations  and  expirations 
often  succeeding  each  other  so  rajiidly  as  evidently  to  express  distress,  and 
occasionally  almost  to  tiireaten  suffocation.  Some  degree  of  it  frequently 
exists  in  round-chested  and  fat  horses,  that  have  little  or  no  breeding.  The 
reason  of  this  is  sufliciently  plain.  The  circular  chest  affords  sufficient 
room  for  the  expansion  of  the  lungs  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  and  suffi- 
cient room  for  the  accumulation  of  a  great  deal  of  fat  and  flesh  ;  but  when 
the  horse  is  strongly  exercised,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  hurried,  and 
its  change  from  arterial  to  venous,  or  from  vital  to  empoisoned  blood,  is  more 
rapid.  The  circular  chest  cannot  tlien  enlarge  to  any  great  degree  :  yet  the 
blood  must  be  purified  in  greater  quantity,  and  therefore  what  cannot  be 
done  by  increase  of  surface,  must  be  accomplished  by  frequency  of  action. 
Heavy  draught-horses  are  invariably  thick-winded,  and  so  are  almost  all 
horses  violently  exercised  on  a  full  stomach. 

A  horse  labouring  under  any  inflammatory  affection  of  the  lungs  is  thick- 
winded,  because  the  pain  which  he  feels  in  the  act  of  breathing  will  not 
permit  him  to  respire  deeply,  and  theref3re  he  must  breathe  quickly.  A 
horse  unused  to  exercise  is  thick-winded,  because  the  lungs  will  not  soon 
ucconnnodate  themselves  to  a  new  and  laborious  action. 

The  principal  cause,  however,  of  thick-wind  is  previous  inflammation, 
and  particularly  inflammation  of  the  bronchial  passages.  The  throwing 
out  of  some  fluid,  which  is  capable  of  coagulation,  is  the  result,  or  the  natural 
termination  of  inflammation.  This  deposit  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs, 
or  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  from  inflammation  of  these  organs,  must  close 
many  of  the  air-cells,  and  lessen  the  dimensions  of  others.  Then,  if  the 
3ells,  fewer  in  number  and  contracted  in  size,  be  left  for  the  purposes  of 
breathing,  the  rapid  and  laborious  action  of  the  lungs  must  supply  the 
deficiency,  and  especially  when  the  animal  is  put  in  that  state  in  which  he 
requires  a  rapid  change  of  blood. 

The  examination  of  thick-winded  horses  has  thrown  considerable  lighten 
the  nature  of  the  disease.  In  the  majority  of  instances,  some  of  the  small 
dir-cells  have  been  found  filled  up  with  a  dense  substance  of  a  blue  or 
da'-ker  colour.  In  others,  the  minute  passages  leading  to  the  cells  have 
been  diminished,  and  almost  obliterated,  the  linings  of  these  passages  being 
unnaturally   thickened,   or    coveted    with    hardened    mucus,    and   wher^ 


194  THE  HORSE. 

neithc  r  of  these  appearances  could  be  observed,  the  lining  >f  the  cells:  has 
exhibited  evident  marks  of  inflammation,  so  tliat  absolute  pain  prevented 
the  full  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  lungs. 

Thick-wind  is  often  the  forerunner  of  broken-wind.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand this:  for  if  so  much  labour  is  necessary  to  contract  the  air-cells,  and 
to  force  out  the  wind,  and  the  lungs  work  so  rapidly  and  so  violently  in 
effecting  this,  some  of  the  cells,  weakened  by  disease,  will  probably  be 
runtured. 

IJf  the  treatment  of  thick-wind  we  have  little  to  say.  Attention  to  diet, 
and  the  prevention  of  the  overloading  of  the  stomach,  and  the  avoidance  of 
exercise  soon  after  a  meal,  may  in  some  degree  palliate  the  disease,  and  so 
may  constant  exercise,  carried  to  the  extent  of  the  horse's  power,  without- 
too  much  distressing  him.  The  capability  of  exertion  will  thus  daily 
improve,  and  the  breathing  of  the  horse  will  become  freer  and  deeper. 
This  is  the  process  of  training  the  horse  either  for  the  chase  or  the  course; 
and  this  constitutes  all  the  difference  between  a  horse  that  has  been  well 
and  one  that  has  been  badly  trained. 

BROKEX-WIND. 

This  is  easily  distinguished  from  thick-wind.  In  thick-wind  the  breathing 
is  rapid  and  laborious,  but  the  inspiration  and  expiration  are  equally  so,  and 
occupy  precisely  the  same  time.  In  broken-wind  the  inspiration  is  per- 
formed by  one  effort;  the  expiration  by  two,  which  is  plainly  to  be  uis- 
tinguished  by  observing  the  flanks,  and  which  occupies  double  the  time 
The  reason  of  this  may  be  easily  stated.  Broken-wind  is  the  rupture  or  run 
ning  together  of  some  of  the  air-cells.  Wh(;n  the  lungs  are  expanded,  the 
air  will  rush  in  easily  enough,  and  one  effort  of  the  muscles  of  respiration  is 
sufficient  for  the  purpose ;  but  when  these  cells  have  run  into  each  other, 
the  cavity  is  so  irregular,  and  contains  so  many  corners  and  blind  pouches, 
that  it  is  exceedingly  diflicult  to  force  it  out  again,  and  Uvo  efforts  are 
scarcely  competent  fully  to  effect  it. 

This  disease  is  also  accompanied  by  a  dry  and  husky  cough  of  a  peculiar 
sound,  which  cannot  easily  be  described,  but  it  is  recognised  by  every  one 
accustomed  to  horses.  It  is  the  consequence  of  thick-wind,  and  of  those 
alterations  of  structure  consequent  on  inflammation.  If  a  portion  of  the 
lung  be  lost  to  the  animal,  and  the  same  quantity  of  pure  blood  must  be 
supplied,  while  there  is  not  the  same  surface  to  supply  it,  it  is  easy  to  sup- 
pose,  that,  in  the  violent  efforts  which  such  a  horse  is  compelled  to  make, 
some  of  the  cells  may  be  broken. 

Broken  wind  may,  however,  occur  without  much  previous  disease.  Sup- 
pose a  horse  to  be  a  gross  feeder,  and  to  have  filled  his  stomach  with  straw 
and  hay,  and  provender  that  occupies  a  great  bulk,  and  contains  little  nour- 
ishment, the  lungs  are  squeezed  into  a  less  than  the  natural  compass.  Let 
the  horse  be  now  suddenly  and  smartly  exercised  ;  more  blood  must  be 
purified,  and  in  the  violent  eflTort  to  accomplish  this,  some  of  the  cells  give 
way.  Therefore  we  do  not  find  broken-winded  horses  on  the  race-course; 
for  although  every  exertion  of  speed  is  required  from  them,  their  food  lies 
in  small  compass,  and  the  stomach  is  not  distended,  and  the  lungs  have 
room  to  play,  and  care  is  taken  that  their  exertion  shall  be  required  when 
the  stomach  is  nearly  empty.  Cari-iage  and  coach-horses  are  seldom 
broken-winded,  unless  they  bring  the  drsease  to  their  work;  for  they,  tu^, 
live  principally  on  corn,  and  their  work  is  regular,  and  care- is  taken  that 
they  shall  not  be  fed  immediately  before  their  woi'k.  The  majority  of 
horses  thus  affected  come  from  the  stables  of  those  for  .vhose  use  these 


BROKEN-WIND.  J  J).*, 

pages  are  principally  designed.  The  farmer's  horse  is  the  broiien-w.nded 
horse,  because  that  on  wliich  he  is  fed  is  bulky,  and  too  often  selected  on 
account  of  its  cheapness;  because  there  is  little  regularity  in  the  .nanage- 
ment  of  most  of  the  farmers'  stables,  or  the  work  of  his  teams  ;  and  because 
after  many  an  iiour's  fasting  the  horses  are  often  suffered  to  gorge  them- 
nelves  with  this  bulky  food  ;  and  then,  with  the  stomach  pressing  upon  the 
lungs,  and  almost  impeding  ordinary  respiration,  they  are  put  again  to  work, 
and  sometimes  to  that  which  requires  considerable  exertion. 

A  profitable  lesson  may  be  learned  from  this  statement.  The  farmer 
perhaps  may  contrive  to  give  his  horses  a  little  more  corn,  and  a  little  less 
hay,  and  straw,  and  chaff,  without  much  additional  expense;  he  may  con- 
trive, too,  to  shorten  the  period  of  fasting,  and  therefore  prevent  the  raven- 
ous manner  in  which  agricultural  horses  often  feed  ;  and  more  regularity 
may  take  place  between  the  periods  of  feeding  and  of  work.  We  have 
recommended  the  nose  bag  as  a  preventive  of  stomach-staggers;  we  can  as 
earnestly  recommend  it  as  a  preventive  of  broken-wind. 

This  "disease  depends  as  much  upon  the  cramped  state  of  the  lungs,  from 
the  pressure  of  an  overgorged  stomach  in  the  ordinary  state  of  the  animal, 
as  on  the  effects  of  over-exertion.  The  agriculturist  knows  that  many  a 
horse  becomes  broken- winded  in  the  straw-yard.  There  is  little  nutriment 
in  the  provender  which  he  there  finds,  and  to  obtain  enough  for  the  support 
of  life,  he  is  compelled  to  keep  the  stomach  constantly  full,  and  pressing 
upon  tlie  lungs.  Some  have  come  up  from  grass  broken-winded  that  went 
out  perfectly  sound.  The  explanation  of  this  case  is  the  same.  The 
stomach  was  habitually  gorged  with  coarse  and  innutritive  herbage,  and 
its  pressure  on  the  lungs  cramped  and  confined  their  action,  and  produced 
those  violent  efforts  which  burst  some  of  the  air-cells,  and  especially  when 
in  their  gambols  in  the  straw-yard  or  the  field,  or  sometimes  being  wantonly 
driven  about,  the  lungs  were  suddenly  called  upon  to  perform  extraordinary 
work.  There  are  difficulties  attending  this  explanation  of  the  disease,  but 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  dissection  of  the  horses  which  had  broken-wind 
has  almost  invariably  presented  these  enlarged  air-cells,  one  of  which 
would  occupy  the  space  of  a  great  many  of  their  natural  dimensions. 

The  cure  of  a  broken-winded  horse  no  one  ever  witnessed  ;  yet  nmch 
may  be  done  in  the  way  of  palliation.  The  food  of  the  animal  should 
consist  of  much  nutriment  condensed  into  a  small  compass;  tb*^  quantity 
of  oats  should  be  increased,  and  that  of  hay  proportionably  dimini'ihed  ;  the 
bowels  should  be  gently  relaxed  by  the  frequent  use  of  mashes ;  the  water 
should  be  given  sparingly  ctirough  the  day,  although  at  night  the  thirst  of 
the  animal  should  be  fully  satisfied ;  and  exercise  should  never  be  taken 
when  the  stomach  is  full.  It  will  scarcely  be  believed  how  much  relief 
these  simple  measures  will  afford  to  a  broken-winded  horse,  and  of  how 
much  exertion  he  may  be  gradually  rendered  capable.  Some  treated  on 
this  plan  have  even  been  hunted,  and  have  acquitted  themselves  well  in  the 
field.  Carrots  are  very  useful  to  the  broken-winded  horse,  not  only  as 
containing  much  nutriment  and  considerable  moisture,  so  that  less  water 
may  be  required,  but  from  some  property  which  they  possess  rendering 
them  beneficial  in  every  chest  affection.  A  broken-winded  horse  turned 
out  to  grass  will  never  improve,  on  account  of  the  almost  constant  disten- 
sions of  the  stomach;  but  he  may  be  fed  on  more  succulent  substances,  as 
turnips  and  mangel-wurzel,  with  evident  advantage.  They  are  easy  of 
digestion,  and  they  soon  pass  out  of  the  stomach. 

Medical  treatment  is  of  little  avail,  except  that  organs  so  violently  excited 
as  the  lungs  of  broken- winded  horses  frequently  are,  must  be  subject  to 
vnflammation,  and  the  difficulty  of  breathing  in  these  horses  is  sometimes 


{96  THE  HORSE. 

sadly  increased.  A  little  blood  may  then  be  subtracted  ;  and  other  tneaus 
taken  wliich  have  been  recommended  for  inflammatory  affections  of  the 
chest.  In  cases  of  frequent  or  periodical  returns  of  difliculty  of  breathing, 
to  which  these  horses  are  very  subject,  a  course  of  mild  aperients,  united 
with  mercury,  iiave  been  given  with  decided  advantage.  Two  draciims  of 
aloes,  and  one  of  calomel,  may  be  given  twice  in  the  week.  The  barbarous 
practice  of  some  farriers  of  making  holes  near  the  anus,  and  sometimes  in 
other  parts,  to  let  out  the  broken  wind,  cannot  be  too  strongly  reprobated. 

Thick-wind  and  broken-wind  exist  in  various  degrees,  and  many  shades 
of  difference.  Dealers  and  horsemen  generally  have  characterized  them 
by  names  that  can  boast  po  elegance,  but  are  considerably  expressive  of 
•he  state  of  the  animal.  Our  readers  should  not  be  ignorant  of  them. 
Soine  horses  make  a  shrill  noise  when  in  quick  action;  they  are  said  to  be 
PiPEKS.  This  is  a  species  oi'  Roaring.  There  is  usually  a  ring  of  coagu- 
lated matter  round  the  inside  of  the  windpipe,  by  which  the  cavity  is 
materially  diminished,  and  the  sound  produced  in  quicic  breathing  must 
evidently  be  shriller.  Sometimes  the  piping  is  produced  by  a  contraction 
of  the  small  passages  of  the  lungs. 

The  Wheezer  utters  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  an  asthmatic  person 
when  a  little  hurried.  This  is  a  kind  of  thick-wind,  and  is  caused  by  the 
lodgment  of  some  n^iucous  fluid  in  the  small  passages  of  the  lungs.  It 
frequently  accompanies  bronchitis.  Wheezing  can  be  heard  at  all  times, 
even  when  the  horse  is  at  rest  in  the  stable ;  roaring  is  confined  to  the 
increased  breathing  of  considerable  exertion. 

The  Whistler  utters  a  shriller  sound  than  a  wheezei,  but  only  when  in 
exercise,  and  that  of  continuance.  A  sudden  motion  will  not  always  pro- 
duce it.  It  seems  to  be  referable  to  some  contraction  in  the  windpipe  or 
the  larynx.  The  sound  is  a  great  nuisance  to  the  rider,  and  the  whistler 
very  speedily  becomes  distressed.  A  sharp  gallop  up  hill  will  speedily 
detect  the  whistler. 

When  the  obstruction  seems  to  be  principally  in  the  nose,  the  horse  loudly 
puffs  and  blows,  and  the  nostrils  are  dilated  to  the  utmost,  while  the  flanks 
are  comparatively  quiet.  This  animal  is  said  to  be  a  High-blower.  With 
all  his  apparent  distress,  he  often  possesses  great  speed  and  endurance.  The 
sound  is  unpleasant,  but  the  lungs  may  be  perfectly  sound. 

Every  horse  violently  exercised  on  a  full  stomach,  or  when  overloaded 
with  fat,  will  grunt  very  much  like  a  hog.  The  pressure  of  the  stomach 
on  the  lungs,  or  that  of  the  fat  accumulated  about  the  heart,  will  so  much 
impede  the  breathing,  that  the  act  of  forcible  expiration  will  be  accompanied 
by  this  kind  of  sound;  but  there  are  some  horses  who  will  at  all  times 
utter  this  sound,  if  suddenly  touched  with  the  whip  or  spur.  They  are 
called  Grunters,  and  should  be  avoided.  There  is  some  altered  structure 
of  the  lungs,  which  prevents  them  from  suddenly  accommodating  them 
selves  to  unexpected  demand  for  exertion.  It  is  the  consequence  of  pre 
vious  disease,  and  is  frequently  followed  by  thick  or  broken  wind,  or 
roarinsr. 


THE    DIAPHRAGM.  197 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE   BELLY  AND   ITS   CONTENTS 

THE  DIAPHRAGM. 

The  chest  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  or  belly,  by  the  diaphragm  oi 
midritr,  which  extends  obliquely  from  tho  loins  to  the  breast-bone.  In  it3 
natural  state  it  is  convex,  or  projecting  forward  towards  the  lungs,  and 
concave  or  hollow  backward  towards  the  stomach  and  intestines.  On  the 
side  towards  the  chest  it  is  covered  by  the  membrane  which  invests  the 
lungs,  and  towards  the  belly  by  that  which  covers  the  intestines.  It  is 
attached  to  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and  the  breast-bone,  by  tendinous  or  fleshy 
expansions,  and  in  the  centre  it  is  composed  of  strong  muscular  fibres :  it 
is  one  of  the  most  important  muscles  of  the  frame ;  and  is,  as  we  have  de- 
scribed it,  tlie  principal  agent  in  breathing.  When  it  acts,  its  fibres  are 
shortened  ;  it  loses  its  convexity,  and  becomes  plane ;  the  chest  is  thereby 
enlarged,  and  the  lungs  enlarge  with  the  expansion  of  the  cavity  in  which 
they  are  placed  ;  and  air  rushes  in,  and  inspiration  is  performed.  When 
the  fibres  of  the  diaphragm  cease  to  act,  that  muscle  returns  to  its  natural 
form;  it  becomes  again  convex;  it  presses  upon  the  lungs,  and  helps  to 
force  out  the  air,  and  expiration  is  accomplished.  It  assists  likewise  in  the 
natural  constant  motion  of  the  bowels,  and  lends  its  powerful  aid  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  dung  and  urine,  and  in  the  birth  of  the  young  animal :  it  is 
most  concerned  in  coughing,  yawning,  sighing,  &c.  The  membrane  which 
covers  the  diaphragm  is  very  subject  to  inflammation.  Whether  the  ori- 
ginal seat  of  disease  be  in  the  lungs  or  the  bowels,  the  diaphragm  soon 
becomes  inflamed  and  irritable,  which  accounts  for  the  breathing  of  the 
horse  being  so  much  afiected  under  every  inflammation  of  the  chest  or  belly. 
The  diaphragm  is  likewise  occasionally  ruptured,  principally  from  violent 
exertion.  It  has  so  much  to  do  in  the  act  of  breathing,  that  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  if,  when  the  respiration  is  exceedingly  hurried,  this  muscle  should 
give  way.  The  symptoms  of  ruptured  diaphragm  are  very  obscure:  there 
are  none  on  which  we  can  perfectly  depend.  This,  however,  is  a  matter 
of  little  consequence,  for  it  is  uniformly  fatal.  If  the  rupture  be  small, 
some  portion  of  the  intestine  insinuates  itself,  and  becomes  entangled,  and 
the  passage  is  incurably  obstructed  ;  and  if  the  aperture  be  large,  so  much 
of  the  intestine  passes  through  as  to  press  upon  the  lungs,  and  render 
breathing  impossible. 

Three  large  vessels  pass  through  the  diaphragm  :  the  great  artery  which 
conveys  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  frame,  and  which 
goes  through  a  kind  of  division  of  the  diaphragm,  so  that  it  cannot  be 
pressed  upon ;  the  great  vein  carrying  the  blood  from  the  hinder  parts  and 
the  liver  to  the  heart,  and  which  penetrates  the  firm  tendinous  part  of  the 
diaphragm  so  as  likewise  to  be  preserved  from  pressure;  and  the  gullet, 
which  passes  through  the  most  fleshy  portion  of  the  diaphragm,  and  is  liable 
to  be  compressed  by  the  constant  action  of  this  muscle,  which,  however,  is 
a  matter  of  little  consequence,  fov  there  is  sufficient  power  in  the  muscles 
of  the  gullet  to  propel  the  food  through  the  diaphragm  into  the  stomach. 


igg  THE   HORSE. 

Tlie  gullet,  as  will  be  more  particularly  described  in  what  follows,  lernii- 
nates  in 

THE  STOMACH. 

Which  is  found  on  the  left  side  of  the  belly,  lying  upon  the  large;  intestines, 
its  fore  part  close  to  the  liver,  and  its  left  side  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm. 
This  situation  of  the  stomach  will  at  once  explain  the  reason  why  a  horse 
is  so  much  distressed,  and  sometimes  irreparably  injured,  if  worked  hard 
immediately  after  a  full  meal.  The  stomach  must  be  displaced  and  driven 
back  in  the  belly  by  every  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  or  act  of  inspira- 
tion;  then  in  proportion  to  the  fullness  of  the  stomach  will  be  the  weigiit  to 
be  overcome,  and  the  labour  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the  exhaustion  of  the 
animal.  If  the  stomach  be  much  distended,  it  may  be  too  weighty  to  be 
forced  sufficiently  far  back  to  make  room  for  the  quantity  of  air  which  the 
animal  in  a  state  of  exertion  requires.  Hence  the  frequency  and  labour  ©f 
the  breath,  and  the  quickness  with  which  such  a  horse  is  blown,  or,  pos- 
sibly, destroyed.  Hence  the  folly  of  giving  too  full  a  meal,  or  too  much 
water,  before  the  horse  starts  on  a  journey  or  for  the  chase;  and  hence, 
likewise,  the  absurdity  and  danger  of  that  unpardonable  custom  of  some 
grooms  to  gallop  the  horse  after  his  drink,  in  order  to  warm  it  in  his  belly, 
and  prevent  gripes. 

The  horse  was  destined  to  be  the  servant  of  man,  and  to  serve  him  at 
ah  hours,  and  whether  fasting  or  full :  it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  to 
lessen  the  inconvenience  or  danger  of  the  pressure  of  the  stomach  on  the 
diaphragm,  a  smaller  stomach,  in  proportion  to  liis  size,  is  given  to  the  horse 
than  to  almost  any  other  animal.  The  bulk  of  the  horse,  and  the  services 
required  of  him,  "demand  much  nutriment;  and  his  nutriment  is  of  such  a 
nature  that  it  must  occupy  a  very  considerable  space,  yet  his  stomach,  com- 
pared with  his  bulk,  is  not  half  so  large  as  that  of  the  human  being;  and, 
therefore,  although  he,  like  every  other  animal,  feels  inconvenience  from 
great  exertion  immediately  after  a  full  meal,  he  feels  not  so  much  as  other 
animals;  for  his  stomach  is  small,  and  a  great  proportion  of  what  he  eats 
rapidly  passes  through  it,  and  descends  to  a  part  of  the  intestines  distant 
from  the  diaphragm,  and  where  the  existence  and  pressure  of  the  food 
cannot  cause  him  any  annoyance. 

The  orifice  by  which  the  gullet  enters  the  stomach  is  called  the  cardiac, 
h,  from  its  nearness  to  the  heart,  or  sympathy  with  it.  It  is  constantly 
closed  by  strong  muscular  fibres,  except  when  food  is  passing  into  the 
stomach.  It  is  the  construction  of  the  soft  palate,  however,  as  has  been 
already  described,  and  not  this  closing  of  this  cardiac  orifice  of  the  stomach, 
that  chiefly  prevents  the  act  of  VQiiiiting  in  the  horse. 

The  stomach  has  four  coats.  The  outermost  is  the  lining  of  the  cavity 
of  the  belly,  and  the  common  covering  of  all  the  intestines;  by  which  tliey 
are  all  confined  in  their  respective  situations,  and  from  which  a  fluid  is 
given  out,  which  prevents  all  friction  between  them.  This  is  called  tlie 
peritoneum,  or  that  which  stretches  round. 

The  second  is  the  muscular  coat,  consisting  of  two  layers  of  fibres — one 
running  lengthways  and  the  other  circularly — and  by  means  of  wliich  a 
constant  gentle  motion  is  communicated  to  the  stomach,  by  which  the  food 
is  more  thoroughly  mixed  together  and  prepared  for  digestion,  and  by  the 
pressure  of  which  also  the  food,  when  properly  prepared,  is  puslied  on  into 
the  intestines. 

The  third,  or  cuticular,  (skin-like  coal,)  c,  covers  but  a  lortion  of  the 
inside  of  the  stomach.      It  is  a  continuation  of  the  lining  of  the  guile'. 


THE  STOMACH. 


199 


rhjre  are  numerous  glands  on  it,  which  pour  out  a  mucous  fluid;  and  it 
is,  probably,  intended  to  be  a  reservoir,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  food  is 
retained  for  a  while,  and  softened,  and  better  prepared  for  the  action  of  the 
other  or  true  digestive  portion  of  the  stomach.  The  cuticular  coat  occupies 
nearly  one-half  of  the  inside  of  the  stomach. 

The  fourth  coat  is  the  mucous  or  villous  (velvet)  coat,  e,  where  the  work 
of  digestion  properly  commences.  The  mouths  of  numerous  little  vessels 
open  upon  it,  pouring  out  a  peculiar  fluid,  the  gastric  (stomach)  juice, 
which  mixes  with  the  food  already  softened,  and  converts  it  into  a  fluid, 
called  chyme.  As  this  is  formed,  it  passes  out  of  the  other  orifice  of  the 
stomacii,  the  pyloric,  (a  door  to  guard,)  f,  and  enters  the  first  small  intes- 
tine ;  the  harder  and  undissolved  parts  being  turned  back,  to  undergo 
further  action. 

CUT    OF    THE    STOMACH. 


«    The  esophag-us  or  g-ullet,  extending'  to  the  stomach. 

b  The  entrance  of  the  g-ullet  into  the  stomach.  The  circular  layers  of  the  muscles  arc 
very  thick  and  strong,  and  which,  by  their  contractions,  help  to  render  it  difBcu)' 
for  the  food  to  be  returned  or  vomited. 

c    The  portion  of  the  stomach  which  is  covered  by  cuticle  or  insensible  skin. 

ddThe  margin  which  separates  the  cuticular  from  the  villous  portion. 

ee  The  mucous  or  villous  (velvet)  portion  of  the  stomach,  in  which  the  food  is  princi- 
pally digested. 

/  The  communication  between  the  stomach  and  the  first  intestine. 

g  The  common  orifice  through  which  the  bile  and  the  secretion  from  tne  pancreas  pasa 
into  the  first  intestine.     The  two  pins  mark  the  two  tubes  here  united. 

k  A  smaller  orifice,  through  which  a  portion  of  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas  enters 
the  intestines. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  being  small,  this  wonderful  change  which  is 
effected  in  the  food,  and  the  nature  of  which  has  never  been  thoroughly 
understood,  proceeds  very  rapidly.  The  horse,  in  a  short  time,  will  cat  a 
great  deal  more  than  the  stomach  will  hold,  and  room  can  only  be  made 
for  the  reception  of  the  fresh  food  by  that  which  had  been  previously 
received  being  discharged  through  the  pyloric  orifice. 

Of  one  disease  of  the  stomach,  arising  from  over-distension,  stomach- 
staggers,  we  have  already  spoken.     In  a  few  instances,  the  stomacii  ha* 


200      ■  THE  HORSE. 

been  known  .0  be  distended  with  air,  but  there  are  no  characteristic  symp- 
toms by  whicli  tliis  may  be  distinguished  from  distension  by  food,  and  the 
treatment  would  be  the  same. 

Of  inniunmation  of  the  stomach  in  the  horse,  except  from  poisonous 
herbs  or  drugs,  we  know  little.  It  very  rarely  occurs,  and  then  can  with 
difficulty  be  distinguished  from  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  in  both 
diseases  the  assistance  of  a  skilful  veterinary  surgeon  is  required 

Few  horses  are  destroyed  by  the  poisonous  plants  in  our  meadows. 
Natural  instinct  teaches  them  to  avoid  those  which  would  be  injurious. 
More  are  destroyed  by  the  leaves  of  the  yew  than  by  any  other  vegetable 
poison.  A  sleepiness,  from  which  the  animal  can  scarcely  be  roused,  steals 
over  him,  and  he  dies  without  any  symptom  of  pain. 

Ten  grains  of  the  fai'ina  of  the  croton-nut  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the 
poisoning  is  suspected;  he  should  be  drenched  largely  with  equal  pans  of 
vinegar  and  thin  gruel,  and  the  croton  repeated  in  six  hours,  if  it  has  not 
previously  operated. 

The  Waler  Dropwort,  common  in  ditches  and  marshy  places,  is  generally 
refused  by  horses;  but  brood-mares,  with  appetite  somewhat  vitiated  from 
being  in  foal,  have  been  destroyed  by  it.  The  antidote  would  be  vinegar 
and  gruel,  and  bleeding,  if  there  be  inflammation. 

The  Water  Parsley  deserves  not  all  the  bad  reputation  it  has  acquired, 
although,  when  eaten  in  too  great  quantities,  it  has  produced  palsy  in  the 
horse,  and  which  has  been  strangely  attributed  to  a  harmless  beetle  that 
inhabits  the  stem. 

Of  the  Common  Hemlock  and  the  Water  Hemlock  we  know  no  harm,  so 
far  as  the  horse  is  concerned.  We  have  repeatedly  seen  him  eat  the  latter 
without  bad  effects,  but  cows  have  been  poisoned  by  it. 

Of  the  mineral  poisons  we  will  mention  only  two.  Arsenic  was  formerly 
celebrated  as  a  tonic  and  a  destroyer  of  worms  in  the  horse  ;  and  doses  sufK- 
cient  to  kill  three  or  four  men  used  to  be  daily  administered,  and  generally 
with  impunity;  the  dose  has.  however,  in  some  cases,  been  too  strong,  and 
the  animal  has  died.  There  are  better  tonics  and  vermifuges,  and  the  drug 
will  probably  soon  be  discarded  from  veterinary  practice.  Corrosive  subli- 
mate is  given  internally,  and  often  with  advantage  in  farcy.  It  is  used 
externally  to  destroy  vermin,  to  cure  mange,  and  dispose  deep  and  fistulous 
ulcers  to  heal.  The  symptoms  of  an  overdose  of  either  are  loss  of  appetite, 
discharge  of  saliva  from  the  mouth,  pawing,  looking  eagerly  at  the  flanks, 
rolling,  profuse  perspiration,  thready  pulse,  rapid  weakness,  violent  purging 
and  straining,  convulsions,  and  death. 

The  stomach  will  be  found  intensely  inflamed,  with  patches  of  yet  greater 
inflammation.  The  whole  course  of  the  intestine  will  be  inflamed,  with 
particular  parts  black  and  gangrenous. 

The  antidote,  if  it  be  not  too  late  to  administer  it,  would  be,  for  arsenic, 
lime-water,  or  chalk  and  water,  or  soap  and  water,  given  in  great  quantities 
with  the  stomach-pump;  and  for  corrosive  sublimate,  the  white  of  eggs, 
mixed  with  water,  or  thick  starch,  or  arrow-root.  If  the  poisoning  be  mali- 
cious, arsenic  m;iy  be  most  readily  detected  by  mixing  a  little  of  the  fluid 
taken  from  the  intestines  with  a  weak  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  to  which  a  little 
hartshorn  has  been  added,  the  mixture  will  gradually  become  green ;  or,  if 
a  little  of  the  more  solid  contents  of  the  stomach  or  small  intestines  be 
thrown  on  a  red-hot  iron,  a  smell  of  garlic  will  be  perceived. 

For  corrosive  sublimate,  there  is  a  simpler  test.  Place  a  drop  of  the  sus- 
pected fluid  on  a  sovereign,  let  the  stem  of  a  small  key  touch  the  sovereign, 
v/hile  the  handle   is    brought    into   contact  with   the   drop,  and   the  gold 


BOTS. 


20 1 


will  immediately  be  stained  ;  or  mix  a  little  of  the  suspected  fluid  with 
lime-water,  and  the  corrosive  sublimate,  if  there  be  any,  will  be  thrown 
to  the  bottom,  of  an  orange  colour ;  or,  if  hartshorn  be  used,  the  precipi- 
tate will  be  white. 

BOTS. 

In  the  spnng  and  early  part  of  the  summer,  horses  are  much  troubled  by 
a  grub  or  caterpillar,  which  crawls  out  of  the  anus,  fastens  itself  under  the 
tail,  and  seems  to  cause  a  great  deal  of  itching  or  uneasiness.  Grooms 
are  sometimes  alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  tiiese  insects.  Their  history 
is  curious,  and  will  dispel  every  fear  in  regard  to  them.  We  are  indebted 
to  Mr.  Bracey  Clark  for  almost  all  we  know  of  the  bot. 


a    The  cg-g-s  of  the  gad-fly,  adhering-  to  the  hair  of  the  horse. 

6     The  same,  enlarged. 

c     Tlie  appearance  of  the  bots  on  the  stomach,  firmly  adhering-  by  their  hocked 

mouths.     The  marks  or  depressions  are  seen  which  are  left  on  the  coat  of  iho- 

stomach  when  the  bots  are  detached  from  their  hold. 
d    The  bot  detached. 

e     The  female  of  the  gad-fly,  of  the  horse,  prepared  to  deposit  her  eg-gs. 
f    The  g-ad-fly  by  which  the  red  bots  are  produced. 
g   The  smaller  or  red  bot. 

A  species  of  gad-fly,  e,  (the  oestrus  equi,)  is  m  the  latter  part  of  the- 
summer  exceedingly  busy  about  the  horse.  They  are  observed  to  be  dart- 
ing with  great  rapidity  towards  the  knees  and  sides  of  the  animal.  The 
females  are  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  hair,  and  which  adhere  to  it  by 
nn>ans  of  a  glutinous  fluid  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  a  and  b.  In 
a  k\v  days  the  eggs  are  ready  to  be  hatched,  and  the  slightest  application 
of  warmth  and  moisture  will  liberate  the  little  animals  wliich  they  contain. 
The  horse  in  licking  himself  touches  the  egg,  it  bursts,  and  a  small  worm 
escapes,  which  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  is  conveyed  with  the  food  into 
the  stomach  ;  there  it  clings,  by  means  of  a  hook  on  either  side  of  its 
mouth,  to  the  cuticular  portion  of  the  stomach,  c;  and  its  hold  is  so  firm 
and  so  obstinate,  that  it  will  be  broken  before  it  will  be  detached.  Ii 
remains  feeding  there  on  the  mucus  of  the  stomach  during  '.he  whole  of 
♦he  winter  and  to  the  end  of  the  ensuing  spring;  when,  having  attained  n 
O 


202  THE  HORSE. 

considerable  size,  d,  and  being  destined  to  undergo  a  certain  transformation, 
it  disengages  itself  from  the  cuticular  coat,  is  carried  into  the  villous  portion 
of  the  stomach  with  the  food,  passes  out  of  it  with  the  chyme,  and  is  linallv 
evacuated  with  the  dung. 

The  lan^a  or  maggot  being  thus  thrown  out,  seeks  shelter  in  the  ground, 
contracts  in  size,  and  becomes  a  chrysalis  or  grub;  in  which  state  it  lies 
inactive  for  a  few  weeks;  and  then,  bursting  from  its  confinement,  assumes 
the  form  of  a  fly.  The  female,  becoming  impregnated,  quickly  deposits  he> 
eggs  on  those  parts  of  the  horse  which  lie  is  most  likely  to  lick,  and  so  tb'^ 
species  is  perpetuated. 

There  are  several  plain  conclusions  from  this  history.  The  bots  cannot, 
while  they  inhabit  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  give  the  animal  any  pain,  tor 
they  are  fastened  on  the  cuticular  or  insensible  coat.  They  cannot  stimu- 
late the  stomach,  and  increase  its  digestive  power,  for  they  are  not  on  the 
digestive  portion  of  the  stomach.  They  cannot,  by  their  roughness,  assist 
the  trituration  or  rubbing  down  of  the  food,  for  no  such  office  is  performed 
in  that  part  of  the  stomach  :  the  food  is  softened,  not  rubbed  down.  They 
cannot  be  injurious  to  the  horse,  for  he  enjoys  the  most  perfect  health 
when  the  cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with  them,  and  their  pres- 
ence is  not  even  suspected  until  they  appear  at  the  anus.  They  cannol 
be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are  not  in  that  part  of  the  stomach 
to  which  medicine  is  usually  conveyed;  and  if  they  were,  their  mouths  are 
too  deeply  buried  in  the  mucus  for  any  medicine,  tl^t  can  safely  be  admin- 
istered, to  affect  them;  and,  last  of  all,  in  due  course  of  time,  they  detach 
themselves,  and  come  away.  Therefore,  the  wise  man  will  leave  them  to 
themselves,  or  content  himself  with  picking  them  off  when  they  collect 
under  the  tail,  and  annoy  the  animal. 

The  smaller  hot,  f  and  g,  is  not  so  frequently  found. 

INTESTINES. 

The  food  having  been  partially  digested  in  the  stomach,  and  converted 
into  chyme,  passes  through  the  pyloric  orifice  into  the  intestines. 

The  intestines  of  a  full-grown  horse  are  not  less  than  ninety  feet  in 
length.  The  length  of  the  intestines,  in  different  animals,  depends  on  the 
nature  of  tiie  food.  Tlie  nutritive  matter  is  with  much  more  difficulty 
e.xtracted  from  vegetable  than  animal  substances;  therefore  tiie  alimentary 
canal  is  large,  long,  and  complicated  in  those  which,  like  the  horse,  are  fed 
ou  herbs  alone.  They  are  divided  into  the  small  and  large  intestines;  the 
former  of  which  occupy  about  sixty-six  feet,  and  the  latter  about  twenty- 
four.  The  intestines,  like  the  stomach,  are  composed  of  three  coats.  The 
outer  one  consists  of  the  peritoneum,  that  membrane  which  we  have  already 
described  as  covering  the  contents  of  the  belly.  By  means  of  this  coat  the 
bowels  are  confined  in  their  proper  situations;  and,  this  membrane  being 
smooth  and  moist,  all  friction  and  concussion  are  avoided.  Did  the  bowels 
float  loosely  in  the  belly,  they  would  be  subject  to  constant  entanglement 
and  injury  amid  the  rapid  and  violent  motions  of  the  horse. 

The  middle  coat,  like  that  of  the  stomach,  is  muscular,  and  composed  of 
two  layers  of  fibres — one  running  longitudinally  and  the  other  circularly; 
and  by  means  of  these  muscles,  which  are  continually  contracting  and  relax- 
ing, from  the  upper  part  downward,  the  food  is  forced  along  tiie  bowels. 
The  inner  coat  is  the  mucous  or  villous:  mucous  because  it  abounds  with 
small  glands,  which  pour  out  a  mucous  fluid,  to  lubricate  the  passage  and 
defend  it  from  irritatine  or  acrimonious  substances :   and  villous,  from  its 


THE  INTESTINE? 


203 


soft  velvet  feel.  This  coat  is  ciowded  witii  innumerable  little  mou  hs,  which 
are  the  commencement  of  minute  vessels,  by  w'licli  the  nutritive  part  of  the 
food  U  talcen  up ;  and  these  vessels,  uniting  and  passing  over  the  mesentery, 
carry  this  nutritive  matter  to  a  receptacle  for  it,  whence  it  is  conveyed  into 
the  circulation,  and  distributed  to  every  part. 

Tiie  intestines  are  more  particuia'-ly  retained  in  their  places  by  the  7)ie.- 
sentery,  c,  (middle  of  the  intestines,)  which  is  a  doubling  of  the  peritoneum, 
including  the  intestine  in  its  botton.,  and  likewise  inclosing  between  its 
folds  the  arteries  and  veins,  and  nerves,  and  the  vessels  whicii  convey  the 
nutriment  from  the  intestines  to  the  circulation.  The  mesentery  has  some- 
what  the  appearance  of  an  expanded  fan,  and  all  these  things  ramifying 
between  its  transparent  folds,  give  it  a  beautiful  appearance. 

CUT    OF    TEIE    INTESTINES. 

9 


c  Commencement  of  the  small  intestines.  Tlie  ducts  wliich  convey  the  bile  and  the 
secretion  from  the  pancreas  are  seen  entering'  a  little  below. 

i     Convolutions  or  winding's  of  the  small  intestines. 

c    A  portion  of  the  mesentery. 

d    The  small  intestines  terminating'  in  the  coecum. 

«  The  ccecum,  or  blind  g'ut,  with  the  bands  running  along  it,  puckering'  and  dividing 
it  into  numerous  cells. 

f     Beginning'  of  the  colon. 

g     Continuation  and  expansion  of  the  colon,  divided  like  the  ccecum  into  ccUa. 

h     Termination  of  the  colon  in  the  rectum. 

t     Termination  of  the  rectum  at  the  anus. 


The  first  of  the  small  intestines  is  the  duodenum,  a,  so  called  because, 
in  the  human  subject,  it  is  about  twelve  inches  long.  In  the  horse,  it  is 
nearly  two  feet  in  length.  It  is  the  largest  in  circumference  of  all  the  small 
intestines,  and  receives  the  food  converted  into  chyme  by  the  digestive  power 
of  the  stomach,  which  in  it  undergoes  another  and  very  important  change; 
a  portion  of  it  is  converted  into  chyle.  It  is  mixed  with  the  bile  and  the 
secretion  from  the  pancreas,  which  enter  about  five  inches  down  the  intes- 
tine. The  bile  seems  to  be  the  principal  agent  in  this  change  ;  no  sooner 
does  it  mingle  with  the  chyme,  than  the  fluid  begins  to  be  separated  into  two 
\listinct  ingredients,   a  thick  white  liquid,  termed  chyle,  and  containing  the 


204 


THE  HORSE. 


nutritive  pari  of  the  food,  and  a  yellow  pulpy  substance,  which  bee  mes  the 
excrement.  As  these  matters  pass  on  by  the  motion  of  the  intestines,  the 
separation  becomes  more  complete;  the  chyle  is  gradually  taken  up  by  the 
mouths  of  these  numerous  little  vessels,  which  are  called  the  lacteals,  and  ad 
length  the  excrement  alone  remains. 

The  ne.xt  portion  of  the  small  intestine  is  the  jejunum,  so  called  be- 
cause  it  is  generally  empty.  The  passage  of  the  food  seems  to  be  very 
rapid  through  it.  It  is  smaller  in  bulk,  and  paler  in  colour,  than  the 
»luodenum. 

To  this  succeeds  the  ileum  ;  but  there  is  no  point  at  which  it  can  be  said 
that  the  jejunum  terminates  and  the  ileum  begins,  except  that  the  latter  is 
said  to  be  about  one-fifth  longer  than  the  former.  The  whole  of  these  small 
intestines  will  contain  about  eleven  gallons  of  water. 

At  tlie  termination  of  the  ileum,  d,  commence  the  large  intestines.  The 
first  of  them  is  the  ccecum  (blind),  c;  it  has  but  one  opening  into  it,  and 

consequently  every  thing  that  passes 
through  it,  having  reached  the  blind 
or  closed  end,  must  return,  in  order  to 
escape.  It  is  not  a  continuation  of 
the  ileum,  but  the  ileum  pierces  the 
head  of  it,  as  it  were,  at  right  angles, 
(d,)  and  projects  some  way  into  it, 
and  has  a  valve  at  its  extremity;  so 
that  what  has  traversed  the  ileum, 
and  entered  the  head  of  the  colon, 
whence  the  coecum  rises,  cannot  re. 
turn  into  the  ileum.  Along  the  outside 
of  the  coecum  run  three  strong  bands, 
each  of  them  shorter  than  that  intes- 
tine,  and  therefore  puckering  it  up, 
and  forming  it  into  three  separate  sets  of  cells,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing side-cut. 

That  portion  of  the  food,  then,  which  has  not  been  taken  up  by  the 
lacteals  or  absorbent  vessels  of  the  small  intestines,  passes  through  this 
valvular  opening  of  the  ileum,  and  a  part  of  it  enters  the  colon,  while  the 
remainder  flows  into  the  ccecum.  Then,  from  this  being  a  blind  pouch, 
and  from  the  cellular  structure  of  this  pouch,  the  food  must  be  detained 
in  11  a  very  long  time;  and  in  order  that,  during  this  detention,  all  the 
nutriment  may  be  extracted,  the  coecum  and  its  cells  are  largely  supplied 
with  blood-vessels  and  absorbents.  It  is  principally  the  fluid  part  of  the 
food  that  seems  to  enter  the  coecum.  A  horse  will  drink  at  once  a  great 
deal  more  than  his  stomach  will  contain  ;  or,  even  if  he  drinks  a  less 
quantity,  it  remains  not  in  the  stomach  or  small  intestines,  but  passes  on  to 
the  ccBcum,  and  there  is  retained,  as  in  a  reservoir,  to  supply  the  wants  of 
the  system.  In  nis  state  of  servitude,  the  horse  does  not  often  drink  more 
than  twice  or  thrice  in  a  day;  and  the  food  of  the  stabled  horse  being 
chiefly  dry,  this  xoater -stomach  is  most  useful  to  him.  The  coecum  will 
hold  four  gallons. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  food,  and  the  more  solid  part  of  it,  goes  on  to 
the  colon,  ^^.  This  is  an  intestine  of  exceedingly  large  dimensions;  it 
is  capable  of  containing  no  less  than  twelve  gallons  of  liquid  or  pulpy  food. 
At  its  union  with  the  ccecum  and  the  ileum,  although  larger  than  the 
latter  intestine,  /,  it  is  of  comparatively  small  bulk,  but  it  soon  swells 
out  to  an  enormous  extent.  It  has  likewise,  in  the  greater  part  of  its 
fcourse,  liiixe  bands  like  the  cfX'CLun.  uliidi  also  divide  it  internally  into  the 


COLIC.  205 

same  Qcm  nation  of  cells.  The  intention  of  this  is  evident,  to  retard  the 
progress  ol  me  ibod,  and  to  give  a  more  extensive  surface  on  which  the 
vessels  oi  the  lacteuls  may  open:  and  therefore,  in  the  colon,  all  the  chyle 
is  rinally  separated  and  taken  up.  When  this  is  nearly  accomplished,  the 
construction  ot  ine  colon  is  somewhat  changed:  we  find  but  two  bands 
towards  the  rectum,  and  these  not  puckering  the  intestine  so  much,  or 
forming  such  nunierous  or  deep  cells.  The  food  does  not  require  to  he 
much  longer  detameil,  and  the  mechanism  for  detaining  it  is  gradually  dis- 
appearing. The  Diuod-vessels  and  absorbents  are  likewise  rapidly  dimin- 
ishing. The  colon,  aiso,  once  more  contracts  in  size,  and  the  chyle  having 
been  all  absorbed,  the  remaining  mass,  being  of  a  harder  consistence,  is 
moulded  into  pellets  oi  balls  in  its  passage  through  the  shallower  cells. 

At  the  termination  oi  me  colon,  the  Rectum  (straight  gut)  commences. 
It  is  smaller  in  circumference  and  capacity  than  the  colon,  and  serves  as  a 
reservoir  for  the  dung  until  it  is  evacuated.  It  has  none  of  these  bands, 
because,  all  the  nutriment  being  extracted,  the  passage  of  the  excrement 
that  remains  should  be  Hastened  and  not  retarded.  This  descends  to  the 
lower  part  nf  the  rectum,  which  somewhat  enlarges  to  receive  it;  and 
wlien  it  has  accun^ulated  to  a  certain  extent,  the  animal,  by  the  aid  of  the 
diaphragm  and  the  muscles  of  the  belly,  presses  it  out,  and  it  is  evacuated, 
A  curious  circular  muscle,  and  always  in  action,  called  the  sphincter 
(binder  together),  is  placed  at  the  anus,  to  prevent  the  constant  and 
unpleasant  dropping  of  the  faeces,  and  to  retain  them  until  the  animal  is 
disposed  voluntary  to  expel  them. 


DISEASES    OF   THE    INTESTINES 


These  form  a  very  important  part  of  horse  surgery,  and  many  erroneous 
notions  are  prevalent  respecting  them.     The  first  disease  we  will  consider  is 

SPASMODIC  COLIC. 

We  have  said,  that  the  passase  of  the  food  through  the  intestinal  canal 
is  effected  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscular  coat 
of  the  intestines.  When  that  action  is  simply  increased  through  the  whole 
of  the  canal,  the  food  passes  more  rapidly,  and  purging  is  produced;  but 
the  muscles  of  every  part  of  the  frame  are  liable  to  irregular  and  spas- 
modic action,  and  the  muscular  coat  of  some  portion  of  the  intestines  may 
De  thus  affected.  A  species  of  cramp  may  attack  a  portion  of  the  intes- 
lincs.  The  spasm  may  be  confined  to  a  very  small  part  of  the  canal. 
The  gut  has  been  found,  after  death,  strangely  contracted  in  various  places, 
contraction  not  extending  above  five  or  six  inches  in  any  of  them.  In  the 
horse,  the  ileum  is  the  usual  seat  of  this  disease.  It  is  of  much  importance 
to  distinguish  between  spasmodic  colic  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  for 
the  symptoms  have  considerable  resemblance,  although  the  mode  of  treat- 
ment should  be  very  different. 

The  attack  of  colic  is  usually  very  sudden.  There  is  often  not  the 
slightest  warning.  The  horse  begins  to  shift  his  posture,  look  round  at  his 
flanks,  paw  violently,  strike  his  belly  with  his  feet,  lie  down,  roll,  and  that 


206  THE   HORSE. 

frequently  o(i  his  back.  In  a  few  minutes  the  pain  seems  to  cea^'e,  tha 
horse  shakes  himself,  and  begins  to  feed;  but,  on  a  sudden,  tiie  spasm 
returns  more  violently,  every  indication  of  pain  is  increased,  he  heaves  at 
the  flanks,  breaks  out  into  a  profuse  perspiration,  and  throws  himself  more 
violently  about.  In  the  space  of  an  hour  or  two,  either  the  spasms  begin 
to  relax,  and  the  remissions  are  of  longer  duration,  or  the  torture  is  aug- 
mented at  every  paroxysm,  the  intervals  of  ease  are  fewer  and  less  marked, 
and  inflammation  and  death  supervene. 

Of  the  symptoms  by  which  it  may  be  best  distinguished  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels,  we  shall  speak  when  we  treat  of  that  disease.  Among 
the  causes  of  colic  are,  the  drinking  of  cold  water  when  the  horse  is  heated. 
There  is  not  a  surer  cause  of  violent  spasm  than  this.  Colic  will  some- 
times follow  the  exposure  of  a  horse  to  the  cold  air,  or  a  cold  wind  after 
violent  exercise.  Green  meat,  although,  generally  speaking,  most  benefi- 
cial to  the  horse,  yet  given  in  too  large  a  quantity,  or  when  the  horse  is  hot, 
will  fretiuently  produce  gripes.  In  some  horses  there  seem;  to  be  a  con- 
stitutional predisposition  to  colic.  They  cannot  be  hardly  worked,  or 
exposed  to  unusual  cold,  without  a  fit  of  it.  In  many  cases,  when  these 
horses  have  died,  stones  have  been  found  in  some  part  of  the  alimentary 
canal. 

Fortunately,  we  are  acquainted  with  several  medicines  that  allay  these 
spasms;  and  the  disease  often  ceases  almost  as  suddenly  as  it  aj)peared. 
Turpentine  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  remedies,  especially  if  given  in 
union  with  opium.  Three  ounces  of  spirit  or  oil  of  turpentine,  with  an 
ounce  of  laudanum,  given  in  a  pint  of  warm  ale,  will  frequently  have  ar. 
almost  instantaneous  effect.  The  account  which  we  have  just  given  of  the 
ccecum  will  not  be  forgotten.  Even  a  small  quantity  of  fluid  will  seldom 
be  detained  in  the  stomach,  but  will  pass  through  the  ileum  to  the  caecum 
or  water-stomach,  and  in  this  passage  will  come  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  spasmed  pait. 

If  relief  be  not  obtained  in  half  an  hour,  it  will  be  prudent  to  bleed, 
because  the  continuance  of  violent  spasm  will  produce  inflammation. 
Some  practitioners  bleed  at  first,  and  it  is  far  from  bad  practice  ;  for,  although 
the  majority  of  cases  will  yield  to  turpentine,  opium,  and  aloes,  an  early 
bleeding  may  occasionally  prevent  the  occurrence  of  inflammation,  or  at 
least  mitigate  it.  If  it  be  clearly  a  case  of  colic,  half  of  the  first  dose  may 
be  repeated,  with  a  full  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  dissolved  in  warm  water. 
The  stimulus  produced  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  bowels  by  the  purgative 
.■nay  counteract  the  irritation  which  caused  the  spasm.  The  belly  should 
je  well  rubbed  with  a  brush  or  warmed  cloth,  but  not  bruised  and  injured 
by  the  broom-handle  rubbed  over  the  belly  by  two  great  fellows  with  all 
.heir  strength.  The  horse  should  be  walked  about,  or  trotted  moderately. 
The  motion  thus  produced  in  the  bowels,  and  the  friction  of  one  intestine 
over  the  other,  may  relax  the  spasm,  but  the  hasty  gallop  may  speedily 
cause  inflammation  to  succeed  to  colic.  Clysters  of  warm  water,  or  con- 
taining a  solution  of  aloes,  will  be  injected.  The  patent  syringe  will  here 
be  most  useful. 

When  relief  has  been  obtained,  the  clothing  of  the  horse,  saturated  with 
perspiration,  should  be  removed,  and  fresh,  dry  clothing  substituted.  He 
should  be  well  littered  down  in  a  warm  stable  or  box,  and  have  bran  mashes 
for  the  two  or  three  next  days,  and  drink  only  lukewarm  water. 

Some  persons  give  gin,  and  even  gin  and  pepper,  in  cases  of  gripes. 
This,  however,  is  a  pi'actice  to  which  we  strongly  object ;  it  may  be  useful, 
or  even  sufficient,  in  ordinary  cases  of  colic,  but  if  there  be  any  inflamma- 
tion, or  tendency  to  inflammation,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  injurious. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS.  207 


CALCULI,  OR  STONE  IN  THE  INTESTINES. 

We  have  mentioned  these  as  a  cause  of  colic  in  horses  that  are  subject  to 
frequent  attacks  of  it.  Sftme  indigestible  substance  lodges  in  the  crecun 
or  colon  :  earthy  or  half-digested  vegetable  matter  gradually  accumulates 
around  this,  and  a  ball  weighing  many  pounds  is  sometimes  formed.  This 
will  naturally  produce  colic,  or  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  gut,  or,  by  its 
pressure,  produce  inflammation;  but  as  there  are  few  or  no  symptoms  by 
which  the  presence  of  these  stones  is  clearly  indicated,  and  few,  or  rather 
no  certain  means  by  which  they  may  be  removed,  we  will  pass  at  once  tc 
an  occasional  consequence  of  colic. 

INTUSUSCEPTION  OF  THE  INTESTINES. 

The  spasmodic  action  of  the  ileum,  long  continued,  may  be  succeeded  by 
an  inverted  action  from  the  coecum  towards  the  stomach,  more  powerful  than 
the  natural  action  ;  and  the  contracted  portion  of  the  intestine  is  thus  forced 
into  a  portion  above  it  that  retains  its  natural  calibre  ;  and  the  irritation 
caused  by  this  increases  the  action,  until  more  is  forced  in,  and  an  obstruc- 
tion is  formed  which  no  power  can  overcome.  Even  the  natural  motion  of 
the  bowels  will  be  sufficient  to  produce  intususception,  when  the  contrac- 
tion of  a  portion  jf  the  ileum  is  very  great.  There  are  no  symptoms  to 
indicate  the  presence  of  this,  except  continued  or  increasing  pain  ;  or,  if 
there  were,  all  our  means  of  relief  would  here  fail. 

ENTANGLEMENT  OF  THE  BOWELS. 

This  is  another  and  more  singular  consequence  of  colic.  Although  the 
ileum  is  enveloped  in  the  mesentery,  and  its  motion,  to  a  considerable 
degree,  confined,  yet  under  the  spasm  of  colic,  and  during  the  violence  with 
which  the  animal  rolls  and  throws  himself  about,  portions  of  the  ileum 
become  so  entangled  as  to  be  often  twisted  into  nooses  and  knots,  drawn 
together  with  a  degree  of  tightness  scarcely  credible.  Nothing  but  the 
e.xtreme  and  lengthened  torture  of  the  animal  can  lead  us  to  suspect  that 
this  has  taken  place ;  and  even  then,  could  we  ascertain  its  existence  with 
certainty,  there  would  be  no  cure. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  malady.  The  first  is  inflammation  of  th« 
external  coats  of  tiie  stomach,  accompanied  by  considerable  fever  and  cos- 
tivenoss;  the  second  is  that  of  the  internal  or  mucous  coat,  usually  the  con- 
sequence of  an  over-dose  of  physic,  and  accompanied  by  violent  purging. 
We  will  here  speak  of  the  first  of  these  affections.  It  has  been  divided 
into  inflammation  of  the  peritoneal  coal,  and  that  of  the  nmscular  ;  but  the 
causes,  symptoms,  and  treatment  of  both  are  so  much  alike,  that  it  would 
be  raising  unnecessary  difficulties  to  endeavour  to  distinguish  between 
them.  Inflammation  of  the  external  coats  of  the  stomach,  whether  the 
peritoneal  or  muscular,  or  both,  is  a  very  frequent  and  fatal  disease.  It 
speedily  runs  its  course,  and  it  is  of  great  consequence  that  its  early 
symptoms  should  be  known.  If  the  horse  has  been  carefully  observed, 
restlessness  and  fever  will  have  been  seen  to  precede  the  attack  ;  in  many 
cases  a  direct  shivering  fit  will  be  observed;  the  mouth  will  be  hot  and  the 
nose  red.     The  horse  will  soon  express  the  most  dreadful  pain  by  pawing, 


208  THE   HORSE, 

striking  at  his  belly,  looking  wildly  at  his  flanks,  groaning,  and  rolling. 
The  pulse  will  be  quickened  and  small ;  the  cars  and  legs  cold  ;  the  belly 
tender,  and  sometimes  hot;  the  breathing  quickened  ;  the  bowels  costive; 
and  the  horse  becoming  rapidly  and  fearfully  weak. 

It  may  be  useful  to  give  a  short  table  of  the  tlistinguishing  symptoms  of 
colic  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  because  the  treatment  recommended 
for  the  former  would  often  be  fatal  in  the  latter. 

COLIC.  INFLAMMATION. 

Sudden  in  its  attack.  Gradual  in  its  approach,  with  previoua 

indications  of  fever. 
Pulse  rarely  much  quickened  in  the  early         Pulse  very  much  quickened,  but  small, 
stage  of  the  disease  and  during  the  intervals      and  often  scarcely  to  be  felt, 
of  ease,  but  evidently  fuller. 

Legs  and  ears  of  natural  temperature.  Legs  and  ears  cold. 

Relief  obtained  from  rubbing  the  belly.  Belly  exceedingly  tender,  and  painful  to 

the  touch. 
Relief  obtained  from  motion.  Motion  evidently  increasing  the  pain. 

Intervals  of  rest.  Constant  pain. 

Strength  scarcely  affected.  Rapid  and  great  weakness. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are,  first  of  all  and  most  frequently,  sudden 
exposure  to  cold.  If  a  horse  that  has  been  highly  fed,  carefully  groomed, 
and  kept  in  a  warm  stable,  be  heated  with  exercise,  and  have  been  for 
some  hours  without  food — and  in  this  state  of  exhaustion  be  suffered  to 
drink  freely  of  cold  water,  or  be  drenched  with  rain,  or  have  his  legs  and 
belly  washed  with  cold  water — an  attack  of  inflammation  of  tiie  bowels  will 
often  follow.  An  over-fed  horse,  subjected  to  severe  and  long-continued 
exertion,  if  his  lungs  were  previously  weak,  will  probably  be  attacked  by 
inflammation  of  them;  but  if  the  lungs  were  sound,  the  bowels  will  on  the 
following  day  be  the  seat  of  disease.  Stones  in  the  intestines  are  an  occa- 
sional  cause  of  inflammation,  and  colic  neglected,  or  wrongly  treated,  will 
terminate  in  it. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  like  that  of  the  lungs, 
should  be  prompt  and  energetic.  The  first  and  most  powerful  means  of 
cure  will  be  bleeding.  From  six  to  eight  or  ten  quarts  of  blood  should  be 
taken  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  bleeding  repeated  to  the  extent  of  lour  or 
five  quarts  more  if  the  pain  be  not  relieved,  and  the  pulse  have  not  become 
rounder  and  fuller.  The  speedy  weakness  that  accompanies  this  disease 
should  not  deter  from  bleeding  largely.  It  is  the  weakness  that  is  the  con- 
sequence of  violent  inflammation  of  these  parts,  and  if  that  inflammation  be 
subdued  by  the  loss  of  blood,  the  weakness  will  disappear.  The  bleeding 
should  be  effected  on  the  first  appearance  of  the  disease  ;  for  there  is  no 
malady  that  so  quickly  runs  its  course. 

Next  to  bleeding  will  follow  clysters.  Although  the  bowels  are  usually 
confined,  we  cannot  administer  a  strong  purgative;*  for  the  intestines  are 
already  in  far  too  irritable  a  state.  The  clyster  may  consist  of  warm  water, 
or  very  thin  gruel,  in  which  half  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts,  or  half  an  ounce 
of  aloes  has  been  dissolved,  and  too  much  fluid  can  scarcely  be  thrown  up.  If 
the  common  ox-bladder  and  pipe  be  used,  it  should  be  frequently  replenished: 
but  with  Reid's  patent  pump,  already  referred  to,  suflicient  may  be  injected 
to  penetrate  beyond  the  rectum,  and  reach  to  the  colon  and  ccecum,  and 

♦  The  human  practitioner  gives,  under  this  disease,  and  with  advantage,  very  powerful 
doses  of  purgative  medicine;  and  he  may  be  disposed  to  demur  to  the  cautious  mode  of 
proceeding  w5  recommend  with  regard  to  tlie  horse.  Although  we  may  not  be  al)le  to 
give  him  a  satisfactory  theoretical  reason  in  defence  of  our  treatment,  we  can  appeal  to  the 
experience  of  every  veterinary  surgeon,  that  a  strong  dose  of  physic,  given  in  inflam'i  Ption 
of  the  bowels,  would  be  certain  poison. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BOWELS,  209 

dispose  ihem  lo  evacuate  their  contents.  The  horse  may  likewise  be 
encouraged  to  drink  plentifully  of  warm  water  or  thin  gruel;  and  draughts, 
each  containing  a  couple  of  drachms  of  dissolved  aloes.,  may  be  given  every 
six  hours,  until  the  bowels  are  freely  opened. 

Next,  it  will  be  prudent  to  endeavour  to  excite  considerable  external 
inflammation,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  seat  of  internal  disease,  and  there- 
fore the  whole  of  tiie  l^elly  should  be  blistered.  In  a  well-marked  case  of 
this  inflammation,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  applying  fomentations,  but  the 
blister  be  at  once  resorted  to.  The  tincture  of  Spanish  flies,  whether  made 
with  spirit  of  wine  or  turpentine,  should  be  well  rubbed  in.  The  legs  should 
be  well  bandaged,  to  restore  the  circulation  to  them,  and  thus  lessen  the 
flow  of  blood  to  the  inflamed  part,  and  for  the  same  reason  the  horse  should 
be  warmly  clothed,  but  the  air  of  the  stable  or  box  should  be  cool. 

No  corn  or  hay  should  be  given  during  the  disease,  but  bran-mashes, 
and  green-meat  if  it  can  be  procured.  The  latter  will  be  the  best  of  all 
food,  and  may  be  given  without  the  slightest  apprehension  of  danger. 
When  the  horse  begins  to  recover,  he  may  get  a  handful  of  corn  two  or 
three  times  in  the  day,  and,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  may  be  turned  into  a 
paddock  for  a  few  hours  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Clysters  of  gruel  should 
be  continued  for  two  or  three  days  after  the  inflammation  is  beginning  to 
subside,  and  good  hand-rubbing  applied  to  the  legs. 

The  second  variety  of  inflammation  of  the  bowels  affects  the  internal  or 
mucous  coat,  and  is  generally  the  consequence  of  physic  given  in  too  great 
quantity,  or  of  an  improper  kind.  The  purging  is  more  violent,  and  con- 
tinues longer  than  was  intended  ;  the  animal  shows  that  he  is  suflering 
great  pain;  he  frequently  looks  round  at  his  flanks;  his  breathing  is 
laborious,  and  the  pulse  is  quick  and  small ;  not  so  small,  however,  as  in 
inflammation  of  the  peritoneal  coat,  and,  contrary  to  some  of  the  most 
frequent  and  characteristic  symptoms  of  that  disease,  the  mouth  is  hot,  and 
the  legs  and  ears  are  warm.  Unless  the  purging  is  excessive,  and  the 
pain  and  distress  great,  we  should  hesitate  at  administering  any  astringent 
medicine  at  first.  We  should  plentifully  administer  gruel,  or  thin  starch, 
or  arrow-root,  by  the  mouth  and  by  clyster,  removing  all  hay  and  corn, 
and  particularly  green  meat.  We  should  endeavour  thus  to  sheath  the 
irritated  surface  of  the  bowels,  while  we  permitted  any  remains  of  the 
medicine  to  be  carried  off.  If,  however,  twelve  hours  should  pass,  and 
the  purging  and  the  pain  remain  undiminished,  we  should  continue  the 
gruel,  but  add  to  it  chalk,  catechu,  and  opium,  in  doses  of  an  ounce  of 
the  first,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  the  second,  and  two  scruples  of  the  last, 
repeated  every  six  hours.  As  soon  as  the  purging  begins  to  subside,  the 
astringent  medicine  should  be  lessened  in  quantity,  and  gradually  dis- 
continued.  Bleeding  will  rarely  be  necessary  unless  the  inflammation  be 
very  great,  and  attended  by  symptoms  of  general  fever.  The  horse  should 
be  warmly  clothed,  and  be  placed  in  a  warm  stable,  and  his  legs  should  be 
hand-rubbed  and  bandaged. 

Violent  purging,  and  attended  with  much  inflammation  and  fever,  will 
sometimes  occur  from  other  causes.  Green  meat  will  sometimes  purge. 
A  horse  worked  hard  upon  green  meat  will  scour.  The  remedy  is  change 
of  diet  or  less  labour.  Young  horses  will  scour,  and  sometimes  without 
any  apparent  cause.  Astringents  should  be  used  with  much  caution  here. 
It  is  probably  an  effort  of  nature  to  get  rid  of  something  that  olFends.  A 
few  doses  of  gruel  will  assist  in  effecting  this  purpose,  and  the  purging  will 
cease  w'.thout  astringent  medicine. 

►Some  horses  that  are  not  wdl-rihhcd  home,  (having  too  great  space 
between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip-Lone),  are  subject  to  purging  if  more  thau 


210  THE   HORSE. 

ur.iuil  exertion  is  required  from  them.  They  are  recognised  by  the  terin 
of  washy  horses.  They  are  often  free  and  fleet,  but  destitute  of  continuance. 
They  should  have  ralher  more  than  the  usual  allowance  of  corn  with  beans, 
when  at  work  ;  and  a  cordial  ball,  with  one  draciim  of  catechu,  and  ten 
grains  of  opium  will  often  be  serviceable  either  before  or  after  a  journey. 

WORMS. 

Worms  of  different  kinds  inhabit  the  intestines  ;  but  except  when  they  exist 
in  very  great  numbers,  they  are  not  so  hurtful  as  is  generally  supposed, 
allhough  the  groom  or  carter  may  trace  to  them  hidebound,  and  cough,  and 
loss  of  appetite,  and  gripes,  and  megrims,  and  a  variety  of  other  ailments. 
Of  the  origin  or  mode  of  propagation  of  these  parasitical  animals  we  will 
say  notliing  ;  neither  writers  on  medicine,  nor  even  on  natural  history,  have 
given  us  any  satisfactory  account  of  the  matter. 

The  long  white  worm  {lumbriciis  teres)  much  resembling  the  common 
earth-worm,  and  being  from  six  to  ten  inches  long,  inhabits  the  small 
intestines.  It  is  a  formidable-looking  animal,  and  if  there  are  many  of  them 
they  may  consume  more  than  can  be  spared  of  the  nutritive  part  of  the  food 
or  the  mucus  of  the  bowels ;  and  we  think  that  we  have  seen  a  tight  skin, 
and  rough  coat,  and  tucked  up  belly,  connected  with  their  presence.  They 
have  then,  however,  been  voided  in  large  quantities,  and  when  they  are  not 
thus  voided  we  should  be  disposed  to  trace  these  appearances  to  other 
causes.  A  dose  of  physic  will  sometimes  bring  away  almost  incredible 
quantities  of  them.  Calomel  is  frequently  given  as  a  vermifuge.  The 
seldomer  this  drug  is  administered  to  the  horse  the  better.  It  is  the  principal 
ingredient  in  some  quack  medicines  for  the  expulsion  of  worms  in  the  human 
subject,  and  thence,  perhaps,  it  came  to  be  used  for  the  horse,  but  in  him 
we  believe  it  to  be  inert  as  a  verm.ifuge,  or  only  useful  as  quickening  the 
operation  of  the  aloes.  When  the  horse  can  be  spared,  a  strong  dose  of 
physic  is  an  excellent  vermit'uge,  so  far  as  the  long  round  worm  is  con. 
cerned  ;  but  perhaps  a  better  medicine,  and  not  interfering  with  either  the 
feeding  or  work  of  the  horse,  is  two  drachms  of  emetic  tartar,  with  a  scruple 
of  ginger  made  into  a  ball,  with  linseed  meal  and  treacle,  and  given  every 
morning  half  an  hour  before  the  horse  is  fed. 

A  smaller,  darker  coloured  worm,  called  the  needle  worm,  or  ascoris, 
inhabits  the  large  intestines.  Hundreds  of  them  sometimes  descend  into 
the  rectum,  and  immense  quantities  have  been  found  in  the  coecum.  These 
are  a  more  serious  nuisance  than  the  former,  for  they  cause  a  very  trouble- 
some irritation  about  the  fundament,  which  sometimes  sadly  annoys  the 
horse.  Their  existence  can  generally  be  discovered,  by  a  small  portion  of 
mucus,  which,  hardening,  is  converted  into  a  powder,  and  is  found  about 
the  anus.  Physic  will  sometimes  bring  away  great-  numbers  of  these 
worms,  but  when  there  is  much  irritation  about  the  tail,  and  much  of  this 
mucus  indicating  that  they  have  descended  into  the  rectum,  an  injection 
of  a  quart  of  linseed  oil,  or  of  an  ounce  of  aloes,  dissolved  in  warm  water 
will  be  a  more  effectual  remedy. 

The  tape  worm  is  seldom  found  in  the  horse. 

PHYSICKING. 

This  would  seem  to  be  the  most  convenient  place  to  speak  of  physicking 
horses,  a  mode  of  treatment  necessary  under  various  diseases,  but  which 
lias  injured  the  constitution  of  more  horses,  and  in  fact  absolutely  destroyed 
more  of  them,  than  any  other  thing  that  can  be  mentioned.      When  a  horse 


PHYSICKING.  21  \ 

comes  from  grass  to  hard  meat,  or  from  the  cool  open  air  to  a  heated  stable, 
a  dose  of  physic  or  even  two  doses  may  be  useful  to  prevent  the  tesidency 
10  inflammation  which  must  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  so  sudden 
and  great  a  change.  To  a  horse  that  is  becoming  too  fai,  or  has  surfeit  or 
grease,  or  mange,  or  that  is  out  of  condition  from  inactivity  of  the  digestive 
organs,  a  dose  of  physic  is  often  most  serviceable ;  but  we  do  enter  our 
protest  against  the  periodical  physicking  of  all  horses  in  the  spring  ana  the 
autumn,  and  more  particularly  against  that  severe  system  which  is  thought 
to  be  necessary  to  train  them  for  work,  and  the  absurd  method  of  treating 
the  horse  when  under  the  operation  of  physic. 

A  horse  should  be  carefully  prepared  for  the  action  of  physic.  Two  or 
three  bran-mashes  given  on  that  or  the  preceding  day  are  far  from  sufii- 
cient,  when  a  horse  is  about  to  be  physicked,  whether  to  promote  his  con- 
dition, or  in  obedience  to  custom.  Mashes  should  be  given  until  the  dung 
becomes  softened  ;  a  less  quantity  of  physic  will  then  suffice,  and  it  will 
more  quickly  pass  through  the  intestines,  and  be  more  equally  diffused  over 
them.  Five  drachms  of  aloes,  given  when  the  dung  has  thus  been  softened, 
will  act  much  more  effectually,  and  much  more  safely  than  seven  drachms, 
when  the  lower  intestines  are  obstructed  by  hardened  foeces. 

On  the  day  on  which  the  physic  is  given,  the  horse  should  have  walking 
exercise,  or  may  be  gently  trotted  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  twice  in  the 
day  ;  but  after  the  physic  begins  to  work,  he  should  not  be  moved  from 
his  stall.  Exercise  then  would  produce  gripes,  irritation,  and  possibly 
dangerous  inflammation.  Tjie  common  and  absurd  practice  is  to  give  the 
horse  tnost  exercise  after  the  physic  has  begun  to  operate. 

A  little  hay  may  be  put  into  the  rack ;  as  much  mash  may  be  given  as 
the  horse  will  eat,  and  as  much  water,  with  the  coldness  of  it  taken  off,  as 
he  will  drink.  If,  however,  he  obstinately  refuses  to  drink  warm  water,  it 
is  better  that  he  should  have  it  cold,  than  to  continue  without  taking  any 
fluid,  but  he  should  not  be  suffered  to  take  more  than  a  quart  at  a  time, 
with  an  interval  of  at  least  an  hour  between  each  portion. 

When  the  purging  has  ceased,  or  ike  physic  is  set,  a  mash  should  be  given 
once  or  twice  every  day  until  the  next  dose  is  taken,  between  which  and 
the  setting  of  the  first  there  should  be  an  interval  of  a  week.  The  horse 
should  recover  from  the  languor  and  debility  occasioned  by  the  first  dose, 
before  he  is  harassed  by  a  second. 

Eight  or  ten  tolerably  copious  motions,  will  be  perfectly  sufficient  to 
answer  every  good  purpose,  although  the  groom  or  the  carter  may  not  be 
satisfied  unless  double  the  quantity  are  procured.  The  consequence  of  too 
strong  purgation  will  be,  that  a  lowness  and  weakness  will  hang  about  the 
horse  for  many  days  or  weeks,  and  inflammation  will  often  ensue  from  the 
over-irritation  of  the  intestinal  canal. 

Long  continued  custom  has  made  Aloes  the  almost  invariable  purgative 
of  the  horse,  and  very  properly  so;  for  there  is  no  other  at  once  so  sure 
and  safe.  The  Barbadoes  aloes,  although  sometimes  very  dear,  should 
alone  be  used.  The  dose,  with  a  horse  properly  prepared,  will  vary  from 
five  to  seven  drachms.  The  preposterous  doses  of  nine,  ten,  or  even 
twelve  drachms,  are,  happily  for  the  horse,  generally  abandoned.  Custom 
has  assigned  the  form  of  a  ball  to  physic,  but  good  sense  will  in  due  time 
introduce  the  solution  of  aloes,  as  acting  more  speedily,  effectually,  and 
safely. 

The  only  other  purgative  on  which  dependence  can  be  placed  is  the 
CR0Tf)X.  The  farina  or  meal  of  the  nut  is  used  ;  but  from  its  acrimony  it 
should  be  given  in  the  form  of  ball,  with  linseed  meal.  The  dose  variea 
from  a  scruple  'o  half  a  drachm.     It  acts  more  speedily   than   the   aloes, 


212  THE  HORSE. 

witliout  tlio  nausea  which  they  produce  ;  but  it  causes  more  watery  stools, 
and  consequently  more  debility. 

Linseed  Oil  is  an  uncertain  but  safe  purgative,  in  doses  from  a  pound 
to  a  pound  and  a  lialf.  Olive  Oil  is  more  uncertain,  but  safe  ;  and  Castor 
Oil,  that  mild  aperient  in  the  human  being,  is  both  uncertain  and  unsafe. 
Ei'SOM  Salts  are  inefficacious,  except  in  immense  doses  of  a  pound  and  a 
half,  and  then  not  always  safe. 

The  horse,  and  particularly  the  perfect  horse,  is  occasionally  subject  to 

HERNIA  OR  RUPTURE 

A  portion  of  the  intestine  protrudes  out  of  the  cavity  of  the  belly,  either 
tlirough  some  natural  or  artificial  opening.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
returned,  but  from  the  impossibility  of  applying  a  truss  or  bandage,  it  soon 
returns  again.  At  other  times  the  opening  is  so  narrow,  that  the  gut, 
gradually  distended  by  fjEces,  or  thickened  by  inflammation,  cannot  be 
returned,  and  strangulated  hernia  is  then  said  to  e.xist.  The  seat  of  hernia 
is  either  in  the  scrotum  of  *he  perfect  horse,  or  the  groin  of  the  gelding. 
The  causes  are  violent  struggling  when  under  operations,  over-exertion, 
kicks,  or  accidents.  The  assistance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here 
indispensable. 

THE  LIVER. 

Between  the  stomach  and  the  diaphragm,  its  right  lobe  or  division  in 
contact  with  the  diaphragm,  the  duodenum,  and  the  right  kidney,  and  the 
middle  and  left  divisions  with  the  stomach,  is  the  liver.  It  is  an  irregularly 
shaped,  reddish-brown  substance  of  considerable  bulk,  and  performs  a  very 
singular  and  important  office. 

We  have  already  stated  (p.  176)  that  the  blood  which  has  been  conveyed 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  body  by  the  arteries,  is  carried  back  to  the 
heart  by  the  veins;  but  that  which  is  returned  from  the  stomach  and 
intestines,  and  spleen,  and  pancreas,  and  mesentery,  instead  of  flowing 
directly  to  the  heart,  passes  first  through  the  liver.  It  enters  by  two  large 
vessels,  which  spread  by  means  of  innumerable  minute  branches  through 
every  part  of  the  liver.  As  the  blood  traverses  this  organ,  a  fluid  is 
separated  from  it,  called  the  bile.  This  is  probably  a  kind  of  excrement, 
the  continuance  of  which  in  the  blood  would  be  injurious;  but  while  this  is 
thrown  off',  another  important  purpose  is  answered  ;  the  process  of  digestion 
is  promoted,  and  particularly  by  the  bile  changing  the  nutritive  part  of  me 
food  from  chyme  into  ch^le,  and  separating  it  from  that  which,  containing 
little  or  no  nutriment,  is  voided  as  excrement. 

The  bile,  thus  formed,  is  in  most  animals  received  into  a  reservoir, 
the  gall-bladder,  whence  it  is  conveyed  into  the  duodenum  [g,  p.  202) 
at  the  times,  and  in  the  quantities,  which  the  purposes  of  digestion 
require;  but  the  horse  has  no  gall-bladder,  and,  consequently,  the  bile 
flows  into  the  intestine  as  fast  as  it  is  separated  from  the  blood.  The 
reason  of  this  is  plain ;  a  small  stomach  was  given  to  the  horse,  that  the 
food  might  quickly  pass  out  of  it,  and  the  diaphragm  and  the  lungs  might 
not  be  injuriously  pressed  upon,  when  we  require  his  utmost  speed  ;  and 
that  we  might  use  him  with  little  danger  compared  with  that  wiiich  would 
attach  to  other  animals,  even  when  his  stomach  is  distended  with  food. 
Then  the  stomach,  so  small,  and  so  speedily  emptied,  must  be  oftener 
re[)lenished  ;  'he  horse  must  be  oftener  eating,  and  food  must  be  oftener 
piissiiig  out  of  his  stomach  ;   and,  consequently,  there  is  no  necessity  for  thi« 


JAUNDICE.  213 

reservoir.  The  ox  occupies  a  long  time  in  filling  his  paunch,  and  it  is  onl^. 
Juring  rumination  that  the  food  passes  into  the  true  stomach  to  be  digested. 
The  meal  of  the  dog  is  speedily  swallowed.  They  need  a  gall-bladder  \o 
contain  the  bile,  which  continues  to  be  secreted  when  it  cannot  be  used  ; 
but  to  the  horse,  so  frequently  eating,  it  would  be  useless. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE   LIVER 

Is  a  disease  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  horse.  He  is  not  exposed  to  the 
causes  which  produce  that  complaint  in  other  animals.  Although  his  food 
is  sometimes  highly  nutritive,  the  work  which  is  exacted  from  him  prevents 
it  from  unduly  stimulating  this  important  organ  ;  and  when  inflammation 
of  the  liver  does  occur,  it  is  with  so  much  difficulty  distinguished  from  thai 
of  the  bowels,  that  if  yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  skin  are  not  present,  even 
the  professional  man  is  liable  to  be  deceived. 

Bleeding  from,  or  rupture  of  the  liver,  is  another  disease  of  old 
horses,  and  especially  of  those  that  have  been  highly  fed.  It  is  generally 
fatal,  but  of  unfrequent  occurrence  ;  it  is  recognised  by  the  frequent  and 
feeble  pulse,  the  pawing  and  sighing  of  the  animal,  the  coldness  of  the 
extremities,  whiteness  of  the  eye  and  mouth,  fullness  of  the  belly,  and 
speedy  debility.  A  veterinary  surgeon  is  alone  competent  to  give  assist. 
ance  here. 

JAUNDICE, 

Commonly  called  the  yellows,  is  a  more  tractable  disease,  and  a  little 
more  frequent.  It  is  the  introduction  of  bile  into  the  general  circulation, 
and  which  is  usually  caused  by  some  obstruction  in  the  ducts  or  tubes 
which  convey  the  bi!e  from  the  liver  to  the  intestines.  The  horse,  however, 
has  but  one  duct,  through  which  the  bile  usually  flows  as  quickly  as  it  is 
formed,  and  there  is  no  gall-bladder  in  which  it  can  become  thickened,  and 
even  hardened  into  masses  so  hard  as  to  be  very  appropriately  called  gall- 
stones. Jaundice  does,  however,  occasionally  appear  either  from  an  increased 
flow  or  altered  quality  of  the  bile,  or  obstruction  even  in  this  simple  tube. 
The  yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  mouth,  and  of  the  skin  where  it  is 
not  covered  with  hair,  mark  it  sufficiently  plainly.  The  dung  is  small 
and  hard ;  the  urine  highly  coloured ;  the  horse  languid,  and  the  appetite 
impaired. 

It  is  first  necessary  to  inquire  whether  this  affection  of  the  liver  be  not 
the  consequence  of  the  sympathy  of  this  organ  with  some  other  part;  for, 
to  a  very  considerable  degree,  it  frequently  accompanies  inflammation  of 
the  bowels  and  the  lungs.  These  diseases  being  subdued,  jaundice  will 
disappear.  If  there  be  no  other  disease  to  any  great  extent,  we  must 
endeavour  to  restore  the  natural  passage  of  the  bile  by  purgatives,  not  con- 
sisting of  large  doses,  lest  there  should  be  some  undetected  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  or  bowels,  in  either  of  which  a  strong  purgative  would  be 
dangerous ;  but  given  in  small  quantities,  repeated  at  short  intervals,  and 
until  the  bowels  are  freely  opened.  Two  drachms  of  aloes,  and  one  of 
calomel,  given  twice  every  day,  will  be  as  much  as  can  at  all  times  be 
administered  with  safety.  Bleeding  should  always  be  resorted  to,  regulated 
according  to  the  apparent  degree  of  inflammation,  and  the  occasional  stupor 
of  the  animal.  Plenty  of  water,  slightly  warmed,  or  thin  gruel,  should  bo 
given;  the  horse  should  be  warmlv  clothed,  and  the  stai)le  well  ventilated, 
but  not  cold.  Carrots  or  green  meat  will  be  very  beneficial.  Should  the 
purging,  when  once  excited,  prove  violent,  we  should  be  in  no  haste  to  stop 
it,  unless  inflammation  is  beginning  to  be  connected  with  it,  or  the  horse  is 
very  weak       The   medicine    recommended    under   diarrha;a   may  then  be 


2)4  THE   HORSE 

exhilfilcd  A  few  slight  tonics  should  be  given  when  the  horse  is  recover- 
ing from  an  attack  of  strangles.  Two  drachms  each  of  gentian  and 
camomile,  with  one  of  ginger,  will  form  a  useful  ball. 

THE  SPLEEN. 

This  organ,  known  commonly  by  the  name  of  the  melt,  is  a  long,  bluish- 
brown  substance,  broad  and  thick  at  one  end,  and  tapering  at  the  other, 
lying  along  the  left  side  of  the  stomach,  and  between  it  and  the  short  ribs. 
It  is  of  a  spongy  nature,  divided  into  numerous  little  cells,  not  unlike  a  honey- 
comb, and  over  which  thousands  of  minute  vessels  thickly  spread.  The 
particular  use  ol"  this  body  has  never  been  clearly  ascertained  ;  for  in  some 
cruel  experiments  it  has  been  removed  without  apparent  injury  to  diges- 
tion or  any  other  function.  It  is,  however,  useful,  at  least  occasionally,  or 
it  would  not  have  been  given.  It  is  perhaps  a  reservoir  or  receptacle  for 
any  fluid  that  may  be  conveyed  into  the  stomach  more  than  is  sufficient  for 
the  purposes  of  digestion. 

The  spleen  is  sometimes  very  extraordinarily  enlarged,  and  has  been 
ruptured  ;  but  we  are  not  aware  of  any  symptoms  by  which  this  can  be 
discovered. 

THE  PANCREAS. 

In  the  domestic  animals  which  are  used  for  food  this  organ  is  called  tht- 
sweetbread.  It  lies  between  the  stomach  and  left  kidney.  It  much 
resembles  in  structure  the  salivary  glands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
mouth,  and  the  fluid  which  it  secretes  is  very  like  the  common  saliva.  The 
pancreatic  fluid  is  carried  into  the  intestines  by  a  duct,  which  enters  at  the 
same  aperture  with  that  from  the  liver.  Its  use,  whether  to  dilute  the  bile, 
or  the  chyme,  or  to  assist  in  the  separation  of  chyme  from  the  feculent 
matter,  has  never  been  ascertained,  but  it  is  clearly  employed  in  aiding  the 
process  of  digestion. 

We  know  not  of  any  disease  to  which  the  pancreas  of  the  horse  is  liable. 

As  soon  as  the, belly  of  most  of  our  domestic  animals  is  opened,  a  mem- 
brane is  perceived  spreading  over  all  the  contents  of  this  cavity ;  it  is 
denominated 

THE  OMENTUM, 

Or  cmvl.  It  is  a  doubling  of  the  peritoneum,  or  rather  consists  of  four 
layers  of  it.  It  has  been  supposed  to  be  placed  between  the  intestines  and 
the  walls  of  the  belly  to  prevent  concussion  and  injury  during  the  rapid 
movement  of  the  animal.  That,  however,  cannot  be  its  principal  use  in 
t'le  horse,  from  whom  the  most  rapid  movements  are  required;  for  in  him 
It  is  unusually  short,  extending  only  to  the  pancreas,  a  small  portion  of  the 
colon.  Being,  however,  thus  short,  the  horse  is  exempt  from  a  very 
troublesome  and,  occasionally,  fatal  species  of  rupture,  when  a  portion  of 
the  omentum  penetrates  through  some  accidental  opening  in  the  covering 
of  the  belly. 

The  blood  contains  a  great  quantity  of  watery  fluid  unnecessary  for  the 
nutriment  or  repair  of  the  frame.  There  likewise  mingle  witii  it  matter.^ 
which  would  become  noxious  if  suffered  to  accumulate  too  much. 

THE  KIDNEYS 

Are  actively  employed  in  separating  this  water,  and  likewise  carrying  off 
n  substance  which  constitutes  the  peculiar  ingredient  in  the  urine,  called  tht 
urea,  and    consists  principally  of  that  which   would    be  poisonous  to  the 


DIURETICS.  215 

animal.  The  kidneys  are  two  large  glandular  bodies,  placed  under  the 
loins,  very  much  the  shape  of  a  kidney  bean.  The  right  kidney  is  mos. 
forward,  lying  under  tiie  liver;  the  left  is  pushed  more  backward  by  the 
stomacli  and  spleen.  A  large  artery  runs  to  each,  carrying  not  less  than  a 
sixth  part  of  the  whole  of  the  blood  that  circulates  through  the  frame.  The 
artery  divides  into  innumerable  little  branches,  most  curiously  complicated 
and  coiled  upon  each  other;  and  the  blood,  traversing  these  convolutions, 
has  its  watery  parts  and  others,  the  retaining  of  which  would  be  injurious, 
separated  frjm  it. 

The  fluid  thus  separated  varies  materially  both  in  quantity  and  composi- 
tion, even  during  health.  There  is  no  animal  in  which  it  varies  so  much 
as  in  the  iiorse.  There  is  no  organ  in  the  animal  so  much  under  our  com- 
mand as  the  kidney ;  and  no  medicines  are  so  useful,  or  may  be  so  injuri- 
ous, as  diuretics.  In  speaking  of  fever  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
and,  indeed,  inflammation  generally,  we  have  recommended  the  use  of  nitre 
and  digitalis,  not  only  on  account  of  their  febrifuge  or  sedative  eflects,  but 
because  they  act  as  diuretics.  They  stimulate  the  kidneys  to  separate  more 
aqueous  fluid  than  they  otherwise  would  do,  and  thus  lessen  the  quantity 
of  blood  ;  the  quantity  which  tlie  heart  is  labouring  to  circulate  through 
the  frame,  and  the  quantity  which  is  determined  or  driven  to  a  part  already 
overloaded.  The  main  objects  we  have  to  accomplish  in  these  diseases  is  to 
reduce  the  force  of  the  circulation,  and  to  calm  the  violence  of  excitement ; 
and  diuretics,  by  lessening  the  quantity  of  blood,  are  useful  assistants  in 
accomplishing  these  purposes.  It  is,  however,  in  the  varieties  of  dropsy 
that  their  benefit  is  most  evident.  The  horse  is  more  subject  to  eflusions  ot 
fluid  in  particular  parts  than  any  other  domestic  animal.  Swelled  legs  is  a 
disease  peculiar  to  him.  The  ox,  the  sheep,  the  dog,  the  ass,  and  even  the 
mule,  have  it  very  seldom ;  and  for  the  removal  of  this  deposit  of  fluid  in 
the  cellular  substance  of  the  legs  we  have  recourse  to  diuretics.  Tlie  kidneys 
are  stimulated  to  separate  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  water  from  the 
blood.  In  order  to  make  up  this  deficiency  in  quantity,  the  absorbents  set 
to  work,  and  they  take  up  and  pour  into  the  circulation  the  fluid  whicii  had 
been  efl'used  in  the  legs.  The  legs  of  many  horses  cannot  be  rendered 
fine  or  kept  so,  without  the  use  of  diuretics ;  nor  can  grease,  often  con- 
nected with  these  swellings,  producing  them,  or  caused  by  them,  be  other- 
wise subdued.  We  therefore  rank  diuretics  among  the  most  useful  of 
the  veterinary  medicines. 

In  injudicious  hands,  however,'  these  medicines  are  sadly  abused. 
Among  tiie  absurdities  of  stable  management  there  is  nothing  so  injurious 
as  the  frequent  use  of  diuretics.  Not  only  are  the  kidneys,  so  often  over- 
excited, weakened,  disposed  to  disease,  but  the  whole  frame  becomes 
debilitated;  for  the  absorbents  have  carried  away  a  great  part  of  that  which 
was  necessary  to  the  health  and  condition  of  the  horse,  in  order  to  supply 
the  deficiency  of  blood  occasioned  by  the  inordinate  discharge  of  urine. 
There  is  likewise  one  important  fact  of  which  the  groom  or  the  horseman 
seldom  thinks ;  that  when  he  is  removing  these  humours  by  the  imprudent 
use  of  diuretics,  he  is  only  attacking  a  syinptom  or  a  consequence  of  dis- 
ease, and  not  the  disease  itself.  The  legs  will  fill  again,  and  the  grease 
will  return.  While  the  cause  remains,  the  effect  will  be  produced.  We 
shall  say  more  of  this  when  we  treat  particularly  of  the  diseases  of  the 
extremities. 

In  the  administration  of  diuretics  there  are  two  things  to  be  chiefly 
attended  to.  The  first  is  that  which  seems  to  be  contradictory,  but  the  good 
effect  of  which  the  testimony  of  every  intelligent  man  will  confirm  ;  lei  Ike 
horse  have  picnly  to  drink.     Not  only  will   inflammation  be  prevented,  but 


216  THE  HOUSE. 

tlie  opcation  of  the  medicine  will  be  much  promoted.  If  more  water  thaa 
usual  he  drunk,  a  great  deal  more  will  be  evacuated.  The  next  caution  it,, 
i.hat  during  the  administration  of  a  diuretic,  neither  the  clothing  nor  tht 
stable  should  be  too  warm,  otherwise  that  which  is  intended  to  stimulate  tlw 
kidney  will  pass  off  by  perspiration ;  lor  it  seems  to  be  a  law  of  the  frame, 
that  wliat  increases  the  discharge  from  the  skin  proportionably  lessens  tin; 
action  of  the  kidneys. 

The  best  diuretic,  and  which  given  simply  to  promote  an  increased 
secretion  from  the  kidneys,  supersedes  every  other,  is  turpentine ;  either 
the  common  liquid  turpentine  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  and  made  into  a  ball 
with  linseed  meal,  and  half  a  drachm  of  ginger  ;  or,  what  is  better,  the  same 
quantity  of  powdered  resin,  with  two  drachms  of  linseed  meal,  and  half  a 
draciim  of  ginger,  formed  into  a  mass  with  palm-oil.  In  cases  of  inflam- 
mation or  fever,  nitre  or  digitalis  should  be  used.  The  spirit  of  nitrous 
ether,  cream  of  tartar,  and  balsam  of  capivi  have  some  diuretic  effect. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  KIDNEY 

Is  no  uncommon  disease  in  the  horse,  and  is  more  unskilfully  and  fatally 
treated  than  almost  any  other.  The  early  symptoms  are  those  of  fever 
generally,  but  the  seat  of  the  disease  soon  becomes  evident.  The  horse  looks 
anxiously  round  at  his  flanks;  stands  with  his  hinder  legs  wide  apart; 
straddles  as  he  walks ;  expresses  pain  in  turning ;  shrinks  when  the  loins 
are  pressed,  and  some  degree  of  heat  is  felt  there.  The  urine  is  voided 
in  small  quantities,  and  frequently  it  is  high-coloured,  and  sometimes 
bloody.  The  attempt  to  urinate  becomes  more  frequent,  and  the  quantity 
voided  smaller;  until  the  animal  strains  painfully  and  violently,  but  the 
discharge  is  nearly  or  quite  suppressed.  Tlie  pulse  is  quick  and  hard; 
full  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  but  rapidly  becoming  small,  yet  noi 
losing  its  character  of  hardness.  These  symptoms  clearly  indicate  an 
affection  of  the  urinary  organs ;  but  they  do  not  distinguish  inflammation 
of  the  kidney  from  that  of  tiie  bladder.  The  hand  must  be  introduced  into 
the  rectum.  If  the  bladder  be  felt  full  and  hard  under  the  rectum,  there  is 
inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder:  if  tiie  bladder  be  empty,  yet  on 
the  portion  of  the  intestines  immediately  over  it  there  is  more  than  natural 
heat  and  tenderness,  there  is  inflammation  of  the  body  of  the  bladder;  but 
if  the  bladder  be  empty,  and  there  is  no  increased  heat  or  tenderness,  there 
is  inflammation  of  the  kidney. 

Among  the  causes  are  improper  food.  There  is  no  more  frequent  cause 
than  hay  that  has  been  mow-burnt,  or  oats  that  are  musty.  The  farmer 
should  look  well  to  this.  Oats  that  have  been  dried  on  the  kiln  acquire  a 
diuretic  property,  and  if  horses  are  long  fed  on  them,  the  continual  excite- 
ment of  this  organ  which  they  produce  will  degenerate  into  inflammation. 
Too  powerful,  or  too-often-repeated  diuretics  produce  inflammation  of  the 
kidney  ;  or  a  degree  of  irritation  and  weakness  of  that  organ,  that  disposes 
to  inflammation  from  causes  that  would  otherwise  have  no  injurious  effect. 
If  a  horse  is  sprained  in  the  loins,  by  being  urged  on,  far  or  fast,  by  a 
heavy  rider,  or  by  being  suddenly  pulled  up  on  his  haunches,  the  inflam- 
mation of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  is  often  speedily  transferred  to  the  kidneys, 
with  which  they  lie  in  contact.  Exposure  to  cold  is  another  frequeni 
origin  of  this  malady,  especially  if  the  horse  be  drenched  with  rain,  or  wet 
drips  upon  his  loins;  and  more  particularly  if  he  were  previously  disposed 
to  inflammation,  or  these  organs  had  been  previously  weakened.  For  this 
reason,  hackney-coach  horses  and  others,  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
weather,  and  often  fed  on  unwholesome  provender,  have,  or  should  have, 
their  loins  protected  by  a  leather  or  a  cloth. 


THE  BLADDER.  217 

The  treatment  will  only  vary  from  that  of  inflammation  of  othei  parts, 
Dy  the  consideration  of  the  peculiarity  of  the  organ  atfected.  Bleeding 
must  be  promptly  resorted  to,  and  carried  to  its  full  extent.  An  active  purge 
should  next  be  administered  ;  and  a  counter-inflammation  excited  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  seat  of  disease.  For  this  purpose,  the  loins  should  be 
ibmented  with  hot  water,  or  covered  with  a  mustard  poultice;  but  no  can- 
tharides  or  turpentine  must  be  used,  and,  most  of  all,  must  no  diuretic  be 
given  internally.  When  the  groom  finds  this  dilTiculty  or  suppression  of 
staling,  he  immediately  has  recourse  to  a  diuretic  ball,  to  force  on  tiie 
urine;  and  by  thus  farther  irritating  a  part  already  too  much  excited,  he 
adds  fuel  to  fire,  and  frequently  destroys  the  horse.  When  the  action  of 
the  purgative  begins  a  little  to  cease,  white  hellebore  may  be  administered, 
in  doses  of  a  scruple  three  times  a  day,  with  or  witliout  emetic  tartar. 
The  horse  should  be  warmly  clothed  ;  his  legs  well  bandaged,  and  plenty 
of  water  offered  to  him.  The  food  should  be  carefully  examined,  and 
any  thing  that  could  have  excited,  or  that  may  prolong  the  irritation,  care- 
fully removed, 

DIABETES,  OR   PROFUSE   STALING, 

Is  a  comparatively  rare  disease.  It  is  the  consequence,  generally,  of 
undue  irritation  of  the  kidney,  by  bad  food  or  strong  diuretics;  and  some- 
times follows  inflammation  of  the  kidney.  It  can  seldom  be  traced  in  the 
horse  to  any  disease  of  the  digestive  organs.  The  treatment  is  obscure, 
and  the  result  often  uncertain.  It  is,  evidently,  increased  action  of  the 
kidney,  and  therefore  the  most  rational  plan  of  treatment  is  to  endeavour 
to  abate  that  action  ;  and  nearly  the  same  course  should  be  pursued  in  the 
early  stage  of  diabetes,  as  in  actual  inflammation  ;  but  the  lowering  system 
should  not  be  carried  to  so  great  an  extent.  To  bleeding,  purging,  and 
counter-irritation,  medicines  of  an  astringent  quality  should  succeed,  as 
catechu,  the  powdered  leaf  of  the  whortle-berry  (uva  ursi),  and  opium, 
in  doses  of  two  draciuns  each  of  the  two  first,  and  half  a  drachm  of  the 
last.  Very  careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  food.  The  hay  and 
oats  should  be  of  the  best  quality  ;  and  green  meat,  and  especially  carrots, 
will  be  very  serviceable. 

THE   BLADDER. 

The  urine  separated  from  the  blood  is  discharged  by  the  minute  vessels, 
of  which  we  have  spoken,  into  some  larger  canals,  which  terminate  in  a 
cavity  or  reservoir  in  the  body  of  the  kidney,  called  its  pe his ;  and  thence 
is  conveyed  by  a  duct,  called  the  ureter,  to  a  larger  reservoir,  the  bladder. 
It  is  constantly  flowing  from  the  kidney  through  the  ureter  ;  and  were  there 
not  this  provision  for  its  detention,  it  would  be  incessantly  and  annoyingly 
dribbling  from  the  animal.  The  bladder  lies  in,  and,  when  distended  by 
urine,  nearly  fills  the  cavity  of  the  great  bones  of  the  haunch,  termed  the 
pelvis.  It  has  three  coats ;  the  outer  one  covering  the  greater  part  of  it, 
and  being  a  portion  of  the  peritoneum  ;  the  muscular,  consisting  of  two 
layers  of  fibres,  as  in  the  stomach  ;  the  external,  running  longitudinally 
and  the  inner  circularly,  so  that  it  may  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  urine 
as  it  enters,  and  contract  again  to  an  exceedingly  small  space  as  it  runo  out, 
and  by  that  contraction  assist  in  the  expulsion  of  the  urine.  The  inner  or 
mucous  coat  contains  numerous  little  glands,  which  pour  out  a  mucous 
fluid  to  defend  the  bladder  from  the  acrimony  of  the  urine.  The  bladder 
terminates  in  a  small  neck,  round  which  there  is  a  strong  muscle,  keeping' 
P 


2 Id  THE  HORSE. 

tlie  passafje  closed,  and  retaining  the  urine,  until,  at  the  will  of  the  an!  nal, 
or  when  tlie  bladder  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  fluid,  the  muscular  coal 
begins  to  contract,  and,  the  lungs  being  filled  with  air,  the  diaphragm  is 
rendered  convex  towards  the  intestines,  and  presses  then  on  the  bladder, 
and  by  these  united  powers,  the  fluid  is  forced  through  the  sphincter  muscle 
at  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  escapes. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BLADDER. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  disease,  the  inflammation  of  the  body  of 
the  bladder  and  of  its  neck.  The  symptoms  are  nearly  the  same  with 
those  of  inflammation  of  the  kidney,  e.xcept  that  there  is  rarely  a  total  sup- 
pression of  urine,  and  there  is  heat  felt  in  the  rectum  over  the  situation  of 
the  bladder.  The  causes  are  the  presence  of  some  acrid  or  irritant  matter 
in  the  urine,  or  of  calculus  or  stone  in  the  i^ladder.  With  reference  to 
inflammation  of  the  body  of  the  bladder,  misciiief  has  occasionally  been 
done  by  the  introduction  of  cantharides  or  some  other  irritating  matter  tc 
hasten  the  period  of  horsing  in  the  mare.  The  treatment  will  be  the  same 
as  in  inflammation  of  the  kidney,  except  that  it  is  of  more  consequence  that 
the  horse  should  drink  freely  of  water  or  thin  gruel,  and  that  gruel  or 
mucilage  of  any  kind  may,  by  one  who  understands  the  anatomy  of  the 
animal,  be  easily  introduced  into  the  bladder  of  the  mare. 

In  inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  there  is  the  same  frequent 
voiding  of  urine  in  small  quantities,  generally  appearing  in  an  advanced 
stage  of  the  disease,  and  often  ending  in  almost  total  suppression.  There 
is  also  this  circumstance  which  can  never  be  mistaken  by  him  who  will  pay 
diligent  attention  to  the  case,  that  the  bladder  is  distended  with  urine,  and 
may  be  distinctly  felt  under  the  rectum.  It  is  spasm  of  the  part,  closing 
the  neck  of  the  bladder  so  powerfully,  that  the  contraction  of  the  bladder, 
and  the  pressure  of  the  muscles,  are  unable  to  force  out  the  urine. 

Here  the  object  to  be  attempted  is  sufiiciently  plain.  This  spasm  must 
Oe  relaxed.  The  most  likely  means  to  effect  this  is  to  bleed  largely,  and 
even  to  fainting.  This  will  sometimes  succeed,  and  there  will  be  at  once 
an  end  to  the  disease.  To  tlie  exhaustion  and  loss  of  muscular  power 
occasioned  by  copious  bleeding,  should  be  added  the  nausea  consequent  on 
physic.  Should  not  this  speedily  have  efli*ecl,  another  mode  of  abating 
spasm  must  be  tried.  A  drachm  of  the  powdered  opium,  made  into  a  ball 
or  drink,  may  be  given  every  two  or  three  hours;  while  an  active  blister 
is  applied  externally.  In  the  mare  the  bladder  may  be  easily  evacuated  by 
means  of  a  catheter  in  skilful  hands ;  but  owing  to  the  curved  direction  of 
the  penis,  a  catheter  cannot  be  introduced  into  the  bladder  of  a  horse, 
withou*  an  operation  to  which  a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  is  competent. 

STONE  IN   THE  BLADDER. 

The  urine  is  a  very  compound  fluid  ;  in  a  state  of  health  it  contains  a 
preat  many  acids  and  akalies  variously  combined,  which  under  disease  are 
increased  both  in  number  and  quantity.  It  is  very  easy  to  conceive  that 
some  of  these  shall  be  occasionally  separated  from  the  rest,  and  assume  a 
solid  form  both  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  in  the  bladder.  This  is 
known  to  be  the  case  both  in  the  human  being  and  the  brut«.  These 
calculi  or  stones  are  in  the  horse  found  oftener  in  the  kidney  than  in  the 
bladder,  contrary  to  the  experience  of  the  hu.man  surgeon.  The  explana- 
tion of  this,  however,  is  not  diflicult.  In  the  human  being  the  kidney  is 
situated  above  the  bladder,  and  these  concretions  descend  from  the  kidney 


BREEDING.  2  I  ft 

to  the  bladder  by  their  weight.  Tiie  belly  of  the  horse  is  horizontal,  and 
tiie  force  of  gravity  can  in  no  way  atlect  the  passage  of  the  calculus; 
therefore  it  remains  in  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney,  until  it  increases  so  much 
in  size  as  often  to  fill  it.  We  know  not  of  any  symptoms  wliich  would  sat- 
isfactorily indicate  the  presence  of  a  stone  in  the  kidney  ;  and  if  the  disease 
could  be  ascertained,  we  are  unable  to  say  what  remedial  measures  could 
be  adopted. 

The  symptoms  of  stone  in  the  bladder  much  resemble  those  of  spasmodic 
colic,  except  that  on  careful  inquiry  it  will  be  found  that  there  has  been 
nmch  irregularity  in  the  discharge  of  urine,  and  occasional  suppression  of 
it.  VVIien  fils  of  apparent  colic  frequently  return,  and  are  accompanied  by 
any  peculiarity  in  the  discharge  of  urine,  the  horse  should  be  carefully 
examined.  He  should  be  thrown.  If  there  be  stone  in  the  bladder,  it 
will,  while  the  horse  lies  on  its  back,  press  on  the  rectum,  and  may  be 
distinctly  felt  if  the  liand  be  introduced  into  the  rectum.  Several  cases 
have  lately  occurred  of  successful  extraction  of  the  calculus;  but  here  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  aid  of  a  veterinary  practitioner. 

Many  horses  occasionally  void  a  considerable  quantity  of  gravel,  some- 
times witiiout  inconvenience,  at  otheis  witli  evident  spasm  or  pain.  A 
diuretic  might  here  be  useful,  as  increasing  the  flow  of  urine,  and  possibly 
washing  out  tiie  concretions  before  they  become  too  numerous  or  bulky. 

Tlie  urine  having  passed  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  flows  along  the  urethra, 
and  is  discharged.  Tlie  sheath  of  the  penis  is  sometimes  considerably 
enlarged.  When  at  the  close  of  acute  diseases,  there  are  swellings  and 
effusions  of  fluid,  under  the  chest  and  belly,  this  part  seldom  escapes 
Diuretics,  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  cordial  medicine,  will  be  benefi- 
cial, although  in  some  extreme  cases  slight  scarifications  may  be  necessary. 
The  inside  of  the  sheath  is  often  the  seat  of  disease ;  the  mucous  matter 
naturally  secreted  there  to  defend  the  part  from  the  acrimony  of  the  urine, 
accumulates  and  becomes  exceedingly  oliensive,  and  produces  swelling, 
tenderness,  and  even  excoriation,  and  sometimes  considerable  discharge.  A 
little  fomentation  with  warm  water,  and  the  cleansing  of  the  part  with  soap 
and  water,  aided  perhaps  by  a  diuretic  ball,  will  speedily  remove  every 
inconvenience.    Carters  are  too  apt  to  neglect  cleanliness  in  this  respect. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


BREEDING,  CASTRATION,  &c. 

This  may  be  a  proper  period  to  recur  to  the  important  subject  of 
breeding,  particularly  important  when  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  our 
breed  of  useful  horses  has,  within  the  last  twenty  years,  most  materially 
degenerated.  Our  running-horses  still  maintain  their  supremacy ;  our 
carriage- horses  are  not  much  lessened  in  excellence  and  value  ;  but  our 
hunters  and  hackneys  are  not  what  they  used  to  be.  We  shall  endeavour 
to  point  out  the  cause  of  this. 

Our  observations  must  be  of  a  general  nature,  and  will  be  very  simple ; 
and  the  first  axiom  we  would  lay  down  is,  that  "like  will  produce  like," 
that  the  progeny  will  inherit  the  qualities,  or  the  mingled  qualities,  of  the 
uaients.  VVe  would  refer  to  the  subject  of  diseases,  and  again  state  our 
peiffict  convictio"  *hat  there  is  scarcely  one  by  which  either  of  the  parents 


220  THE  HORSE. 

is  ufl'cb'ed,  that  the  foal  will  not  inherit,  or,  at  least,  tl'.e  prcciisj)osition  to 
a:  even  the  consequences  of  ill  usage  or  hard  work  will  descend  to  the 
progeny.  We  have  already  enlarged  on  this,  but  ity  importance  will  be  a 
Buthcient  apology  for  the  repetition.  We  have  had  prool'  upon  proof,  that 
blindness,  roaring,  thick-wind,  broken-wind,  spavin,  curbs,  ringbones,  and 
founder,  have  been  bequeathed,  both  by  the  sire  and  tiie  dam,  to  iht 
otlspring.  It  should  likewise  be  recollected,  that  althougii  these  blemishes 
may  not  appear  in  the  immediate  progeny,  they  frequently  will  in  the  next 
generation.  Hence  the  necessity  of  some  knowledge  of  the  parentage  both 
of  the  sire  and  dam. 

Peculiarity  of  Ibrm  and  constitution  will  also  be  iniierited.  This  is  a 
most  important,  but  neglected  consideration  ;  for  iiowever  desirable,  or  even 
perfect,  may  have  been  the  conformation  of  the  sire,  every  good  point  may 
be  neutralized  or  lost  by  the  defective  form,  or  want  of  blood,  of  the  mare. 
There  are  niceties  in  this,  of  wiiich  some  breeders  used  to  be  aware,  and 
they  employed  their  knowledge  to  great  advantage.  When  tliey  were 
careful  tliat  the  essential  points  should  be  good  in  both  parents,  and  that 
some  minor  defects  in  either  siiould  be  met  and  got  rid  of,  by  excellence  in 
that  particular  point  in  the  other,  the  result  was  creditable  to  their  judgment, 
and  highly  protitable.  The  unskilful  or  careless  breeder  will  otten  sc 
badly  pair  tlie  animals,  that  the  good  points  of  each  will  be,  in  a  manner 
lost:  the  defects  of  both  will  be  increased,  and  the  produce  will  be  I'ai 
inferior  to  both  sire  and  dam. 

Of  late  years,  these  principles  have  been  much  lost  sight  of  in  the  breed 
ing  of  horses  for  general  use  ;  and  the  following  is  the  explanation  of  it 
Tliere  are  nearly  as  good  stallions  as  there  used  to  be.  Few  but  well 
formed  and  valuable  horses  will  be  selected  and  retained  as  stallions. 
Thev  are  always  the  very  prime  of  the  breed  ;  but  the  mares  are  not  wiiat 
they  used  to  be.  Poverty  has  induced  many  of  the  breeders  to  part  with 
the  mares  from  which  they  used  to  raise  their  stock,  and  winch  were  worth 
their  weight  in  gold  ;  and  the  jade  on  which  the  farmer  now  rides  to  mar- 
ket,  or  which  he  uses  on  his  farm,  costs  hiin  but  little  money,  and  is  only 
retained  because  he  could  not  get  much  money  for  her.  It  has  likewise 
become  the  fashion  for  gentlemen  to  ride  mares,  almost  as  frequently  as 
geldings  ;  and  thus  the  better  kind  are  taken  from  the  breeding  service,  until 
old  age  or  injury  renders  them  worth  little  for  it.  An  intelligent  veterinary 
surgeon,  Mr.  Custley,  has  placed  this  in  a  very  strong  light  in  the  third 
volums  of  the  "Veterinarian,"  p.  871. 

We  would  wisii  then  to  impress  on  the  minds  of  breeders,  that  peculiarity 
of  form  and  constitution  are  inherited  from  both  parents;  that  the  excel- 
lence of  the  mare  is  a  point  of  quite  as  much  importance  as  that  of  the 
horse ;  and  that  out  of  a  sorry  mare,  let  the  horse  be  as  perfect  as  he  may, 
u  good  foal  will  rarely  be  produced.  All  this  is  recognised  upon  the  turf, 
aliliough  poverty  or  carelessness  have  made  the  general  breeder  neglect  or 
tbrget  It. 

It  is  rt cognised  in  the  midland  counties  in  the  breed  of  cart-horses;  and 
the  strict  attention  which  has  been  paid  to  il,  has  brought  our  heavy  horses 
to  almost  the  same  perfection  in  their  way  as  the  blood-horse.  It  is  strange 
that  in  our  saddle-horses,  our  Imnters,  and,  to  a  great  degree,  our  carriage- 
liorses,  this  should  be  left  to  chance.  The  breeder  begins  to  care  little 
about  the  quality  of  the  mare,  and  the  progeny  is  becoming  comparatively 
of  little  worth.  Experience,  it  is  said,  will  make  fools  wise,  but  experi- 
ence  will  here  be  bought  at  a  very  dear  rate,  botii  as  it  regards  the  breedei 
and  the  conmiunity. 

Tliat    the    constitution    and   endurance    of  the    horse   are  iniierited,  no 


BREEDING.  22 ! 

sporting  nan  ever  doubted.  The  qualities  of  the  sire  or  the  dum  descend 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  the  excellences  or  defects  of  certain 
horses  are  traced,  and  justly  so,  to  some  peculiarity  in  a  far  distant 
ancestor. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  justly  affirmed,  that  there  is  more  difficulty  in 
selecting  a  good  mare  to  breed  from,  than  a  good  horse,  because  she  should 
possess  somewhat  opposite  qualities.  Her  carcase  should  be  long,  to  give 
room  for  the  growth  of  the  fcutus,  and  yet  with  this  there  should  be  com- 
pactness of  form  and  shortness  of  leg.  What  can  they  expect  who  go  to 
Smithfield  Market  to  purchase  a  number  of  worn-out,  spavined,  foundered 
mares,  about  whom  they  fancy  there  have  been  some  good-points,  and 
send  them  far  into  the  country  to  breed  from,  and,  with  ail  their  variety  of 
shape,  to  be  covered  by  the  same  horse?  In  a  lottery  like  this,  there  may 
oe  now  and  then  a  prize,  but  there  must  be  many  blanks.  "  If  horse- 
oreeders,  possessed  of  good  judgment,  would  pay  the  same  attention  to 
breed  and  shape  as  Mr.  Bakewell  did  with  sheep,  they  would  probi.hly 
attain  their  wishes  in  an  equal  degree,  and  greatly  to  their  advaiitaL_c, 
whether  for  the  collar  or  the  road,  for  racing  or  for  huntihg."* 

As  to  the  shape  of  the  stallion,  little  satisfactory  can  be  said.  It  must 
depend  on  that  of  the  mare,  and  the  kind  of  horse  wished  to  be  bred  ;  but 
if  there  be  one  point  which  we  should  say  is  absolutely  essential,  it  is  this, 
"compactness" — as  much  goodness  and  strength  as  possible  condensed 
in  a  little  space.  If  we  are  describing  the  reverse  of  the  common  race  of 
stallions  for  hunters  and  coach-horses,  the  fault  lies  with  the  bad  taste  and 
judgment  of  the  majority  of  breeders. 

Next  to  compactness,  the  inclination  of  the  shoulders  will  be  regarded. 
A  huge  stallion,  with  upright  shoulders,  never  got  a  capital  hunter  or 
hackney.  From  him  the  breeder  can  obtain  nothing  but  a  cart  or  dray- 
horse,  and  that,  perhaps,  spoiled  by  the  opposite  form  of  the  mare.  On  the 
other  hand,  an  upright  shoulder  is  desirable,  if  not  absolutely  necessary, 
when  a  mere  draught  horse  is  required. 

It  is  of  no  little  importance,  that  the  parents  should  be  in  full  possession 
of  their  natural  strength  and  powers.  It  is  a  common  error,  that  because 
a  mare  has  once  been  good,  she  is  fit  for  breeding  when  she  is  no  longer 
capable  of  ordinary  work.  Her  blood  and  perfect  frame  may  insure  a  foal 
of  some  value,  but  he  will  inherit  a  portion  of  the  worn-out  constitution  of 
her  from  whom  he  sprung. 

On  the  subject  of  breeding  in  and  in,  that  is,  persevering  in  the  same 
breed,  and  selecting  the  best  on  eitiier  side,  much  has  been  said.  The 
system  of  crossing  requires  much  judgment  and  experience;  a  great  deal 
more  indeed  than  breeders  usually  possess.  The  bad  qualities  of  the  cross 
are  too  soon  engrafted  on  the  original  stock,  and  once  engrafted  there,  are 
not,  for  many  generations,  eradicated.  The  good  ones  of  both  are  occa- 
sionally neutralized  to*^  most  mortifying  degree.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
the  fact,  however  some  may  deny  it,  that  strict  confinement  to  one  breed, 
however  valuable  or  perfect,  produces  gradual  deterioration.  The  truth 
here,  as  in  many  other  cases,  lies  in  the  middle ;  crossing  should  be 
attempted  with  great  caution,  and  the  most  perfect  of  tiie  same  breed  should 
be  selected,  but  varied,  by  being  frequently  taken  from  diderent  stocks. 
This  is  the  secret  of  the  course.  The  pure  south-eastern  blood  is  never 
eft,  but  the  stock  is  often  changed  with  manifest  advantage. 

A  mare  is  capable  of  breeding  at  three  or  four  years  old  ;  some  have 
"*ijudiciously  coamienced  at  two  years,  before  her  form  or  her  strength  is 

*  Parkinson  on  the  Breeding-  and  Management  of  Live  Stock,  vol   ii.,  p.  59. 


222  THE  HORSE. 

sulBciently  developed,  and  with  the  development  of  which  this  early 
oreeding  will  materially  interfere.  Ifslie  does  little  more  than  farm-work, 
she  may  continue  to  be  bred  from  until  she  is  nearly  twenty :  but  if  she  haa 
oeen  hardly  worked,  and  bears  the  marks  of  it,  let  her  have  been  what  she 
will  in  her  youtii,  she  will  deceive  the  expectations  of  the  breeder  in  her 
old  age. 

The  mare  comes  into  heat  in  the  early  part  of  the  spring.  She  is  said 
to  go  with  foal  eleven  months,  but  there  is  sometimes  a  strange  irregu 
larity  about  tliis.  Some  have  been  known  to  foal  five  weeks  earlier,  while 
the  time  of  others  has  been  extended  six  weeks  beyond  the  eleven  months. 
We  may,  however,  take  eleven  months  as  the  average  time.  In  running- 
horses,  that  are  brought  so  early  to  the  starting-post,  and  whether  they  are 
foaled  early  in  January  or  late  in  April,  rank  as  of  the  same  age,  it  is  of 
importance  that  the  mare  should  go  to  cover  as  early  as  possible:  in  a 
two  or  three-year  old,  four  months  would  make  considerable  difference  in 
the  growth  and  strength  ;  yet  many  of  these  early  foals  are  almost  worth- 
less, because  they  have  been  deprived  of  that  additional  nuti'iment  which 
nature  designed  for  them.  For  other  breeds,  the  beginning  of  .May  is  the 
most  convenient  period.  The  mare  would  then  foal  in  the  early  part  of 
April,  when  there  would  begin  to  be  sufficient  food  for  her  and  her  colt, 
without  confining  them  to  tlie  stable. 

From  the  time  of  covering  to  that  of  foaling,  the  mare  may  be  kept  at 
moderate  work,  and  that  not  only  without  injury,  but  with  decided  advan- 
tage.  The  work  may  be  continued  up  to  the  very  time  when  she  i? 
expected  to  foal ;  and  of  which  she  will  give  at  least  a  day's  notice,  by  the 
adhesive  matter  that  will  appear  about  the  teats.  When  tiiis  is  seen,  it  will 
be  prudent  to  release  her  from  work,  and  keep  her  near  home,  and  under 
ihe  frequent  inspection  of  some  careful  person. 

When  nearly  half  the  time  of  pregnancy  has  elapsed,  the  mare  should 
have  a  little  better  food.  She  should  be  allowed  two  or  three  feeds  of  corn 
in  the  day.  This  is  about  the  period  when  they  are  accustomed  to  slink 
their  foals,  or  when  abortion  occurs:  at  this  time,  therefore,  the  eye  of  the 
owner  should  be  frequently  upon  them.  Good  feeding  and  moderate 
exercise  will  be  the  best  preventives  against  this.  The  mare  that  has  once 
slinked  her  foal  is  ever  liable  to  the  same  accident,  and  therefore  should 
never  be  suffered  to  be  with  other  mares  about  the  time  that  this  usually 
occurs,  which  is  about  the  fourth  and  fiflh  months;  for  such  is  the  power 
of  imagination  or  of  sympathy  in  the  mare,  that  if  one  of  them  suffers 
abortion,  the  greater  number  of  those  in  the  same  pasture  will  share  the 
same  fate.  Farmers  wash,  and  paint,  and  tar  their  stables  to  prevent  some 
supposed  infection:  the  infection  lies  in  the  imagination. 

If  a  mare  has  been  regularly  exercised,  and  apparently  in  health  while 
she  was  in  foal,  little  danger  will  attend  the  act  of  parturition.  If  there 
be  false  presentation  of  the  foetus,  or  difficulty  in  poducing  it,  it  will  be 
better  to  have  recourse  to  a  well-informed  practitioner,  rather  than  injure 
the  mother,  by  the  violent  and  injurious  attempts  which  are  often  made  to 
relieve  the  animal. 

As  soon  as  the  mare  has  foaled,  she  should  be  turned  into  some  well- 
sheltered  pasture,  with  a  hovel  or  shed  to  run  into  when  she  pleases:  and 
as,  supposing  she  has  foaled  in  April,  the  grass  is  scanty,  she  should  have 
a  couple  of  feeds  of  corn  daily.  The  breeder  may  depend  upon  it,  that 
nothing  is  gained  by  starving  the  mother  and  stinting  the  foal  at  this  time. 
It  is  the  most  important  time  in  the  life  of  the  horse  ;  and  if,  from  false 
t'conomv,  his  growth  be  arrested  now,  his  puny  form  and  want  of  endu- 
rance will  ever  afterwards  testify  the  error  that  has  been  committed.     The 


BREAKING-IN.  2'2.S 

corn  should  be  given  in  a  trough  on  the  ground,  that  the  foal  may  partake 
of  it  with  the  mother.  When  the  new  grass  is  flush  and  plenty,  ihe  corn 
may  be  gradually  discontinued. 

Our  work  is  intended,  principally,  for  farmers:  they  weli  Know  that  ttie 
mare  may  be  put  to  moderate  work  again  a  month  after  the  foaling.  The 
foal  is  at  first  shut  in  the  stable  during  the  hours  of  work  ;  but  as  soon  as 
it  acquires  sufficient  strength  to  toddle  after  the  mare,  and  especially  when 
sJie  is  at  slow  work,  it  will  be  better  for  the  foal  and  the  dam  that  they 
should  be  together.  The  work  will  contribute  to  the  health  of  the  mother  ; 
the  foal  will  more  frequently  draw  the  milk,  and  thrive  better;  and  will  be 
hardy  and  tractable,  and  gradually  familiarized  with  the  objects  among 
whicli  it  is  afterwards  to  live.  While  tlie  moliier,  however,  is  thus 
worked,  she  and  the  foal  should  be  well  fed ;  and  two  feeds  of  corn,  at 
least,  should  be  added  to  the  green  food  which  they  get  when  turned  out 
after  their  work,  and  at  night.  The  mare  will  usually  be  four^d  at  heat  at 
or  before  the  expiration  of  a  month  from  the  time  of  foaling,  when,  if 
she  be  kept  principally  for  breeding  purposes,  she  may  be  put  again  to 
the  horse. 

In  five  or  six  months,  according  to  the  growth  of  the  foal,  it  may  be 
weaned,  [t  should  then  be  housed  for  three  weeks  or  a  month,  or  turned 
into  some  distant  rick-yard.  There  can  be  no  better  place  for  the  foal  than 
the  latter,  as  affording,  and  that  without  trouble,  both  food  and  shelter 
The  mother  should  be  put  to  harder  work,  and  have  drier  meat.  One  oi 
two  urine  balls,  or  a  physic  ball,  will  be  useful,  if  the  milk  should  b* 
troublesome,  or  she  should  pine  after  her  foal. 

There  is  no  principle  of  greater  importance  than  the  liberal  feeding  of 
the  foal  during  the  whole  of  his  growth,  and  at  this  time  in  particular. 
Bruised  oats  and  bran  should  form  a  considerable  part  of  his  daily  pro- 
vender.  The  farmer  may  be  assured  that  money  is  well  laid  out  which  is 
expended  on  the  liberal  nourishment  of  the  growing  colt:  while,  however, 
he  is  well  fed,  he  should  not  be  rendered  delicate  by  excess  of  care.  A 
racing  colt  is  sometimes  stabled  ;  but  one  that  is  destined  to  be  a  hunter, 
a  hackney,  or  an  agricultural  horse,  should  merely  have  a  square  rick, 
under  the  leeward  side  of  which  he  may  shelter  himself,  or  a  hovel,  into 
which  he  may  run  at  night,  or  out  of  the  rain.  The  process  of  breaking-in 
should  commence  from  the  very  period  of  weaning.  The  foal  should  be 
daily  handled,  partially  dressed,  accustomed  to  the  halter,  led  about,  and 
even  tied  up.  The  tractability,  and  good  temper,  and  value  of  the  horse, 
depend  a  great  deal  more  upon  this  than  the  breeders  are  aware:  this  should 
be  done  as  much  as  possible  by  the  man  by  whom  they  are  t'ed,  and  whose 
management  of  them  should  be  always  kind  and  gentle.  There  is  no  fault 
for  which  a  breeder  should  so  invariably  discharge  his  servant  as  cruelty, 
or  even  harshness,  towards  the  rising  stock  ;  for  the  principle  on  which 
their  after  usefulness  is  founded,  is  early  attachment  to,  and  confidence  in 
man,  and  obedience,  implicit  obedience,  resulting  principally  from  these. 

After  the  second  winter,  the  work  of  breaking-in  may  commence  in  good 
earnest.  He  may  first  be  bitted,  and  a  bit  carefully  selected  that  will  not 
hurt  his  mouth,  and  much  smaller  than  those  in  common  use ;  with  this 
he  may  be  suffered  to  amuse  himself,  and  to  play,  and  to  champ  for  an 
hour,  on  a  few  successive  days. 

Having  become  a  little  tractable,  portions  of  the  harness  may  be  put  upon 
him,  and,  last  of  all,  the  blind  winkers ;  and  a  few  days  afterwards  he  may 
go  in*o  the  team.  It  would  be  better,  if  there  could  be  one  before,  and  one 
behind  him,  beside  the  shaft  horse.  Let  there  be  first  the  mere  empty 
waggon.     Ijot  nothing  be  done  to  him,  except  that  he  r  ay  have  an  occa- 


2^4  THE  HORSE. 

sional  pat  or  kind  word.  The  other  horses  will  keep  him  movingr,  and  in 
his  place;  and  no  great  time  will  pass,  sometimes  not  even  the  first  day, 
before  he  will  begin  to  pull  witli  the  rest :  then  the  load  may  be  gradually 
increased. 

The  agricultural  horse  is  wanted  to  ride  as  well  as  to  drav/.  Let  his 
first  lesson  be  given  wlien  he  is  in  the  team.  Let  his  feeder,  if  possible, 
be  first  put  upon  him  :  he  will  be  too  much  hampered  by  his  harness  and 
by  the  other  horses  to  make  much  resistance  ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
will  quietly  and  at  once  submit.  We  need  not  repeat,  that  no  whip  or  spur 
should  be  used  in  giving  the  first  lessons  in  riding. 

When  he  begins  a  little  to  understand  his  business,  backing,  the  most 
difficult  part  of  his  work,  may  be  taught  him;  first  to  back  well  witnout 
any  thing  behind  him,  then  with  a  light  cart,  and  afterwards  with  some 
serious  load  ;  and  taking  the  greatest  care  not  seriously  to  hurt  tiie  mouth. 
If  the  first  lesson  causes  much  soreness  of  the  gums,  the  colt  will  not 
readily  submit  to  a  second.  If  he  lias  been  rendered  tractable  before  by 
kind  usage,  time  and  patience  will  do  all  that  can  be  wished  here.  Some 
carters  are  in  the  habit  of  blinding  the  colt  when  teaching  him  to  back  :  it 
may  be  necessary  with  the  restive  and  obstinate  one,  and  should  be  used 
only  as  a  last  resort. 

The  colt  having  been  thus  partially  broken-in,  the  necessity  of  implicit 
obedience  may  be  taught  him,  and  that  not  by  severity,  but  by  firmness 
and  steadiness;  the  voice  will  go  a  great  way,  but  the  whip  or  the  spur 
is  sometimes  indispensable — not  so  cruelly  applied  as  to  excite  the  animal 
to  resistance,  but  to  convince  him  that  we  liave  the  power  to  enforce 
submission.  Few,  we  would  almost  say,  no  horses,  are  naturally  vicious. 
It  is  cruel  usage  wliich  has  first  provoked  resistance  ;  that  resistance  has 
been  followed  by  greater  severity,  and  the  stubbornness  of  the  animal  has 
increased  ;  open  warfare  has  ensued,  in  which  the  man  seldom  gained  an 
advantage,  and  the  horse  was  frequently  rendered  unserviceable.  Correc- 
tion may,  or  must  be  used,  to  enforce  implicit  obedience,  after  the  education 
has  proceeded  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the  early  lessons  should  be  inculcated 
with  kindness  alone.  Young  colts  are  sometimes  very  perverse  ;  many 
days  will  occasionally  pass  before  they  will  permit  the  l-jridle  to  be  put  on, 
or  the  saddle  to  be  worn  ;  one  act  of  harshness  will  double  or  treble  this 
time.  Patience  and  kindness  will,  after  a  while,  prevail.  On  some 
morning,  of  better  humour  than  usual,  the  bridle  will  be  put  on,  and  the 
saddle  will  be  worn ;  and  this  compliance  being  followed  by  kindness  and 
soothing  on  the  part  of  the  breaker,  and  no  inconvenience  or  pain  being 
sufiered  by  the  animal,  all  resistance  will  be  at  an  end. 

The  same  principles  will  apply  to  the  breaking-in  of  the  horse  for  the 
road  or  the  chase.  The  handling,  and  some  portion  of  instruction,  should 
commence  from  the  time  of  weaning.  The  future  tractability  of  the  horse 
will  much  depend  on  this.  At  two  years  and  a  half,  or  three  years,  the 
regular  process  of  breaking-in  should  come  on.  If  it  be  delayed  until  the 
animal  is  four  years  old,  his  strength  and  obstinacy  will  be  more  difficult 
to  overcome.  We  cannot  much  improve  on  the  plan  usually  pursued  by 
the  breaker,  except  that  there  should  be  much  more  kindness  and  patience, 
and  far  less  harshness  and  cruelty,  than  these  persons  are  accustomed 
to  exhibit,  and  a  great  deal  more  attention  to  the  form  and  natural 
action  of  the  horse.  A  headstall  is  put  on  the  colt,  and  a  cavesson  (oi 
apparatus  to  confine  and  pinch  the  nose)  affixed  to  it,  with  long  reins. 
He  is  first  accustomed  to  the  rein,  then  led  round  a  ring  on  soft  ground, 
and  at  length  mounted  and  taught  his  paces.  Next  to  preserving  the 
temper  and  docility  of  the  horse,  there  is  nothing  of  so  much  importance 


BREAKING-IN.  225 

as  to  teach  him  every  pace,  and  every  part  of  his  duty,  distinctly  and 
thoroughly.  Each  must  constitute  a  separate  and  sometimes  long-continued 
lesson,  and  tliat  tauglit  by  a  man  who  will  never  suffer  his  passion  to  ge. 
the  better  of  his  discretion. 

After  the  cavesson  has  been  attaclied  to  the  headstall,  and  tiic  long  rein 
put  on,  the  first  lesson  is,  to  be  quietly  led  about  by  the  breaker,  a  steady 
boy  following  behind,  by  occasional  threatening  with  the  whip,  but  never  by 
ah  actual  blow,  to  keep  the  colt  up.  When  tlie  animal  follows  readily  f^nd 
quietly,  he  may  be  taken  to  the  ring,  and  walked  round,  right  and  left,  in 
a  very  small  circle.  Care  should  be  taken  to  teach  him  this  pace  thorouglily, 
never  suffering  him  to  break  into  a  trot.  The  boy  with  his  whip  may  here 
again  be  necessary,  but  not  a  single  blow  should  actually  fall. 

Becoming  tolerably  perfect  in  tlie  walk,  he  should  be  quickened  to  a  trot, 
and  kept  steadily  at  it;  the  wliip  of  the  boy,  if  needful,  urging  him  on, 
and  the  cavesson  restraining  him.  These  lessons  should  be  short.  The 
pace  should  be  kept  perfect  and  distinct  in  each  ;  and  docility  and  improve- 
ment rewarded  with  frequent  caresses,  and  handfuls  of  corn.  The  length 
of  the  rein  may  now  be  gradually  increased^  and  the  pace  quickened,  and 
the  time  extended,  until  the  animal  becomes  tractable  in  this  his  first  lessons, 
towards  the  conclusions  of  which,  crupper-straps,  or  something  similar,  may 
be  attached  to  the  clothing.  Tiiese,  playing  about  the  sides  and  flanks, 
accustom  him  to  the  flapping  of  the  coat  of  the  rider.  The  annoyance 
which  they  occasion  will  pass  over  in  a  day  or  two;  for  when  the  animal 
finds  that  no  harm  comes  to  him  on  account  of  these  straps,  he  will  cease 
to  regard  them. 

Next  comes  the  bitting.  The  bit  shooid  be  large  and  smooth,  and  the 
reins  should  be  buckled  to  a  ring  on  either  side  of  the  pad.  There  are 
many  curious  and  expensive  machines  for  this  purpose,  but  the  simple  rein 
tvill  be  quite  sufficient.  The  reins  should  at  first  be  slack,  and  very 
gradually  tightened.  This  will  prepare  for  the  more  perfect  manner  in 
which  the  head  will  be  afterwards  got  into  a  proper  position,  when  the  colt 
is  accustomed  to  the  saddle.  Occasionally  the  breaker  should  stand  in  front 
of  the  colt,  an  J  take  hold  of  each  side-rein  near  the  mouth,  and  press  upon 
it,  and  thus  begin  to  teach  him  to  stop  and  to  back  at  the  pressure  of  the 
rein,  rewarding  every  act  of  docility,  and  not  being  too  eager  to  punish 
occasional  carelessness  or  waywardness. 

The  colt  may  now  be  taken  into  the  road  or  street  to  be  gradually  accus- 
lomed  to  objects  among  which  his  services  will  be  required.  Here,  from 
fear  or  playfulness,  a  considerable  degree  of  starting  and  shying  may  be 
exhibited.  As  little  notice  as  possible  should  be  taken  of  it.  The  same  or 
similar  objects  should  be  soon  passed  again,  but  at  a  greater  distance.  If 
the  colt  still  shies,  let  the  distance  be  farther  increased,  until  he  takes  no 
notice  of  the  object;  then  he  may  gradually  be  brought  nearer  to  it,  and 
:his  will  be  usually  efl^ected  without  the  slightest  difficulty  ;  whereas,  had 
there  been  an  attempt  to  force  the  animal  close  to  it  in  the  first  instance,  the 
remembrance  of  the  contest  would  have  been  associated  with  the  object,  and 
'he  habit  of  shying  would  have  been  established. 

Hitiierto,  with  a  cool  and  patient  breaker,  the  whip  may  have  been  shown, 
but  will  scarcely  have  been  used;  the  colt  must  now,  however,  be 
accustomed  to  this  necessary  instrument  of  authority.  Let  the  breaker 
walk  by  the  side  of  the  animal,  and  throw  his  right  arm  over  his  back, 
holding  the  reins  in  his  left,  and  occasionally  quicken  his  pace,  and,  at  the 
moment  of  doing  this,  tap  the  horse  with  the  whip  in  his  right  hand,  and  at 
rust  very  gently.  The  tap  of  the  wliip  and  the  quickening  of  the  pace  will 
soon  become  associated  together  in  the  mind  of  the  animal.     If  necessary, 


220 


THE   HORSE. 


the  taps  miy  gradually  fall  a  little  heavier,  and  the  feeling  of  pai.i  be  the 
monitor  of  the  necessity  of  increased  exertion.  Tlie  lessons  of  reining-in 
and  stoppinir,  and  backing  on  the  pressure  of  the  bit,  may  continue  to  be 
practised  at  the  same  time. 

He  may  now  be  taught  to  bear  the  saddle.  Some  little  caution  will  be 
necessary  at  the  first  putting  of  it  on.  The  breaker  should  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  colt,  patting  him  and  engaging  his  attention,  while  one  assistant, 
on  the  otT-side,  gently  places  the  saddle  ou  the  back  of  tiie  animal,  and 
another,  on  the  near-side,  slowly  lightens  the  girths.  If  he  submits  quietly 
to  this,  as  he  generally  will,  when  the  previous  process  of  breaking  in  has 
been  properly  conducted,  the  ceremony  of  mounting  may  be  attempted  on  the 
following  or  on  the  third  day.  The  breaker  will  need  two  assistants  to  accom- 
plish this  operation.  He  will  remain  at  the  head  of  the  colt,  patting  and 
making  much  of  him.  The  rider  will  put  his  foot  into  the  stirrup,  and 
bear  a  little  weight  upon  it,  while  the  man  on  the  otf-side  presses  equally  on 
the  other  stirrup-leather ;  and  according  to  the  docility  of  the  animal,  he 
will  gradually  increase  the  weight,  until  he  balances  himself  on  the  stirrup. 
If  the  colt  be  uneasy  or  fearful,  he  should  be  spoken  kindly  to  and  patted, 
or  a  mouthful  of  corn  be  given  to  liim :  but  if  he  ofTers  serious  resistance, 
the  lessons  must  terminate  for  that  day;  he  may  probably  be  in  better 
humour  on  the  morrow. 

When  the  rider  has  balanced  himself  for  a  minute  or  two,  he  may  gently 
throw  his  leg  over  and  quietly  seat  himself  in  the  saddle.  The  breakei 
will  then  lead  the  animal  round  the  ring,  the  rider  sitting  perfectly  still. 
After  a  few  minutes  he  will  take  the  reins  and  handle  them  as  gently  aa 
possible,  and  guide  the  horse  by  the  pressure  of  them;  patting  him  fre- 
quently, and  especially  when  he  thinks  of  dismounting,  and  after  having 
dismounted  offaring  him  a  little  corn  or  green  meat.  The  use  of  the  rein 
in  checking  him,  and  of  the  pressure  of  the  leg  and  the  touch  of  the  heel 
in  quickening  his  pace,  will  soon  be  taught,  and  the  education  will  be 
nearly  completed. 

The  horse  having  thus  far  submitted  himself  to  the  breaker,  these  pattings 
and  rewards  must  be  gradually  diminished,  and  implicit  obedience  mildly 
but  firmly  enforced.  Severity  will  not  be  often  necessary ;  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  it  will  be  altogether  uncalled  for  ;  but  should  the  animal,  in 
a  moment  of  waywardness,  dispute  the  command  of  the  breaker,  he  must  at 
once  be  taught  that  he  is  the  slave  of  man,  and  that  we  have  the  power,  by 
other  means  than  those  of  kindness,  to  bend  him  to  our  will.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  horse  is  that  of  the  child.  Pleasure  is,  as  much  as  possible, 
associated  with  the  early  lessons ;  but  firmness,  or  if  it  need  be,  coercion, 
must  confirm  the  habit  of  obedience.  Tyranny  and  cruelty  will,  more 
speedily  in  the  horse  than  in  the  child,  provoke  the  wish  to  disobey ;  and, 
on  every  practicable  occasion,  the  resistance  to  command.  The  restive  and 
vicious  horse  is,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  made  so  by  ill- 
usage  and  not  by  nature.  None  but  those  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  try 
the  experiment  are  aware  how  absolute  a  command  the  due  admixture  of 
firmness  and  kindness  will  soon  give  us  over  any  horse. 

CASTRATION. 

The  period  at  which  this  important  operation  will  be  best  performed 
depends  much  on  the  breed  and  form  of  the  colt,  and  the  purpose  for  which 
he  is  destined.  For  the  common  agricultural  horse,  the  age  of  four  or  five 
months  will  be  the  most  advisable,  or  at  least  before  he  is  weaned.  Very 
few  horses  are  lost  when  cut  at  that  a^e.     The  weather,  however,  should 


CASTRATION. 


221 


not  be  too  hot,  nor  the  flies  too  numerous.  We  enter  our  decided  protest 
against  the  recommendation  of  some  valuable  but  incautious  agricuhural 
writers,  that  "colts  should  be  cut  in  the  months  of  June  or  July,  when 
flies  pester  tlie  horses,  and  cause  them  to  be  continually  moving  about,  and 
thereby  prevent  swelling."  One  moment's  reflection  will  convince  the 
reader  that  nothing  can  be  more  likely  to  produce  inflammation,  and  conse- 
quent swelling  and  danger,  than  the  torture  of  the  flies  hovering  round 
and  stinging  the  sore  part. 

If  the  horse  is  designed  either  for  the  carriage  or  for  heavy  draught,  the 
farmer  should  not  think  of  castrating  him  until  he  be  at  least  a  twelve- 
month old  ;  and  even  then,  the  colt  should  be  carefully  examined.  If  he 
is  thin  and  spare  about  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  low  in  the  withers,  he 
will  materially  improve  by  remaining  uncut  another  six  months ;  but  if 
his  fore-quarters  are  fairly  developed  at  the  age  of  a  twelvemonth,  the 
operation  should  not  be  delayed,  lest  he  become  heavy  and  gross  before,  and 
perhaps  have  begun  too  decidedly  to  have  a  will  of  his  own.  No  specific 
age,  then,  can  be  fixed  ;  but  the  castration  should  be  performed  rather  late 
in  the  spring  or  early  in  the  autumn,  when  the  air  is  temperate,  and  partic- 
ularly when  the  weather  is  dry.  No  preparation  is  necessary  for  the  suck- 
ing colt,  but  it  may  be  prudent  to  bleed  and  to  physic  one  of  more  advanced 
age.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  no  after-treatment  will  be  necessary,  except 
that  the  animal  should  be  sheltered  from  intense  heat,  and  more  particularly 
from  wet.  In  temperate  weather  he  will  do  much  better  running  in  the 
field  than  nursed  in  a  close  and  hot  stable.  The  moderate  exercise  which 
he  will  take  in  grazing  will  be  preferable  to  perfect  inaction.  A  large  and 
well-ventilated  box,  however,  may  be  permitted. 

The  manner  in  which  the  operation  is  performed  will  be  properly  left  to 
the  veterinary  surgeon  ;  although  we  must  confess  that  we  are  disposed  to 
adhere  to  the  old  way  of  opening  the  bag  on  either  side,  cutting  off  the  tes. 
tide,  and  preventing  bleeding  by  searing  the  vessels  with  a  hot  iron.  There 
IS  at  least  an  appearance  of  brutality,  and  we  believe  much  unnecessary 
pain  inflicted,  when  the  spermatic  cord  (the  vessel  and  the  nerve)  is  tightly 
compressed  between  two  pieces  of  wood,  as  in  a  powerful  vice,  and  left 
there  either  until  the  testicle  drops  off,  or  is  removed  on  the  following  day 
by  the  operator.  To  the  practice  of  some  farmers,  of  twilchhig  their  colts 
at  an  early  period,  sometimes  even  so  early  as  a  month,  we  have  stronger 
objection.  When  the  operation  of  twitching  is  performed,  a  small  cord  is 
drawn  as  tightly  as  possible  round  the  bag,  between  the  testicle  and  the 
belly  ;  the  circulation  is  thus  stopped,  and  in  a  few  days,  the  testicles  arid  the 
bag  drop  off:  but  the  animal  suffers  sadly ;  it  is  occasionally  necess^ary  to 
tighten  the  cord  on  the  second  or  third  day,  and  inflammation  and  death 
have  frequently  ensued. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
THE   FORE  LEGS. 


We  arrive  now  at  those  parts  of  the  frame  most  essentially  connected 
with  the  action  and  value  pf  the  horse,  and  oftenest  and  most  annoyingly, 
the  subject  of  disease.  The  extremities  contain  the  whole  apparatus  of 
motion,  and  it  is  with  the  action,  and  speed,  and  strength  of  the  horse  lh*l 
we  are  most  concerned. 


228  THE   HORSE. 

We  begin  with  the  fore  extremity,  and  with  its  upper  part   tiic  shoulder 
It  IS  seen  at  G,  page  63. 

THE  SHOULDER. 

The  scapula,  or  slioulder-bhxdc,  situated  forward  on  the  side  of  the 
chest,  is  a  bone  of  a  somewhat  triangular  shape,  with  its  apex  or  point 
downward,  and  its  base  or  broad  part  upward.  Tlie  point  lies  between 
tiie  first  and  second  ribs;  the  hinder  part  of  the  base  reaches  as  far  back 
as  the  seventh  rib ;  it  therefore  extends  obliquely  along  the  chest.  It  is 
divided  externally,  into  two  unequal  portions  by  a  ridge  or  spine  running 
through  almost  the  whole  of  its  extent,  and  designed,  as  we  shall  pre- 
sently siiow,  for  the  attachment  of  important  muscles.  The  broad  or 
upper  part,  having  no  muscles  of  any  consequence  attached  to  it,  is  termi- 
nated by  cartilage. 

We  iiave  stated  that  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  legs  are  principally  con- 
cerned in  the  motion  of  the  horse.  They  impel  the  machine  forward,  and 
the  main  uses  of  tlie  fore  extremities  are  to  lift  the  fore  part  of  the  horse 
from  the  ground,  that  it  may  be  thus  impelled  to  throw  forward  the  legs  as 
far  as  possible,  that  they  receive  this  weight  at  a  due  distance,  and  to  sup- 
port the  force  and  shock  of  that  weight  when  it  reaches  the  ground.  We 
will  inquire  as  we  proceed  how  far  one  or  all  of  these  objects  are  accom- 
plished. 

The  shoulder-blade  is  united  to  the  chest  by  muscle  alone.  There  is 
a  large  muscle,  with  very  remarkable  tendinous  fibres,  and  of  immense 
strength  (the  serralus  major,  greater  saw-shaped  muscle),  attached  to  the 
chest,  and  to  the  extensive  smooth  internal  surface  of  the  shoulder-blade, 
and  by  which,  assisted,  or  rather  strengthened,  by  the  muscles  of  the 
breast,  the  weight  of  the  body  is  supported,  and  the  shock  of  the  widest 
leap,  or  the  most  rapid  motion,  sustained.  Had  there  been  a  bony  union 
between  the  shoulder  and  the  body,  the  vital  parts  contained  in  the  chest 
could  not  have  endured  the  dreadful  shock  which  they  would  occasionally 
have  experienced;  nor  could  any  bone  have  long  remained  whole,  if 
exposed  to  such  violence.  The  muscles  witliin  the  shoulder-blade  act  as 
powerful  and  safe  springs.  They  yield,  as  far  as  necessary,  to  the  force 
impressed  upon  them;  by  their  gradual  yielding  they  destroy  the  violence 
of  the  shock,  and  then,  by  their  elastic  power,  immediately  regain  their 
former  situation. 

SPRAIN  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 

In  some  violent  and  unexpected  shock,  these  muscles  are  occasionally 
injured.  Although  we  do  not  believe  that,  in  one  case  in  twenty,  the  farrier 
is  right  when  he  talks  of  his  shoulder-lameness,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied, 
that  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder  are  occasionally  sprained.  This  is  effected 
oftener  by  a  slip  or  a  side  fall,  than  by  fair,  although  violent  exertion.  It 
is  of  considerable  importance  to  be  able  to  distinguish  this  shoulder-lame- 
ness from  injuries  of  other  parts  of  the  fore  extremity.  We  shall  look  in 
vain  for  much  tenderness,  or  heat,  or  swelling:  it  is  a  sprain  of  muscles 
deeply  seated,  and  v.'here  these  symptoms  of  injury  cannot  possibly  exist. 
If,  on  standing  before  the  horse,  and  looking  at  the  size  of  the  two  shoulders, 
or  rather  their  points,  one  should  appear  evidently  larger  than  the  other, 
we  must  not  consider  this  as  indicative  of  sprain  of  the  muscles  of  tne 
shoulder.  It  probably  arises  from  bruise  of  the  point  of  the  shouldei 
which  a  slight  examination  will  determine ;  or  the  whole  of  the  limb,  this 


SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  J229 

portion  of  which  is  enlarged,  may  be  sound,  while  the  other  may  be  shrunk 
from  want  of  equal  exertion,  arising  from  injury  of  long  standing.  Tiio 
heat  and  tenderness,  if  there  be  any,  will  be  found  witiiin  the  arm,  closo 
to  the  chest;  and  will  belong  more  to  the  muscles  of  the  brea&t  than  to  thoso 
under  the  shoulder. 

The  symptoms,  however,  of  shoulder-lameness  can  scarcely  be  mistaken  ; 
and,  when  we  relate  them,  the  farmer  will  recollect  that  they  very  seldom 
occurred  when  the  village-smith  pointed  to  the  shoulder  as  tiie  seat  of  dis- 
ease, and  punished  the  animal  for  no  purpose.  In  sprain  of  the  shoulder 
the  horse  will  evidently  sutfer  extreme  pain  while  moving,  and  the  muscle 
underneath  being  inflamed  and  tender,  lie  will  extend  it  as' little  as  possible. 
He  will,  drag  his  foe  along  the  ground.  It  is  in  the  lifting  of  the  foot  that  the 
shoulder  is  principally  moved:  if  the  foot  be  lifted  high,  let  the  horse  be 
ever  so  lame,  the  shoulder  is  little,  if  at  all  affected.  The  lame  limb  is 
suffered  to  bear  the  weight  a  much  shorter  time  in  this  than  in  any  other 
kind  of  lameness.  In  sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  it  is  only  when  the  horse 
is  in  motion  that  the  injured  parts  are  put  to  most  pain;  the  pain  is  greatest 
here  when  the  weight  rests  on  the  limb,  and,  therefore,  there  is  a  peculiar 
quickness  in  catching  up  the  limb,  in  shoulder  lameness,  the  moment  the 
weight  is  thrown  on  it.  This  is  particularly  evident  when  the  horse  is  going 
down  hill,  and  the  injured  limb  bears  an  additional  jjortion  of  the  weight. 
\n  the  stable,  too,  when  the  horse  points  or  projects  one  foot  before  the  other, 
that  foot  is  usually  flat  on  the  ground.  In  shoulder-lameness  the  toe  alone 
rests  on  the  ground.  The  circumstance  which  most  of  all  characterizes 
this  affection,  is,  that  when  the  foot  is  lifted,  and  then  brought  considerably 
forward,  the  horse  will  express  great  pain,  which  he  will  not  do  if  the 
the  lameness  be  in  the  foot  or  the  leg.  We  have  dwelt  longer  on  this 
point,  that  our  readers  may  be  enabled  to  put  to  the  test  the  many  cases  of 
shoulder-lameness  which  exist  only  in  the  imagination  of  the  groom  or 
the  farrier. 

In  sprain  of  the  internal  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  k\\  local  measures  can 
be  adopted.  The  horse  should  be  bled  from  the  vein  on  the  inside  of  the 
arm  (the  plate  vein),  because  the  blood  is  then  abstracted  more  immediately 
from  the  inflamed  part.  A  dose  of  physic  should  be  given,  and  fomenta. 
tions  applied,  and  principally  on  the  inside  of  the  arm,  close  to  the  chest; 
while  the  horse  is  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  The  injury  is  too  deeply 
seated  for  external  stimulants  to  have  a  very  great  effect,  yet  a  blister  will 
very  properly  be  resorted  to,  if  the  lameness  is  not  speedily  removed.  The 
swiimning  of  the  horse  is  an  inhuman  practice  ;  it  tortures  the  animal,  and 
increases  the  inflammation.  The  pegging  of  the  shoulder  (puncturing  the 
skin,  and  blowing  into  the  cellular  structure  beneath,  until  it  is  considerablv 
puffed  up)  is  another  relic  of  ignorance  and  barbarity. 

SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 

The  lessening  or  breaking  of  the  shock,  from  the  weight  being  thrown 
violently  on  the  fore  legs,  is  effected  in  another  way.  It  will  be  observed, 
that  (see  G  and  J,  p.  03)  the  shoulder-blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder  are  not  connected  togetiier  in  a  straight  line,  but  form  a  very  con- 
siderable angle  with  each  other.  This  will  be  more  evident  from  the  fol 
lowing  cut,  which  represents  the  fore  and  hind  extremities  in  the  situations 
which  they  occupy  in  the  horse. 

This  angular  construction  of  the  limbs  reminds  us  of  the  similar  arrange- 
ment of  the  springs  of  a  carriage,  and  the  ease  of  motion,  and  almost  per 
feet  freedom  from  jolting,  which  are  thereby  obtained. 


230  THE  HORSE. 

\Ve  uill  not  say  that  the  form  of  a  spring  was  borrowed  from  this  con- 
struction of  the  limbs  of  the  horse,  but  the  effect  of  the  carriage-sprmg 
beautifully  illustrates  the  connection  of  the  different  bones  in  the  extre  ni- 
ties  of  this  quadruped. 


The  obliquity  or  slanting  direction  of  the  shoulder  effects  another  very 
useful  purpose.  That  the  stride  in  the  gallop,  or  the  space  passed  over  in 
the  trot,  may  be  extensive,  it  is  necessary  that  the  fore  part  of  the  animal 
should  be  considerably  elevated.  The  shoulder,  by  means  of  the  muscles 
which  extend  from  it  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  limb,  is  the  grand  agent  in 
effecting  this.  The  slightest  inspection  of  the  last  cut,  or  that  at  p.  63, 
will  show  that,  just  in  proportion  as  the  point  of  the  shoulder  is  brought 
forward  and  elevated,  will  be  the  forward  action  and  elevation  of  the  limb 
or  the  space  passed  over  at  every  effort.  At  each  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles which  extend  from  G  to  J,  or  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  will  the  point  of  the  shoulder  be  projected  and  elevated.  In  the 
upright  shoulder  it  can  scarcely  be  carried  beyond  the  point  at  which  it  is 
placed  in  these  cuts.  In  the  oblique  or  slanting  shoulder  it  commences 
its  action  from  that  point;  therefore  it  js  that  a  slanting  shoulder  is  indis- 
pensable in  a  horse  from  which  good  action  and  considerable  speed  are 
required. 

The  slanting  shoulder  accomplishes  another  very  useful  object.  The 
muscles  extending  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder 
are  the  powers  by  which  motion  is  given  to  the  whole  of  the  limb.  The 
extent  and  energy  of  that  motion  depend  mucii  on  the  force  exerted  or  the 
strength  of  the  muscle  ;  but  there  are  circumstances  in  the  relative  situa- 
tions of  the  different  bones  which  ha\e  far  greater  influence.  Let  us 
suppose  that  by  means  of  a  lever  we  are  endeavouring  to  raise  a  crrtaiu 
Weight. 


SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


231 


A  is  a  lever  resting  or  turning  on  a  pivot,  B;  C  is  the  weight  to  he  raised, 
and  D  is  the  power  and  situatron  at  wliich  the  power  is  applied.  If  we 
apply  our  strength  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  lever,  as  represented 
by  the  line  E,  we  can  easily  calculate  the  strength  which  we  must  exert 


In  proportion  as  the  distance  of  the  power  from  the  pivot  or  centre  of 
motion  exceeds  that  of  the  weight  from  the  same  place,  so  will  be  the 
advantage  gained.  The  power  here  is  twice  as  far  from  the  centre  as  the 
weight  is,  and  therefore  we  gain  advantage  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one  , 
or  if  the  weight  be  equal  to  200  lbs.,  a  force  of  100  lbs.  will  balance  it.  If 
we  alter  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied,  and  suppose  it  to  be  in 
that  of  the  line  F,  will  100  lbs.  now  do  ?  No;  nothing  like  it.  How  shall 
we  calculate,  then,  the  power  that  is  necessary  ?  We  must  prolong  the  line 
of  direction  until  another  line,  falling  perpendicularly  from  the  lever,  and 
commencing  at  the  centre  of  motion,  will  cut  it;  and  the  length  of  that  line 
will  give  us  the  actual  effect  of  the  strength  we  employ.  Now,  this  new 
line  is  but  half  as  long  as  the  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  centre  of 
motion,  and  therefore  we  lose  advantage  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one  ;  or 
a  strength  equal  to  400  lbs.  must  be  exerted  to  raise  the  200  lbs.,  and  so  on 
in  proportion  to  the  deviation  from  the  right  or  perpendicular  line. 

Let  us  next  take  the  shoulder  of  the  h'orse.  The  point  of  the  shoulder, 
the  shoulder-joint,  is  the  pivot  or  centre  of  motion ;  the  leg  attached  to  the 
bone  of  the  arm  is  the  weight ;  the  shoulder-blade  being  more  fixed  is  the  part 
whence  the  power  is  exerted  ;  and  the  muscles  extending  from  the  one  to  the 
other  are  the  lines  in  which  that  power  is  exerted.  These  lines  approach 
much  more  nearly  to  a  perpendicular  in  the  oblique  than  in  the  upright 
shoulder  (see  cut).  In  the  upright  shoulder,  the  shoulder-blade  and  the 
bone  of  the  arm  are  almost  in  a  straight  line,  and  the  real  action  and  power 
of  the  muscle  are  most  strangely  diminished.  In  this  point  of  view  the 
oblique  shoulder  is  most  important.  It  not  only  gives  extensive  action,  but 
facility  of  action ;  the  power  of  the  muscles  is  more  than  doubled  by  being 
exerted  in  a  line  approaching  so  much  nearer  to  a  perpendicular. 

There  is  yet  another  advantage  of  the  oblique  shoulder.     The  point  of 
the  shoulder  is  projected   forward;   and  therefore  the  pillars  which  support 
the  fore  part  of  the  horse  are  likewise  placed  proportionably  torward,  and 
they  have  less  weight  to  carry ;   and  are  exposed  to  less  concussion,  a 
especially  concussion  in  rapid  action.     The  horse  is  also  much  safer ; 
having  less  weight  lying  before  the  pillars  of  support,  he  is  not  so  likely 
have   the  centre  of  gravity  thrown   before   and  beyond  them  by  an  acci- 
dental trip;  or,  in  other  words,  he  is  not  so  likely  to  fall ;   and  he  rides  more 
pleasantly,  for  there  is  far  less  weight  bearing  on  the  hand  of  the  rider, 
and    annoying   and   tiring  him.     It  likewise    happens    unfortunately   that 
.  nature,  as  it  were  to  supply  the   deficiency  of  action  and  of  power  in   an 
upright  shoulder,  has  accumulated  on  it  more  muscle,  and  therefore  the 
upright  shouldei  is  proverjjially  thick  and  cloddy;   and  the  muscles  of  the 


232  ^         THE  HORSE. 

breast,  which  were  designed  to  strengthen  the  attachment  of  the  shoulders 
to  the  chest,  and  to  bind  them  together,  must,  when  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
lies  backward,  and  under  the  horse,  be  proportionably  thickened  and 
strengtlicned,  and  the  horse  is  thus  still  more  heavy  before,  more  unpleas 
ant,  and  more  unsafe  to  ride. 

Then,  ought  every  horse  to  have  an  oblique  shoulder?  No!  We  have 
been  speaking  of  those  which  are  designed  to  ride  pleasantly,  or  from  which 
extensive  and  rapid  action  is  required.  In  them  we  have  said  that  an 
oblique  shoulder  is  indispensable :  but  there  are  others  which  are  never 
ridden;  whose  pace  is  slow,  and  who  have  nothing  to  do  but  throw  as  much 
weight  as  possible  into  the  collar.  To  them  an  upright  shoulder  is  an 
advantage,  because  its  additional  thickness  gives  them  additional  weigiit  to 
throw  into  tlie  collar,  which  the  power  of  their  hinder-quarters  is  fully  suf- 
ficient to  accomplish  ;  and  because  the  upright  position  of  the  shoulder  gives 
that  direction  to  the  collar  which  enables  the  horse  to  act  upon  every  part 
of  it;  and  that  inclination  of  the  traces  which  will  enable  his  weiglit  or 
power  to  be  most  advantageously  employed.  Of  this,  however,  we  sliall 
better  speak  when  we  come  to  describe  the  implements  of  agriculture,  and 
particularly  the  construction  of  wheel  carriages. 

An  improved  breed  of  heavy  draught  horses  has  of  late  years  been 
attempted,  and  with  much  success.  Sufficient  uprightness  of  shoulder  is 
retained  for  the  purposes  of  draught,  while  a  slight  degree  of  obliquity  has 
materially  quickened  the  pace  and  improved  the  appearance. 

Above  its  junction  with  the  humerus  or  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  the 
shoulder-blade  forms  what  is  called  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  There  is  a 
round  blunted  projection,  best  seen  in  the  cut  (p.  230).  The  neck  of  the 
shoulder-blade  then  forms  a  shallow  cavity,  into  which  the  head  of  the  next 
bone  is  received. 

The  cavity  is  shallow,  because  extensive  motion  is  required,  and  because 
both  of  tlie  bones  being  so  moveable,  and  the  motion  of  the  one  connected 
so  much  with  that  of  the  other,  dislocation  was  not  so  likely  to  happen  as 
if  one  of  them  had  been  fixed.  A  capsular  ligament,  or  one  extending 
round  the  head  of  both  bones,  confines  them  securely  together. 

This  joint  is  rarely  or  never  dislocated;  or  should  it  suffer  dislocation, 
the  muscles  of  the  shoulder-blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  are 
so  strong,  that  the  reduction  of  it  would  be  impossible.  The  point  of  the 
shoulder,  however,  projecting  considerably,  is  much  exposed  to  injury  from 
accident  or  violence;  even  turning  in  a  narrow  stall  has  inflicted  a  serious 
bruise.  Fomentations  of  warm  water  will  usually  remove  the  tenderness 
and  lameness,  but  should  they  fail,  blood  may  be  taken  from  the  plate-vein, 
and,  in  very  obstinate  cases,  a  blister  may  be  resorted  to. 

A  description  of  the  principal  muscles  of  the  shoulder-blade,  their  situa- 
tion, attachments,  and  use,  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  lover  of  the 
horse,  and  may  guide  his  judgment  as  to  the  capability  and  proper  form 
of  that  noble  animal. 

CUT  OF  MUSCLES  ON  THE  OUTSIDE  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 

a  and  b  represent  a  portion  of  the  muscle  (the  trapezius,  quadrangular 
muscle),  which  rises  from  the  longer  bones  of  the  withers,  broadly  and 
strongly,  and  from  the  ligament  of  the  neck  (a  portion  of  which  is  seen  ai 
b),  and.  narrowing  below,  and  terminating  almost  in  a  point,  is  inserted  into 
a  prominent  part  of  the  spine  or  ridge  of  the  shoulder-blade.  It  occu- 
pies the  space  between  the  withers  and  the  upper  part  of  the  shoulder- 
blade,  and  is  large  and  strong  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  withers. 


SLANTING  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SHOULDER.  033 

and  the  slanting  of  the  shoulder.  Its  use  is  evidently  to  sL.,-)pjrt  tlie 
shoulder,  to  raise  it,  and  likewise  to  draw  it  backward  ;  tijcrerbre,  con- 
stituting  one  of  the  most  important  muscles  connected  with  the  action  of 
the  horse,  and  illustrating  the  advantage  of  i)igh  withers  and  a  slanting 
shoulder.     A  portion  of  it  is  represented  as  turned   back,   to  show  othei 

muscles  beneath.  A  moment'3 
inspection  will  convince  the 
reader,  that  although  we  may 
have  been  justified  in  objecting 
to  a  low  forehead  and  thick 
shoulder,  yet  still  some  full- 
ness  and  fleshiness  are  neces- 
sary, even  about  the  withers  ; 
otherwise,  although  there  may 
be  height  of  withers,  and  ob- 
liquity  of  shoulder  to  give  ex- 
tensive action,  there  will  not 
be  sufficient  muscular  power  to 
work  the  machine  with  either 
quickness  or  continuance. 

At  c  is  a  portion  of  the 
levator  humeri  (the  )-aiser  of 
the  shoulder),  descending  even 
from  the  tubercle  at  the  back 
of  the  head  (see  cut,  page 
68),  and  from  the  base  of  the 
temporal  bone,  and  attaching 
.itself  to  the  first  four  bones 
of  the  neck,  and  to  the  liga- 
ment of  the  neck ;  inserting 
itself  into  the  covering  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and 
the  muscles  about  the  point 
of  the  shoulder,  and  at  length 
terminating  in  a  ridge  on  the 
lower  bone  of  the  shoulder. 
It  is  a  muscle  of  immense  power 
and  great  utility,  raising  and 
drawing  forward  the  shoulder  and  the  arm,  and,  when  tliese  are  fixed, 
turning  the  head  and  neck  if  one  acts,  and  depressing  them  if  the  muscles 
on  both  sides  act  at  the  same  time. 

At  d  is  a  portion  of  the  great  saw-like  or  tooth-shaped  muscle  of  the 
shoulder,  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  lower  part  of  the  neck ;  deeply 
seated  ;  arising,  as  here  seen,  from  the  five  last  bones  of  the  neck,  and 
llie  two  first  ribs,  and  the  lower  portion  of  it  springing  from  all  the  true 
ribs ;  all  the  fibres  tending  towards,  and  inserted  into  the  inner  surface  of 
<he  shoulder ;  and  by  means  of  which  the  shoulder  is  attached  to  the  chest, 
and  the  immense  weight  of  the  body  supported.  We  have  already  spoken 
of  the  use  of  this  muscle  in  obviating  concussion,  and  presume  the  reader 
tt'ill  bear  in  mind  what  has  been  previously  said. 

When  the  horse  is  stand inu,  this  muscle  occasionally  discharges  another 
important  function.  The  shoulders  and  legs  are  then  rendered  fixed, 
and  immoveable  by  the  weight  of  the  body  ;  and  this  muscle  no  longer 
being  able  to  move   the   limbs,   exerts  its  power  in  enla'-ging  the  cavity 

Q 


234  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  chest,  and  thus  malrrially  assists  in  the  act  of  breathing.  There, 
fore,  as  we  iiave  stated  when  treating  of  that  disease,  a  horse  labourins 
under  inflammation  of  tiie  lungs  will  obstinately  stand  night  and  day,  that 
he  may  obtain  the  assistance  of  this  muscle  in  respiration,  which  is  become 
laborious  and  painful;  and  we  regard  his  lying  down  as  one  of  the  most 
favourable  symptoms  that  can  occur,  because  it  shows  us  tliat  the 
breathing  is  so  much  relieved  that  he  needs  not  the  assistance  of  this 
muscle. 

At  e  is  a  small  portion  of  the  splenious  muscle,  of  which  we  have  spoken 
when  describing  the  neck,  p.  1.54. 

/represents  a  muscle  sometimes  described  as  a  portion  of  the  raiser  of 
the  shoulder,  arising  from  the  nipple-shaped  process  of  the  temporal  bone, 
running  down  the  somewhat  lateral  but  fore-part  of  the  neck,  inserted  into 
the  upper  and  middle  part  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  thence 
continued  down  to  the  arm.  Its  office  is  to  bend  the  head  j  or,  the  head 
and  neck  being  fixed,  to  elevate  and  bring  forward  the  arm.  It  is  in 
powerful  action  when  the  horse  is  running  at  his  speed  with  the  head 
projected. 

At  ^  is  a  portion  of  the  slerno-jnaxUlaris,  or  muscle  common  to  the  fore- 
part of  the  chest  and  the  lower  jaw,  and  described  at  p.  156. 

li  gives  the  principal  muscle,  extending  from  the  shoulder  to  the  lower 
bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  employed  in  drawing  this  bone  towards  the 
«houlder-blade,  and  bending  the  whole  of  the  limb.  Exceedingly  powerful 
action  is  required  from  this  muscle ;  therefore  it  is  very  tendinous,  and 
inserted  in  such  a  direction  as  to  act  with  great  mechanical  advantage,  and 
that  advantage  increased  in  proportion  to  the  slanting  of  the  shoulder. 

The  muscle  at  ?,  aniea  spinalus  (before  the  spine)  is  situated,  as  its  name 
would  intimate,  on  the  external  part  of  the  siioulder,  before  the  spine  or 
ridge,  and  fills  the  whole  of  that  space.  It  proceeds  towards  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  and,  dividing  into  two  parts,  is  inserted  into  the  two  prominences 
in  front  of  that  bone.  It  is  a  very  strong  muscle,  and  extends  the  arm  and 
carries  it  forward. 

The  muscle  ai  j,  poslea  spinalus  (behind  the  spine  or  ridge),  occupies 
that  space.  It  likewise  goes  to  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  is 
inserted  into  the  outer  and  upper  liead  of  the  bone.  It  draws  this  bone 
outward  and  upward. 

At  A:  is  a  muscle  common  to  the  breast  and  the  shoulder-blade,  and 
called  the  liUle  pectoral,  or  breast  muscle.  It  arises  from  the  breast-bone, 
and  reaches  to  the  covering  of  the  shoulder-joint  and  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder.  Its  action,  in  common  with  that  of  a  larger  muscle,  seen  at  m 
{the  great  pectoral),  is  to  draw  back  the  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder  and  the  lower  part  of  t!ie  shoulder-blade,  and  to  make  the  latter 
bone  more  upright. 

At  q  is  the  tendon  of  a  very  important  muscle,  the  long  extensor  of  the 
arm,  extending  from  the  upper  angle,  and  the  posterior  border  of  the 
ehouldei'-blade,  to  tlie  point  of  the  elbow,  and  the  inside  of  the  arm,  and 
which  will  be  presently  described;  and  at  r  and  s  are  the  three  divisions 
of  another  muscle  concerned  in  the  same  office,  arising  from  the  shoulder- 
blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  likewise  attached  to  the  point 
of  tlie  elbow  by  a  very  strong  tendon. 

This  cut  represents  the  muscles  on  the  inside  of  the  shoulder,  and  fore- 
arm, rt  is  a  very  prominent  one.  It  is  called  the  pectoralis  trarisversus 
(the  muscle  crossing  the  breast).  It  arises  from  the  first  four  bones  of 
the  chest,  and  runs  across  to  the  inner  part  of  the  arm,  and  is  in.serted 


THE  LOWER  BONE  OF  THE    SHOULDER. 


23:^ 


into  the  tendinous  substance  covering  the 
muscles  of  the  lore-arm,  and  reaching  a 
considerable  way  down  the  arm.  The 
use  of  this  muscle  is  obvious  and  impor- 
tant. It  binds  the  arm  to  the  side  of  the 
horse ;  it  keeps  the  legs  straight  before 
the  horse  when  he  is  at  speed,  that  the 
vyeight  of  the  body  may  be  received  on 
them  in  a  direction  most  easy  and  safe  to 
the  horse  and  to  the  rider,  and  most 
advantageous  for  the  full  play  of  all 
the  muscles  concerned  in  progression 
Considering  the  unevenness  of  surface 
over  which  a  horse  often  passes,  and 
the  rapid  turnings  which  are  sometimes 
necessary,  these  muscles  have  enough  to 
do:  and  when  the  animal  is  pushed  be- 
yond his  strength,  and  these  muscles  are 
wearied,  and  the  fore-legs  spread  out, 
and  the  horse  is  "a//  abroad,^'  the  con- 
fus(,d  and  unpleasant  manner  of  going, 
and  the  sudden  falling  off  in  his  soeed,  are 
well  known  to.every  rider. 


THE  LOWER  BONE  OF  THE  SHOULDER. 


Fornning  a  joint  with  the  shoulder-blade  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
1  ;he  humerus,  or  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder  (J.  p.  63,  and  p.  230).  It  is 
6  short,  strong  bone,  slanting  backward  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the 
s  loulder-blade.  At  the  upper  part  it  has  a  large  round  head,  received 
into  the  shallow  cavity  of  the  shoulder-blade.  It  has  several  protuberances 
for  the  insertion  of  the  muscles,  and  is  terminated  below  by  two  condyles 
or  heads,  which  in  front  receive  the  principal  bone  of  the  arm  between 
them  as  in  a  groove,  thus  adding  to  the  security  and  strength  of  the  joint, 
and  limiting  the  action  of  this  joint,  and  of  the  limb  below,  to  mere  bending 
and  extension,  without  any  side  motion.  Farther  behind,  these  heads 
receive  the  elbow  deep  between  them,  to  give  more  extensive  action  to  the 
arm.  In  a  well-formed  horse  this  bone  can  scarcely  be  too  short,  in  order 
that  the  fore-legs  may  be  as  forward  as  possible,  for  reasons  at  which  we 
have  already  glanced  ;  and  because,  when  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder 
is  long,  the  slioulder  must  be  too  upright.  Dislocation  can  scarcely  occur 
in  either  of  the  attachments  of  the  bone,  and  fracture  of  it  is  almost 
impossible.  The  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  the  shoulder-blade,  are 
by  horsemen  confounded  together,  and  included  under  the  appellation  of 
the  shoulder,  and  in  compliance  with  general  usage  we  have  described  them 
as  combining  to  form  the  shoulder ;  yet  it  would  be  well  for  the  reader  to 
ulways  bear  in  mind  the  distinction. 

Auiong  the  muscles  arising  from  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  are  two 
cohort  and  very  strong  ones,  seen  at  the  lower  r  and  s,  the  first  proceeding 
from  the  upper  part  of  this  bone  to  the  elbow,  and  the  second  from  the 
internal  part,  and  likewise  going  to  the  elbow,  and  both  of  them  being 
powerful  agents  in  extending  the  leg. 

In  front,  at  y,  is  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder, 
the.  exlrrnal  one,  employed  in   bending   the  arm ;    rising  from   the    innel 


2JJ0  THE  HORSE. 

and  back  part  of  the  neck  and  body  of  the  lower  bone  of  'he  shoulder, 
turning  obliquely  round  that  bone,  and  inserted  into  the  inner  and  upper 
part  of  the  bone  of  the  arm. 

THE  ARxM. 

The  arm  extending  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee  (see  K  and  L,  p.  6:3, 
and  also  cut,  p.  230),  consists  in  the  young  horse  of  two  distinct  bones. 
The  long  and  front  bone,  called  the  rcidiiis,  is  nearly  straight,  receiving 
into  its  upper  end  the  lower  heads  of  tiie  lower  bones  of  the  shoulder;  and 
the  lower  end  corresponding  with  the  upper  layer  of  the  bones  of  the 
knee.  The  short  and  hinder  bone  is  called  llie  ulna.  It  has  a  very  long 
and  powerful  projection,  received  between  the  heads  of  the  lower  bone 
of  the  shoulder,  and  called  the  elbow  ;  it  then  stretches  down,  narrowing 
by  degrees  (see  L,  p.  6-3,  and  the  cut,  p.  230)  to  below  the  middle  of  the 
front  bone,  where  it  terminates  in  a  point.  The  two  bones  are  united 
together  by  cartilage  and  ligament,  but  these  are  by  degrees  absorbed  and 
changed  to  bone,  and  before  the  horse  becomes  old  the  whole  of  the  arm 
consists  of  one  bone  only. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  from  the  slanting  direction  of  the  lower  bone  of 
the  shoulder,  the  weight  of  the  horse,  and  the  violence  of  the  concussion, 
will  be  shared  between  the  radius  and  the  uhia,  and  therefore  less  liable 
to  injure  either;  and  the  circumstance  of  so  much  weight  and  jar  being 
communicated  to  them,  will  account  for  the  extensive  and  peculiarly 
strong  union  between  these  bones  in  the  young  horse,  and  the  speedy 
indammation  of  the  uniting  substance  and  absorption  of  it,  and  substitution 
of  bone,  and  complete  bony  union  between  the  radius  and  ulna  in  the  old 
horse.  The  immense  muscles  which  are  attached  to  tlie  point  of  the 
elbow  likewise  render  it  necessary  that  the  union  between  these  bones 
should  be  very  strong. 

The  arm  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  horse,  as  will  be  seen  when 
we  describe  the  muscles  which  belong  to  it.  We  have  s])okcn  of  those  at 
q,  r,  and  s,  proceeding  from  the  shoulder-blade  and  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  inserted  into  tlie  elbow.  They  are  the  grand  agents  in 
extending  the  arm  ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  power  wliich  they  exert,  will 
be  tlie  quickness  and  the  length  of  the  stride.  The  strength  of  the  horse, 
so  far  as  his  fore-limbs  are  concerned,  princi|)ally  resides  here.  Then  we 
look  for  a  large  and  muscular  arm,  and  we  look  likewise  for  such  a  for. 
mation  of  the  limb,  and  particularly  of  the  elbow,  as  will  enable  these 
muscles  to  act  with  most  advantage. 

The  piinciple  of  the  lever,  to  which  we  have  referred  (p.  231),  is  here 
beautifully  applicable.  The  elbow-joint  is  the  centre  of  motion  ;  the  whole 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  is  the  weight  to  be  raised  ;  and  the  power  by 
M'hich  it  is  to  be  raised  in  one  act  of  progression,  the  extending  of  the 
limb,  is  the  muscles  inserted  into  the  elbow.  In  proportion  as  the  weight 
is  more  distant  than  the  power  from  tlie  centre  of  motion,  as  it  is  in  the 
construction  of  this  limb,  so  will  be  the  greater  degree  of  energy  requisite 
to  be  exerted.  We  will  suppose  that  the  weight,  taking  the  knee  to  be  the 
centre  of  it,  is  eighteen  inches  from  the  elbow-joint,  that  the  limb  weighs 
CO  lbs.,  and  that  the  elbow  projects  two  inches  from  the  joint;  then  an 
energy  equal  to  nine  limes  the  weight,  or  540  lbs.,  will  be  needed  to  move 
and  extend  the  limb,  because  the  weight  is  nine  times  ferther  from  the 
centre  of  motion  than  the  power  is.  We  will  suppose  that  in  another  horse 
the  point  of  the  elbow  projects  three  inches  from  the  jomt,  the  weight  of 
the  leg  remaining  the  same.     Three  are  one-sixth  of  eighteen ;  and  only  six 


THE  ARM.  231 

limes  the  force,  or  360  lbs.,  will  be  required,  making  a  (litTeience  in,  or 
savinjS  of  muscular  action,  equal  to  180  lbs.  in  eacli  extension  of  the  arm. 
If  a  few  pounds  in  the  weight  of  the  rider  tell  so  much  for  or  against  the 
horse  in  a  long  race,  this  saving  of  power  must  make  an  almost  incalculable 
difference;  and,  therefore,  judges  of  the  horse  rightly  attach  so  much 
importance  to  the  depth  of  the  elbow,  or  the  projection  of  the  point  of  the 
elbow  from  the  joint. 

When  describing  the  proper  obliquity  of  the  shoulder,  we  pioved  tliat 
the  power  was  exerted  with  most  advantage  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the 
arm  of  the  lever,  and  that  the  slightest  deviation  from  tiiat  line  was  mani- 
festly disadvantageous.  If  the  reader  will  examine  the  cut,  he  will  perceive 
that  muscles  from  the  shoulder  and  the  bone  of  the  arm  take  a  direction 
much  nearer  to  a  perpendicular  line  in  the  long  than  in  the  short  elbow, 
and  therefore  act  with  proportionably  greater  advantage  ;  and  if  we  add 
this  advantage  from  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied  to  that 
which  we  gain  from  the  increased  length  of  the  bone,  we  shall  be  justified 
in  alHrming  that  the  addition  of  one-third  to  the  length  or  projection  of  the 
elbow  would  be  attended  by  a  saving  of  one-half  in  the  expenditure  of 
muscular  power.  There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  this.  In  proportion  as  the 
elbow  is  lengthened,  it  must  move  over  a  greater  space  in  order  to  give  the 
requisite  extension  to  the  limb;  and  consequently  the  muscles  which  act 
upon  it  must  be  lengthened,  otherwise  we  might  have  easy  but  confined 
action.  There  must  be  harmony  of  proportion  in  the  difierent  parts  of 
the  limb,  but  a  deep  elbow,  within  a  certain  range,  is  always  connected 
with  increased  power  of  action. 

Tiie  elbow  is  sometimes  fractured.  If  the  animal  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  skilful  veterinarian,  although  the  chances  of  cure  are  certainly  against 
the  horse,  yet  the  owner  n.eed  not  despair.  Absolute  and  long-continued 
rest,  and  that  produced  by  means  of  a  sling,  will  be  indispensable. 

Enlargements  sometimes  appear  about  the  elbow,  eitlier  the  consequence 
of  a  violent  blow,  or  from  the  calkins  of  the  shoes  injuring  this  part  when 
ihe  horse  sleeps  with  his  legs  doubled  under  iiim.  If  a  seton  be  passed 
through  the  tumour,  it  will  sometimes  rapidly  diminish,  and  even  disappear; 
but  if  it  be  of  considerable  magnitude,  the  skin  should  be  slit  open  along 
the  middle  of  the  swelling,  and  the  tumour  dissected  out. 

The  elbow-joint  is  sometimes  punctured,  either  accidentally,  or  through 
the  brutality  of  the  groom  or  carter.  Tiie  swelling  is  often  rapid  and 
extensive,  and  fatal  inHanmiation  may  ensue.  Rest,  and  the  closure  of  the 
wound,  are  the  most  important  considerations. 

There  are  other  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  employed  in  extending  the  limb. 
At  X,  page  233,  is  the  principal  one,  called  the  exlensor  of  the  leg  ;  it  is  of 
considerable  bulk,  and  occupies  the  front  part  of  the  arm.  It  arises  from 
tlie  lower  part  of  the  body  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  from  its 
outer  head.  As  it  descends  down  the  arm,  it  becomes  tendinous ;  the  tendon 
passes  under  one  of  the  ligaments  of  tlte  knee;  it  then  spreads  out,  and  is 
inserted  into  the  fore  and  upper  part  of  the  shank  bone.  It  is  also  seen  at 
b,  page  235. 

The  next  muscle  in  situation  and  importance  is  seen  at  %t>,  and  called  the 
extensor  of  the  foot.  It  rises  from  the  outer  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder,  and  likewise  from  the  outer  head  of  the  bone  of  the  arm.  It 
becomes  tendinous  as  it  proceeds,  and  passes  under  a  strong  ring  at  the 
knee,  by  vviiich  it  is  confined  in  its  proper  situation ;  it  then  runs  along  the 
f-ont  of  the  shank-bone,  tied  down  by  a  strong  cellulor  substance;  passes 
over  tiie  fietlock,  and  part  of  the  upper  pastern;  is  inserted  into  the  lower 
pail  o(  tlie  upper  pastern,  into  the  lower  pastern,  and  the  colTin-bone  or  bon** 


■j:{S  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  foot.  It  therefure  extends  all  these  bones ;  and  as  it  passes  over  the 
shank,  being  tied  down  to  it  in  every  part  of  its  course,  it  likewise  serves 
lO  extend  that  bone. 

At  v.,  page  233,  is  the  tendon  of  another  extensor  muscle,  and  at  z  a 
curious  oblique  one,  passing  over  the  tendon  of  x,  confining  it  in  its  situa- 
tion, and  likewise  itself  assisting  in  extending  or  straightening  the  leg. 

The  muscles  employed  in  bending  the  leg  are  both  numerous  and  power 
ful.  Two  of  the  superficial  ones  are  given  in  the  cut,  page  233.  The 
first  is  at  t,  page  233  ;  it  is  also  seen  at  b,  page  235.  It  is  called  the  mid- 
dle Jlexor,  or  bending  muscle  of  the  shank-bone,  because  it  lies  precisely 
on  the  middle  of  the  back  part  of  the  arm.  It  rises  from  the  inner  head 
of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  is  inserted  into  one  of  the  bones  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  knee.  The  other  is  seen  at  v,  page  233.  It  is  called 
the  external  flexor  of  the  leg,  because  it  lies  on  the  outer  side  of  the  arm, 
towards  the  back.  It  rises  from  the  outer  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the 
shoulder;  advancing  towards  the  knee,  it  is  tendinous,  and  the  tendon 
divides  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  is  inserted  into  the  same  bone  of  the 
knee,  and  the  other  into  the  outer  small  bone  of  the  leg.  The  internal 
flexor  is  seen  at  e,  page  235.  It  proceeds  from  the  inner  head  of  the  loAvei 
bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  is  inserted  into  the  head  of  the  inner  splint  bone, 
and  its  office  is  to  bend  the  leg,  and  very  slightly  turn  it.  A  portion  of  one 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  flexor  muscles,  and  powerful  indeed  they 
must  be,  is  delineated  at  c,  page  235.  It  is  the  Jlexor  of  the  arm.  It  rises 
from  the  extremity  of  the  ridge  of  the  shoulder-blade  in  the  form  of  a  large 
and  round  tendon,  which  runs  between  the  two  prominences  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  front  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  in  as  perfect  a  groove 
or  pulley  as  art  ever  contrived.  This  groove  is  lined  witli  smooth  cartilage; 
and  between  it  and  the  tendon  there  is  an  oily  fluid,  so  that  the  tendon  plays 
freely  in  the  pulley  without  friction.  Having  escaped  from  this  pulley,  and 
passed  the  head  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  the  cord  swells  out  into 
a  round  fleshy  body,  still  containing  many  tendinous  fibres.  Deeply  seated, 
it  contributes  materially  to  the  bulk  of  the  front  of  the  arm ;  and, 
having  reached  the  arm,  it  is  inserted  into  the  head  and  neck  of  the 
bone  of  the  arm,  and  likewise  into  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  elbow- 
joint.  It  is  the  main  muscle  by  which,  almost  alone,  the  whole  of  the  leg 
below  the  arm  is  bent. 

It  acts  at  great  disadvantage.  It  is  inserted  into  the  very  head  of  the 
bone  of  the  arm,  and  expanded  even  upon  the  joint.  Then  the  power  is 
applied  almost  close  to  the  centre  of  motion,  while  the  weight  to  be  raised 
is  fiir  distant  from  it.  The  power  is  tiiirty  times  nearer  the  centre  of 
motion  than  is  the  weight ;  and,  calculating,  as  before,  the  weight  of  the 
arm  and  the  rest  of  the  limb  at  tJO  lbs.,  it  must  act  with  the  force  of  thirty 
times  sixty,  or  1800  lbs.  In  addition  to  this,  the  line  of  the  direction  of 
the  force  strangely  deviates  from  a  perpendicular:  the  direction  of  the 
muscle  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  limb,  and  the  mechanical  disad- 
vantage is  almost  incalculably  great.  We  will  take  it  at  only  ten  times 
more;  then  this  muscle,  and  its  feeble  coadjutors,  act  with  a  force  of  ten 
times  1800,  or  18,000  lbs. 

Why  this  almost  incredible  expenditure  of  muscular  power  ?  First,  that 
the  beauty  of  the  limb  might  be  preserved,  and  the  joint  might  be  compact. 
If  tiie  tendon  had  been  inserted  half  way  down  the  arm,  the  elbow-joint 
would  have  offered  a  very  unsightly  appearance. 

Beauty  of  form,  however,  is  the  least  result  of  this  conformation  ;  with- 
out it  the  animal  would  not  have  been  fitted  for  the  purposes  to  which  wo 
devote  him.     It  is  the  law  of  mechanics,  that  what  is  lost  in  pc  Aver  is  gained 


THE  ARM.  239 

in  velocity.  The  product  of  the  power,  and  the  space  passed  over  Ity  tha 
arm  of  the  lever  to  which  it  is  attached,  must  always  be  equal  to  the  pro- 
duct of  the  weight,  and  of  the  space  passed  over  by  the  arm  that  supports 
it;  and  if  a  power,  equal  to  thirty  times  the  weight,  is  obliged  to  be 
exerted  at  the  upper  part  of  the  bone  of  the  arm,  the  centre  of  that  bone., 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  centre  of  the  weight,  will  pass  over  thirty 
times  the  space,  and  the  extremity  of  the  limb  will  pass  over  sixty  times 
the  space.  The  muscle  will  contract  with  a  great  deal  of  rapidity,  but  the 
foot  will  move  with  sixty  times  that  rapidity,  in  order  to  pass  over  sixty 
times  the  space  in  the  same  time.  This  is  precisely  what  we  want.  Exten- 
sive and  rapid  motion  are  the  excellencies  of  the  horse.  He  is  valuable  irl 
proportion  as  he  has  them  combined  with  stoutness ;  and  by  this  confor- 
mation of  the  limb  alone  could  he  obtain  them.  Therefore  the  tendon  is 
at  firjit  unusually  strong;  it  plays  tiirough  tiie  natural  but  perfect  pulley 
of  the  bone  of  the  arm  witiiout  friction ;  the  body  of  the  muscle  is  mixed 
with  tendinous  fibres,  and  the  insertion  into  the  fore-arm  is  very  extensive, 
lest  the  application  of  such  immense  force  should  tear  it  from  its  adhe- 
aions.  There  is  sufficient  strength  in  the  apparatus;  tlie  powur  may  be 
safely  applied  at  this  ipechanical  disadvantage ;  and  it  is  applied  close  to 
\.he  joint  to  give  an  extent  and  rapidity  of  motion  which  could  not  otherwise 
have  been  obtained,  and  without  which  the  horse  would  have  been  compar- 
atively useless. 

At  the  back  of  the  arm  are  other  flexor  muscles  of  great  power,  to  bend 
the  lower  portions  of  the  limb.  We  have  described  two  of  them  belonging 
to  the  arm  and  the  leg,  and  we  must  not  pass  over  the  very  peculiar  ones 
acting  on  the  feet.  Only  a  small  portion  of  one  of  them  can  be  seen  in  our 
cut,  page  233,  at  1. 

The  first  is  the  perforated  Jlexor  muscle:  the  reason  of  the  name  will 
presently  appear,  it  rises  from  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  inner  head 
of  the  lower  bone  of  the  shoulder,  and  intermixed  with,  or  rather  between 
ihe  origins  of  the  muscle  next  to  be  described,  and  called  the  perforating 
muscle.  As  it  descends  along  the  bone  of  the  arm,  it  becomes  tendinous ; 
and,  approaching  the  knee,  it  is  bound  down  by  arches  or  bands  of  liga- 
ment, that  it  may  not  start  in  sudden  and  violent  action.  Proceeding  from 
the  knee  it  widens,  and  partly  wraps  round  the  tendon  of  the  perforating 
muscle,  and  they  run  down  together  in  contact,  yet  not  adhering;  freely 
playing  over  each  other,  and  mucous  fluid  obviating  all  friction.  Both  of 
them  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath  of  dense  cellular  substance,  attached  to  them 
by  numerous  fibrils;  and  they  are  likewise  supported  by  various  ligament- 
ous expansions.  Near  the  fetlock  the  tendon  still  farther  expands,  and 
forms  a  complete  ring  round  the  tendon  of  the  perforating  muscle.  This 
is  seen  at  J,  p.  111.  The  use  of  this  will  be  best  explained  when  we  are 
treating  of  the  fetlock.  Tiie  perforated  tendon  soon  afterwards  divides,  and 
is  inserted  into  the  smaller  and  larger  pastern  bones,  and  flexes  or  bends  them. 

The  next  is  the  perforating  flexor  muscle.  It  has  nearly  the  same  origin 
as  the  other,  but  with  somewhat  distinct  heads,  it  continues  muscular 
farther  down  the  arm  than  the  perforated,  and  lies  before  it.  At  the  knee 
't  passes,  like  the  perforated,  under  strong  ligamentary  arches,  which 
confine  it  in  its  situation.  It  then  becomes  round,  and  is  partly  wrapped 
up  in  the  perforated  ;  and  at  the  fetlock  is  entirely  surrounded  by  it.  It 
©merges  from  the  perforated  when  that  tendon  divides,  and  continues  itg 
progress  alone  after  the  other  has  inserted  itself  into  the  pasterns,  and 
passing  over  the  navicular  bone,  terminates  on  the  base  of  the  coffin-bone, 
or  bone  of  the  foot. 

It  is   sufficiently  plain   that   the    arm  should  be  large  and    muscular, 


2H 


THE  HORSE. 


Otherwise  it  cannot  discharge  all  these  duties.  Horsemeri  differ  on  a 
variety  of  ot^er  points,  but  here  they  are  agreed.  A  full  and  s\veiling» 
fore-arm  is  tne  ciiaracteristic  of  every  thorough-bred  horse,  and  for  speet 
and  continuance  he  is  unequalled.  Whatever  other  good  points  a  horse 
may  possess,  if  the  arm  be  narrow  in  front  and  near  the  shoulder,  flat  on 
the  side,  and  altogether  poor  in  appearance,  that  horse  is  radically  defect- 
ive ;  he  can  neither  raise  his  knee  for  rapid  action,  nor  throw  his  leg.** 
sufficiently  forward. 

The  arm  should  likewise  be  long.  In  proportion  to  the  length  of  the 
muscle  is  the  degree  of  contraction  of  which  it  is  capable;  and  in  propor- 
tion to  the  degree  of  contraction  in  the  muscle,  will  be  the  e.\tent  of  motion 
in  the  part  of  the  limb  beneath.  A  racer,  with  a  short  arm,  would  be 
sadly  deficient  in  stride  ;  a  hunter,  with  the  same  defect,  would  not  be  able 
to  double  his  legs  well  under  him  in  the  I-eap.  There  is,  however,  a  medium 
in  this,  and  the  advantage  of  length  in  the  arm  will  depend  on  the  use  to 
which  the  horse  is  applied.  The  lady's  horse,  the  cavalry  horse,  every 
horse  in  which  prancing  action  is  esteemed  a  beauty,  and  in  which  utility 
is,  to  a  certain  degree,  sacrificed  to  appearance,  must  not  be  too  long  in  the 
arm.  If  he  be  long  there,  he  will  be  proportionably  short  in  the  leg;  and 
although  this  is  an  undoubted  excellence,  whether  speed  or  continuance  be 
regarded,  the  short  leg  will  not  give  the  grand  and  imposing  action  which 
fashion  may  require  :  and,  in  addition  to  this,  a  horse  with  short  legs  may 
not  have  quite  so  easy  action  as  another  whose  length  is  in  the  shan'k  rather 
than  in  the  arm. 

THE  KNEE. 

The  Knee  (M,  p.  63,  and  Cut,  p.  230)  constitutes  the  joint  or  joints 
between  the  arm  and  the  shank  or  leg;  and  it  is  far  more  complicated  than 
any  joint  we  have  yet  considered.  Beside  the  lower  head  of  the  bone  of 
the  arm,  and  the  upper  heads  of  the  three  bones  of  the  leg,  there  are 
no  less  than  six  other  bones  interposed,  arranged  in  two  rows,  three  in  each 
row,  and  the  seventh  placed  behind  the  other,  to  which  an  eighth  is  some- 
times added. 

What  was  the  intention  of  this  complicated  structure  ?  A  joint  between 
the  elbow  and  the  fetlock  was  absolutely  necessary  to  the  action  of  tlie 
norse.  An  inflexible  pillar  of  that  length  could  scarcely  have  been  lifted 
from  the  ground,  and  certainly  could  not  have  been  lifted  far  enough  for 
rapid  or  safe  motion.  It  was  likewise  necessary,  that  the  interposing  joint 
should  be  so  constituted  as  to  preserve  this  part  of  the  limb  in  a  straight 
direction,  and  should  possess  sufficient  strength  to  resist  all  common  work 
and  accidents.  Being  in  a  straight  direction,  the  shock  or  jar  between  the 
ends  of  the  bones  of  the  arm  and  the  leg  would  be  dreadful,  and  would 
speedily  inflict  irreparable  injury.  The  heads  of  all  bones  are  covered 
with  elastic  cartilage,  to  protect  them  from  injury  by  concussion,  but  this 
would  be  altogether  insufficient  here.  Six  distinct  bones,  then,  are  placed 
here,  each  covered  above  and  below  by  a  thick  coating  of  cartilage,  con- 
nected together  by  strong  ligaments,  but  separated  by  fluids  and  mem- 
branes interposed.  The  concussion  is  thus  spread  over  the  whole  of  them 
and  shared  by  the  whole  of  them  ;  and,  by  the  peculiarity  of  their  connection, 
deadened  and  rendered   harmless. 

These  six  distinct  bones,  united  to  eacli  other  by  numerous  and  powerful 
ligaments,  will  also  afford  a  far  stronger  joint  than  the  apposition  of  any 
two  bon  s,  however  perfect  and  strong  might  be  the  capsular  ligament,  or 
oy  Mhat  ver  other  ligaments  it  could  be  strengthened.     In  addition  to  thf 


THE  KNEE.  241 

connection  between  the  individual  bones,  there  is  a  perfect  capsular  liga- 
meat  here,  extending  from  the  bone  of  the  arm  to  those  of  the  leg; 
and  tlie  result  of  the  whole  is,  that,  although  the  centre  of  such  a  column 
must  be  the  weakest  part,  and  most  liable  to  bow  out  and  give  way,  the 
hardest  work  and  the  severest  accidents  produce  little  deformity,  and  no 
dislocation  in  tlie  knee :  nor  do  the  shocks  and  jars  of  many  a  year  cause 
inflammation  or  disease.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  such  is  the  perfect 
construction  of  this  joint,  and  to  so  great  a  degree  does  it  lessen  concus- 
sion, that  tlie  injuries  resulting  from  hard  work  are,  almost  without  an 
exception,  found  below  the  knee. 

The  seventh  bone,  the  trapezium,  so  called  from  its  quadrangular  figure, 
is  placed  (see  M,  p.  63)  behind  the  ofhers,  and  does  not  bear  tiie  sliglUest 
portion  of  the  weight.  It,  however,  is  very  useful.  Two  of  the  flexor 
muscles,  already  described,  proceeding  from  the  bone  of  the  arm,  are 
inserted  into  it;  and  thus,  being  thrown  off  the  limb,  have  a  less  oblique 
direction  given  to  them;  and,  therefore,  according  to  the  principle  of  tlie 
lever,  act  with  considerably  more  power.  It  is  also  useful  in  another  way. 
As  the  tendons  of  the  various  muscles  descend  the  limbs,  they  are  tied 
down,  as  we  have  described,  by  strong  ligamentous  bands :  this  is  particu- 
larly the  case  in  the  neiglibourhood  of  the  joints.  The  use  of  this  is 
evident.  The  extensor  tendons;  which  lie  princi])ally  on  the  front  of  the 
leg,  are  prevented  from  starting,  and  strengthened  and  assisted  in  their 
action  ;  but  the  flexor  tendons  which  lie  at  the  back  would  be  liable  to 
friction,  and  their  motion  would  he  im|)eded,  if  they  were  bound  down  toe 
lightly.  This  projecting  bone  prevents  the  annular  or  ring. like  ligament 
from  pressing  too  closely  on  the  main  flexor  tendons  of  the  foot;  and  while 
it  leaves  them  room  to  play,  leaves  room  likewise  for  a  little  bag,  filled  with 
mucus,  to  surround  them,  which  mucus,  oozing  slowly  out,  supplies  the 
whole  course  of  tlie  tendons  down  the  legs  with  a  fluid  that  takes  away 
the  possibiliiy  of  injurious  friction. 

The  knee  should  be  broad.  It  should  present  a  very  striking  width, 
compared  with  the  arm  above,  or  the  shank  below.  The  broader  the 
knee  is,  the  more  space  there  is  for  the  attachment  of  muscles,  and  for  the 
accumulation  of  ligamentous  expansions  and  bands.  In  proportion  to 
the  breadth  of  the  knee  there  will  be  more  strength ;  and  likewise  the 
direction  of  some  muscles  will  be  less  oblique,  and  those  of  others  will  be 
more  removed  from  the  centre  of  motion ;  and,  in  either  case,  mucli  power 
will  be  gained. 

BROKEN  KNEES. 

The  treatment  of  broken  knees  is  a  subject  of  considerable  importance, 
for  many  horses  are  sadly  blemished,  and  others  are  destroyed,  by  wounds 
in  the  knee-joint.  The  horse,  when  falling,  naturally  throws  his  knees 
forward  ;  they  receive  all  his  weight,  and  are  sometimes  very  extensively 
lacerated.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is,  by  very  careful  washing  with 
warm  water,  to  cleanse  the  wound  fi'om  all  gravel  and  dirt.  It  must  then 
le  ascertained  whether  the  joint  is  penetrated.  The  grating  of  the  probe 
ml  one  of  the  bones  of  the  knee,  or  the  depth  to  which  the  probe  enters 
(he  wound,  will  often  too  plainly  indicate  that  the  joint  has  been  opened. 
Should  any  doubt  exist,  let  a  linseed-meal  poultice  be  applied.  This  will 
at  least  act  as  a  fomentation  to  the  wound,  and  will  prevent  or  abate 
inflammation  ;  and  when,  twelve  hours  afterwards,  it  is  taJ<en  off,  the 
synox'ia,  or  joint-oil,  in  the  form  of  a  glairy,  yellowish,  transparent  fluia, 
will  be  seen,  if  the  capsular  ligament  has  been  penetrated.  Should  doubl 
lemain  after  the  first  poultice,  apply  a  second. 


242  THE  HORSE. 

The  opening  of  the  joint  being  ascertnined,  the  first  and  immediate  care 
is  to  close  the  orifice;  for  the  fiuid  wiiich  separated  and  lubricated  the 
bones  of  the  kneo  being  suH^ered  to  How  out,  tliey  will  be  brought  into 
actual  contact  with  each  other;  they  will  rub  upon  each  other;  tiie  delicate 
membrane  with  which  they  are  covered  will  be  highly  inflamed  ;  the  con. 
stitution  will  be  speedily  affected,  and  a  degree  of  fever  will  ensue  <hat  will 
destroy  the  horse :  and  in  the  mean  time,  of  all  the  tortures  that  can  be 
inflicted  on  the  poor  animal,  none  can  equal  that  which  accompanies 
inflammation  of  the  membranes  lining  the  joints. 

The  manner  of  closing  the  orifice  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
veterinary  surgeon,  who  alone  is  capable  of  properly  treating  such  a  case. 
It  may  be  effected  by  a  compress  inclosing  the  whole  of  the  wound,  and 
not  to  be  removed  for  many  days ;  or  it  may  be  attempted  by  the  old  and 
generally  successful  method  of  applying  the  hot  iron  over  the  wound,  and 
particularly  over  the  spot  where  the  ligament  appears  to  be  lacerated.  A 
poultice  may  then  be  placed  on  the  part,  and  the  case  treated  as  a  common 
wound.  Should  the  joint-oil  continue  to  flow,  the  iron  may  be  applied  a 
second,  or  even  a  third  time.  By  the  application  of  the  iron,  so  much 
swelling  is  produced  on  the  immediate  puncture,  and  in  the  neighbouring 
parts,  as  mech-anically  to  close  and  plug  up  the  orifice. 

If,  however,  the  opening  into  the  joint  be  extensive,  and  the  joint-oil 
continues  to  flow,  and  the  horse  is  evidently  suffering  much  pain,  humanity 
will  dictate  that  he  should  be  destroyed.  The  case  is  hopeless.  A  high 
degree  of  fever  will  ere  long  carry  the  animal  off,  or  the  inflammation  will 
cause  a  deposit  of  matter  in  the  cavity  of  the  joint  which  will  produce 
incurable  lameness. 

The  pain  caused  by  the  iron  is  doubtless  great ;  it  is,  however,  necessary; 
but  let  no  reader  of  "The  Horse"  permit  the  torturing  e.xperiments  of  the 
farrier  to  be  tried,  who  will  frequently  inject  stimulating  fluids,  and  even 
oil  of  vitriol,  into  one  of  tlie  most  sensible  and  irritable  cavities  in  the 
whole  frame. 

A  person  well  acquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  part  will  judge  of  the 
probability  of  a  favourable  result,  not  merely  by  the  extent,  but  by  the 
situation  of  the  wound.  If  it  is  low  down  and  opposite  to  the  bottom  row, 
a  small  opening  into  the  joint  will  be  easily  closed  ;  a  larger  one  need  not 
cause  despair,  because  there  is  little  motion  between  the  lower  row  and  the 
bones  of  the  leg.  If  it  be  higli  up,  there  is  more  danger,  because  there  is 
more  motion.  If  it  be  situated  opposite  to  the  union  of  the  two  rows,  the 
result  is  most  to  be  dreaded,  because  between  these  is  the  principal  motion 
of  the  joint,  and  that  motion  would  not  only  disunite  and  irritate  the  external 
wound,  but  cause  dreadful  friction  between  the  bones  brought  into  actual 
contact  with  each  other,  throuijfh  the  loss  of  the  joint-oil. 

When  the  skin  has  been  lacerated,  although  the  wound  may  be  healed, 
some  blemish  will  remain.  The  extent  of  this  blemish  will  depend  on  the 
extent  and  nature  of  the  original  wound,  and  more  especially  on  the  nature 
of  the  treatment  which  has  been  adopted.  Every  caustic  application  will 
destroy  more  of  the  skin,  and  leave  a  larger  mark.  Should  the  blemish 
be  considerable,  a  mild  blister  may  be  applied  over  the  part,  after  the 
wound  has  healed.  It  will  stimulate  the  hair  to  grow  more  rapidly  and 
thickly  round  the  scar,  and  particularly  hair  of  the  natural  colour;  and 
by  contracting  the  skin  it  will  lessen  the  scar  itself.  Many  persons  have 
great  faith  in  ointments,  which  are  said  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair. 
If  they  have  that  property,  it  must  be  from  stimulating  the  skin,  in  which 
the  roots  of  the  hair  are  embedded.  These  ointinents  must  contain  a 
small  portion  of  blistering  matter,  in  the  form  of  turpentine,  or  the  Spanish- 


THE  LEG.  2  13 

fly.  The  common  application  of  gunpowder  and  lard,  may,  hy  bkckening 
the  part,  conceal  the  blemish,  but  can  have  no  possible  effect  in  quickening 
the  growth  of  tlie  hair. 

In  examining  a  horse  for  purchase,  the  knees  are  very  strictly  scru 
tinized.  A  blemish  on  them  should  not  induce  us  at  once  to  condemn 
the  animal ;  for  a  bad  rider,  or  the  merest  accident,  may  throw  the  safest 
horse.  A  broken  knee,  however,  is  a  suspicious  circumstance,  and  calls 
for  the  most  careful  observation  of  the  make  and  action  of  he  horse.  If 
it  be  accompanied  by  a  thick  and  upright  shoulder,  and  legs  far  -mder  the 
liorse,  and  low  slovenly  action,  he  is  unwise  who  does  not  take  the  hint: 
this  faulty  combination  has  produced  its  natural  consequence.  But  if  the 
shoulder 'be  oblique,  and  the  withers  high,  and  the  fore-arm  strong,  the 
good  judge  will  not  reject  the  animal,  because  he  may  have  been  accident- 
ally thrown. 

THE  LEG. 

The  part  of  the  limh  between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock  consists  of  three 
Dones — a  large  one  before,  called  the  cannon  or  shank,  and  two  smaller  or 
sp/inl  bones  behind  (see  N,  p.  63).  The  shank-bone  is  rounded  in  front, 
and  flattened,  or  even  concave  behind.  It  is  the  straightest  of  the  long 
bones,  as  well  as  the  most  superficially  situated,  for  in  some  parts  it  is 
covered  only  by  the  skin.  The  upper  head  is  flat,  with  slight  depressions 
corresponding  with  the  lower  row  of  the  bones  of  the  knee.  The  lower 
head  is  differently  and  curiously  formed.  It  resembles  a  double  pulley. 
There  are  three  elevations,  the  principal  one  in  the  centre,  and  one  on  each 
side;  and  between  them  are  two  slight  grooves;  and  these  so  precisely 
correspond  with  deep  depressions  and  slight  prominences  in  the  upper  head 
of  the  larger  pastern,  and  are  so  inclosed  and  guarded,  by  the  elevated 
edges  of  that  bone,  that  when  the  shank-bone  and  the  pastern  are  fitted  to 
each  other,  they  form  a  perfect  hinge:  they  admit  of  the  bending  and 
extension  of  the  limb,  but  of  no  lateral  or  side  motion  ;  which  is  a  circum- 
stance  of  very  great  importance  in  a  joint  so  situated,  and  having  the  whole 
weight  of  the  horse  thrown  upon  it. 

The  smaller  bones  are  placed  behind  the  larger  on  either  side  ;  a  slight 
projection  only  of  the  head  of  each  can  be  seen  in  front.  The  heads  of 
these  bones  are  enlarged,  and  receive  part  of  the  weight  conveyed  by  the 
lower  row  of  the  bones  of  the  knee.  They  are  united  to  the  larger  bone 
by  the  same  kind  of  substance  which  is  found  in  the  colt  between  the  bone 
of  the  elbow  and  the  main  bone  of  the  arm  ;  and  which  is  designed,  like 
that,  by  its  great  elasticity,  to  lessen  the  concussion  or  jar  when  the  weight 
of  the  "animal  is  thrown  on  them.  They  reach  from  one-half  to  two-tiiirda 
of  the  length  of  the  shank-bone,  and,  through  their  whole  extent,  are 
united  to  it"  by  this  substance  ;  but,  as  in  the  elbow,  from  the  animal  being 
worked  too  soon,  or  too  violently,  inflammation  ensues,  and  bony  matter 
is  deposited  in  the  room  of  the  ligamentous;  and  a  bony  union  takes 
place  instead  of  the  natural  one.  "There  is  no  doubt  that  the  ease  of 
motion  is  somewhat  lessened  by  this  substitution  of  bone,  but  other  elastic 
principles  are  probably  called  into  more  powerful  action,  and  the  value  of 
the  horse  is  not  perceptibly  impaired  ;  although  it  is  hard  to  say  what  secret 
mjury  may  be  done  to  the  neighbouring  joints,  and  the  cause  of  which, 
lameness  appearing  at  a  distant  period,  is  not  suspected. 

In  this  process,  however,  mischief  does  often  immediately  extend  to  the 
neighbouring  parts.  The  disposition  to  deposit  bone  reaches  beyond  the 
:?ircumscribed  space  between  the  larger  and  smaller  bones  of  the  leg,  and 


,  44  THE  HORSE. 

L  tumour,  first  caiious  and  afterwards  bony,  is  found,  with  part  of  i's  base 
resting  on  tlie  line  of  union  between  these  bones.     This  is  called  a 

SPLINT. 

The  splint  is  invariably  found  on  the  outside  of  the  small  bone,  and 
generally  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  (c,  p.  255).  Why  it  should  appear  on 
the  outside  of  the  small  bones  it  is  difficult  to  explain,  e.xcepl  that  tlie  space 
between  these  bones  is  occupied  by  an  important  mechanism,  which  will  be 
presently  described  ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  absce.ss,  a  natural  tendenc)'' 
was  given  to  them  to  determine  outward,  that  vital  parts  may  not  be 
injured.  The  cause  of  their  almost  exclusive  appearance  on  the  inside  of 
the  leg  admits  of  easier  explanation.  The  inner  splint-bone  is  placed 
nearer  the  centre  of  the  weight  of  the  body  than  the  other,  and,  from  the 
nature  of  its  connection  with  the  bones  of  the  knee,  actually  receives  more 
of  the  weight  than  does  the  outer  bone,  and  therefore  is  more  liable  to  injury, 
and  inflammation,  and  this  consequent  deposit  of  bone.  Tiie  inner  bone 
receives  the  whole  of  the  weight  transmitted  to  one  of  the  small  bones  of  the 
knee.  It  is  the  only  support  of  that  bone.  A  portion  only  of  one  of  the 
bones  rest  on  the  outer-splint  bone,  and  the  weight  is  shared  between  it 
and  the  shank.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  the  absurd  practice  of  many  smiths 
to  raise  the  outer  heel  of  the  shoe  to  an  extravagant  degree,  which  throws 
still  more  of  the  weight  of  the  horse  on  the  inner  splint-bone.  These  tumours 
occasionally  appear  on  other  parts  of  the  sliank-bone,  being  the  consequence 
of  violent  blows,  or  other  external  injuries. 

Wlien  the  splint  is  forming,  the  horse  is  frequently  lame.  The  pen- 
osteum  or  membrane  covering  the  bone  is  painfully  stretched  ;  but  when 
this  membrane  has  accommodated  itself  to  the  tumour  that  extended  it, 
the  lameness  subsides  and  altogether  disappears,  unless  the  splint  be  in  a 
situation  in  which  it  interferes  with  the  action  of  some  tendon  or  ligament, 
or  in  tlie  immediate  neighbourhood  of  a  joint.  Pressing  upon  a  ligament 
or  tendon,  it  may  cause  inflammation  of  those  substances  ;  or,  being  close 
to  a  joint,  it  may  interfere  with  its  action.  Splints,  then,  do  not  necessarily 
cause  unsoundness,  and  may  not  lessen  in  the  slightest  degree  the  action 
or  value  of  the  horse.  All  depends  on  their  situation.  When  we  have 
described  the  situation  and  course  of  the  suspensory  ligaments,  we  shall  be 
(jnabled  to  enter  more  fully  into  this. 

The  treatmer/i  of  splints,  if  it  be  worth  while  to  meddle  with  them,  is 
exceedingly  simple.  The  hair  should  be  closely  shaved  ofi'  round  the 
tumour;  a  litt'f;  strong  mercurial  ointm.ent  rubbed  in  for  two  days;  and 
this  should  be  followed  by  an  active  blister.  If  the  splint  be  of  recent 
formation,  it  will  usually  yield  to  this,  or  to  a  second  blister.  Should  it 
resist  these  aoulioations,  it  can  rarely  be  advisab'e  to  cauterize  the  part, 
unless  the  trniour  interferes  materially  with  the  action  of  the  suspensory 
ligament;  for  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that,  although  the  splint  may 
have  appa'ently  resisted  this  treatment,  it  will  afterwards,  and  at  no  great 
distance  of  time,  begin  rapidly  to  lessen,  and  quite  disappear.  There  is 
also  a  natural  process  by  which  the  greater  part  of  splints  disappear  when 
the  horse  gels  old. 

As  for  the  old  remedies,  many  of  them  brutal  enough — bruising  the 
splint  wit,h  a  hammer,  boring  it  with  a  gimlet,  chipping  it  olFwith  a  mallet, 
sawirfj  it  off",  slitting  down  the  skin  and  periosteum  over  it,  sweating  it 
down  with  hot  oils,  and  passing  setons  over  it — the  voice  of  humanity,  and 
'J\e  progress  of  science,  will  consign  them  to^ speedy  oblivion. 

'I  he  luside  of  the  leg,  immediately  under  the  knee,  and  extending  to  the 


SPLINT.  245 

head  of  tlie  inner  splint-bone,  is  subject  to  injury  from  what  is  teimed  tlie 
speedy  cut.  A  horse  with  high  action,  and  in  the  fast  trot,  violently  strikes 
this  purl  either  with  his  hoof  or  the  edge  of  the  shoe.  Sometimes  bonj 
enlargement  is  tlie  result,  at  others  great  heat  and  tenderness;  and  the 
pain  from  the  blow  seems  occasionally  to  be  so  great,  that  the  horse  drops 
as  if  he  were  shot.  The  only  remedy  is  to  take  care  that  no  part  of  the 
shoe  projects  beyond  the  foot ;  and  to  let  the  inner  side  of  the  shoe,  except 
the  country  be  very  deep,  or  the  horse  be  used  for  hunting,  have  but  one 
nail,  and  that  near  the  toe.  This  part  of  the  hoof,  being  unfettered  with 
nails,  will  expand  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  contract 
when  in  the  air,  and  relieved  from  the  pressure  of  the  weight  of  the  body; 
and,  although  this  contraction  is  to  no  great  extent,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
carry  the  foot  harmlessly  by  the  leg.  Care  should  likewise  be  taken  that 
the  shoe  be  of  equal  thickness  at  the  heel  and  the  toe,  and  that  the  bearing 
be  equal  on  both  sides. 

Immediately  under  the  knee  we  find  one  of  those  ligamentous  rings  by 
which  the  tendons  are  so  usefully  bound  down  and  secured;  but  if  the 
hinder  bone  of  the  knee,  the  trapezium,  described  at  p.  241,  be  not  suffi- 
ciently prominent,  this  ring  will  confine  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  foot  too 
tightly,  and  the  leg  will  be  very  deficient  in  depth  under  the  knee.  This 
is  called  being  tied  in  below  the  knee  {b.  p.  255).  Every  horseman  recog- 
nises it  as  a  most  serious  defect.  It  is  scarcely  compatible  with  speed,  and 
most  assuredly  not  with  continuance.  Such  a  horse  cannot  be  ridden  far 
and  fast  without  serious  sprain  of  the  back  sinews.  The  reason  is  plain: 
the  pressure  of  the  ring  will  produce  a  degree  of  friction  inconsistent  with 
the  free  action  of  the  tendons;  more  force  must,  therefore,  be  exerted  in 
every  act  of  progression ;  and,  although  the  muscles  are  powerful,  and 
sufficiently  powerful  for  every  ordinary  purpose,  the  repetition  of  this  extra 
exertion  will  tire  and  strain  them.  A  more  serious  evil,  however,  remains 
to  be  stated.  When  the  back  sinews  or  tendons  are  thus  tied  down,  they 
are  placed  in  a  more  oblique  direction,  and  in  which  the  power  of  the  mus- 
cles is  exerted  with  greater  disadvantage;  and,  therefore,  both  fbr  extraor- 
dinary,  and  even  ordinary  action,  a  greater  degree  of  exertion  is  required, 
and  fatigue  and  sprain  will  frequently  result.  There  are  few  more  serious 
defects  than  this  tying-in  of  the  tendons  immediately  below  the  knee.  The 
fore-leg  may  be  narrow  in  front,  but  it  must  be  deep  at  the  side,  in  order  to 
render  the  horse  valuable;  for  then  only  will  the  tendons  have  free  action, 
and  the  muscular  force  be  exerted  in  the  most  advantageous  direction.  The 
recollection  of  the  reader  will  convince  him,  that  there  are  few  good  race- 
horses whose  legs  are  not  deep  below  the  knee.  If  there  are  exceptions,  it 
is  because  their  exertion,  although  violent,  is  but  of  short  duration.  The 
race  is  decided  in  a  few  minutes;  and,  during  that  little  period,  the  spirit 
and  energy  of  the  animal  may  successfully  f/ruggle  with  the  disadvantages 
of  form ;  but  where  great  and  long-continued  exertion  is  required,  as  in  the 
hunte."  or  the  hackney,  no  strength  can  long  contend  against  this  palpably 
disadvantageous  misapplication  of  muscular  power. 

As  they  descend  the  back  part  of  the  leg,  the  tendons  of  the  perforated 
and  perforating  flexor  muscle  should  be  fir  and  distinctly  apart  from  the 
shank-bone.  There  should  be  space  free  from  thickening  for  the  finger 
and  thumb  on  either  side  to  be  introduced  between  them  and  the  bone,  and 
that  extending  from  the  knee  to  tlie  fetlock.  In  a  perfect  leg,  and  towards 
its  lower  part,  there  should  be  three  distinct  and  perfect  projections  visible 
to  the  eye,  as  well  as  recognisable  by  the  finger,  the  sides  of  the  shank- 
bone,  the  most  forward  of  the  three;  next,  the  suspensory  ligament;  and 
hindermost  of  all,  trie  flexor  tendons.      When  these  are  not  to  be  distinctly 


i4b  TtIK  HORSE. 

seen  or  felt,  or  there  is  considerable  thickening  about  them  and  between 
then.,  (i  p.  '255)  and  the  leg  is  round  instead  of  flat  and  deep,  there  has 
been  wliat  is  commonly,  but  improperly,  called, 


SPRAIN  OF  THE  BACK-SINEWS. 

These  tendons  are  inclosed  in  a  sheath  of  dense  cellular  substance,  to 
confine  them  in  their  situation,  and  to  defend  them  from  injury.  Between 
the  tendon  and  the  sheath  there  is  a  mucous  fluid,  to  prevent  friction :  but 
when  the  horse  has  been  overworked,  or  put  to  sudden  and  violent  exertion, 
the  tendon  presses  upon  the  delicate  membrane  lining  the  sheath,  and 
inflammation  is  produced,  and  a  different  fluid  is  thrown  out,  whicii  coagu- 
lates, and  adhesions  are  formed  between  the  tendon  and  the  sheath,  and 
the  motion  of  the  limb  is  more  difficult  and  painful.  At  other  times, 
from  violent  or  long-continued  exertion,  some  of  the  fibres  which  tie  the 
tendons  down  are  ruptured.  A  slight  injury  of  this  nature  is  called  a 
sprain  of  the  back-sinews  or  tendons ;  and  when  it  is  more  serious,  the 
horse  is  said  to  have  broken  down.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  tendon  can  never  be  sprained,  because  it  is  inelastic  and  incapable 
of  extension  ;  and  the  tendon,  or  its  sheath,  are  scarcely  ever  ruptured, 
even  in  what  is  called  breaking  down.  The  first  injury  is  confined  to 
inflammation  of  the  sheath,  or  rupture  of  a  few  of  the  attaching  fibres. 
The  inflammation  of  the  part,  however,  is  often  very  great,  the  pain 
intense,  and  the  lameness  excessive.  The  anguish  expressed  at  every 
bending  of  the  limb,  and  the  local  swelling  and  heat,  will  clearly  indicate 
the  seat  of  injury. 

In  every  serious  affection  of  this  kind,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
local  inflammation  does  not  produce  general  disturbance  of  the  system  ;  and, 
therefore,  tiie  horse  should  be  bled  and  physicked.  The  bleeding  may  be 
at  the  toe,  by  which  an  important  local,  as  well  as  general  etTect  will  be 
produced.  The  vessels  of  the  part  will  be  relieved,  v. hile  fever  will  be 
prevented.  Let  not  the  bleeding  be  performed  in  the  usual  farrier's  way 
of  first  paring  down  the  sole,  and  then  taking  out  a  piece  of  it  at  the  top  of 
the  fi'og;  in  which  case  a  wound  is  made  often  difficult  to  heal,  and  through 
which  fungous  granulations  from  the  sensible  parts  beneath  will  obstinately 
spring:  but  after  the  sole  has  been  well  thinned,  let  a  groove  be  cut  with 
the  rounded  head  of  a  small  drawing-knife,  at  the  junction  of  tiie  sole  and 
the  crust  (see  z  in  the  next  cut,  p.  249).  The  large  vein  at  the  toe  will 
thus  be  opened,  or  the  groove  may  be  widened  backward  until  it  be  found. 
When  the  blood  begins  to  appear,  the  vein  may  be  more  freely  opened,  by 
a  small  lancet  thrust  horizontally  under  the  sole,  and  almost  any  quantity 
of  blood  may  be  easily  procured.  The  immersion  of  the  foot  in  warm 
water  will  cause  the  blood  to  flow  more  rapidly.  ^Vhen  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity has  been  drawn,  a  bit  of  tow  may  be  placed  in  the  groove,  and  the 
shoe  tacked  on.  The  bleeding  will  be  immediately  stopped,  and  the  wound 
will  readily  heal. 

As  a  local  application,  let  no  hot  farrier's  oil  come  near  the  part,  but  let 
the  leg  be  well  fomented  with  warm  water  two  or  three  times  in  the  day, 
and  half  an  hour  at  each  time;  and,  between  the  fomentations,  let  the  leg 
be  inclosed  in  a  poultice  of  linseed-meal.  Any  herb  that  pleases  the  owner 
may  be  added  to  the  fomentation,  or  vinegar,  or  Goulard's  extract  to  the 
poultice ;  but  the  beneficial  effect  of  both  depends  simply  on  the  warmth 
of  the  water  and  the  moisture  of  the  poultice.  Tlie  first  object  wiiich  the 
surgeon  has  in  view,  is  to  abate  the  inflammation  of  the  part,  and  no  liicani 


SPRAIN  OF  THE  BACK-SINEWS.  241 

are  so  likely  as  these  effect  that  purpose.  Every  stimulating  application 
will  infallibly  aggravate  the  mischief. 

The  horse  beginning  lo  put  his  foot  better  to  the  grousd,  and  to  bear 
pressure  on  the  part,  and  the  lieat  having  disappeared,  the  object  to  be 
accomplished  is  changed  ;  recurrence  of  the  intiammation  must  be  pre- 
vented, the  enlargement  must  be  got  rid  of,  and  the  parts  must  be 
strengthened.  The  two  latter  purposes  cannot  be  better  effected  than  by 
using  an  elastic  bandage ;  one  of  thin  flannel  will  be  the  best.  This  will 
sustain  and  support  the  limb,  while  by  kw  means  are  the  absorbents  sooner 
induced  to  take  up  the  etlused  coagulable  matter,  of  wiiich  the  swelling  is 
composed,  tiian  by  moderate  pressure.  If  the  bandage  be  kept  wet  with 
vinegar,  to  each  pint  of  which  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  spirit  of  wine  has  been 
added,  the  skin  will  be  slightly  stimulated  and  contracted,  and  the  cold  pro- 
duced by  the  constant  evaporation  will  tend  to  subdue  the  remaining  and 
deep-seated  inflam.mation.  This  bandage  should  be  daily  lightened  in 
proportion  as  these  paits  are  capable  of  bearing  increased  pressure,  and 
the  treatment  should  be  persisted  in  for  a  fortnight:  if,  at  the  expiration  of 
that  period,  there  be  no  swelling,  tenderness,  or  heat,  the  horse  may  grad- 
ually, and  very  cautiously  be  put  to  his  usual  work. 

Should  there,  however,  remain  the  slightest  lameness  or  considerable 
enlargement,  the  leg  must  be  blistered  ;  and,  indeed,  it  would  seldom  be 
bad  practice  to  blister  after  a  case  of  severe  sprain:  for  the  inflammation 
lies  deep  in  the  sheatii  of  the  tendons,  and  the  part  once  sprained  long 
remains  weak,  and  subject  to  renewed  injury,  not  only  from  unusual,  but 
even  ordinary  exertion.  If  the  blister  be  resorted  to,  time  should  be  given 
for  it  to  produce  its  gradual  and  full  effect,  and  the  horse  should  be  turned 
out  for  one  or  two  months ;  and  here  we  must  be  permitted  to  repeat,  that  a 
blister  should  never  be  used  while  any  heat  or  tenderness  remains  about 
(he  part,  otherwise  the  slightest  injury  may  be,  and  often  is,  converted  into 
incurable  lameness. 

Very  severe  sprains,  but  much  oftener  sprains  badly  treated,  may  require 
the  application  of  the  cautery.  If  from  long-continued  inflammation  the 
structure  of  the  part  is  materially  altered,  if  the  swelling  is  becoming  cal- 
lous, or  the  skin  is  thickened  and  prevents  the  free  motion  of  the  limb,  no 
stimulus  short  of  the  heated  iron  will  be  sufl[icient  to  rouse  the  absorbents 
to  remove  the  injurious  deposit.  The  principal  use  of  firing  is  to  rouse 
the  absorbents  to  such  increased  action  that  they  shall  take  up  and  remove 
the  diseased  thickness  of  the  skin,  and  likewise  the  unnatural  deposit  in  the 
cellular  substance  beneath.  The  firing  should  be  applied  in  straight  lines, 
because  the  skin,  contracting  by  the  application  of  the  cautery,  and  grad- 
ually regaining  its  elastic  nature,  will  thus  form  the  best  bandage  over  the 
weakened  part.  Here,  even  more  particularly  than  in  the  blister,  time 
should  be  given  for  the  full  action  of  the  firing.  This  removal  of  diseased 
matter  is  a  work  of  slow  progress.  Many  weeks  pass  away  before  it  is 
perfectly  accomplished  ;  and,  after  firing,  the  horse  should  have  at  least 
a  six  months',  and  it  would  be  better  if  he  could  be  given  a  twelve  months' 
run  at  grass.  When  the  animal  has  been  set  to  work  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  the  enlargement  remains,  or  lamenessreturns,  the  fault  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  impatience  of  the  owner,  and  not  to  the  want  of  power  in  the 
operation,  or  skill  in  the  operator. 

Farriers  are  apt  to  blister  immediately  after  firing,  A  blister  may  be 
useful  six  weeks  or  two  months  after  firing,  if  lameness  remains ;  but  can 
never  be  wanted  immediately  after  the  severe  operation  of  the  cautery.  If 
the  iro:i  has   been   skilfully  applied,  subsequent    blistering  inflicts  on  the 


248  THE  HORSE. 

animal,  already  sufficiently  tortured,  much  unnecessary  and  useless  pain, 
and  skould  never  be  resorted  to  by  him  who  possesses  the  slightest  feeling 
of  humanity. 

In  examining  a  horse  for  purchase,  the  closest  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  appearance  of  these  flexor  tendons.  If  there  be  any  thickness  of  cel- 
lular substance  around  them,  that  horse  has  been  sprained  violently,  or  the 
sprain  has  not  been  properly  treated.  This  thickening  will  probably  fetter 
the  motion  of  the  tendon,  and  dispose  the  part  to  the  recurrence  of  inflam- 
mation and  lameness.  Such  a  horse,  although  at  the  time  perfectly  free 
from  lameness,  will  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  cannot  iairly  be  con. 
sidered  as  sound.  He  is  only  patched  up  for  a  while,  and  will  probably 
fail  at  the  close  of  the  first  day's  hard  work. 

WIND-GALLS. 

Approaching  nearer  to  the  fetlock,  we  occasionally  find  considerable 
enlargements,  oftener  on  the  hind  leg  tiian  the  fore  one,  which  are  denomi- 
nated wind-galls  {e,  p.  225).  Between  llie  tendons  and  other  parts,  and 
wherever  tlie  tendons  are  exposed  to  pressure  or  friction,  and  particularly 
about  their  extremities,  little  bags  or  sacs  are  placed,  containing  and  suf- 
fering  to  ooze  slowly  from  them  a  mucous  fluid.  From  undue  pressure, 
and  that  most  frequently  caused  by  violent  action  and  straining  of  the 
tendons,  these  little  bags  become  injured;  they  take  on  inflammation,  and 
they  grow  large  and  liard.  The  tendons  are  mostly  inserted  into  tlie 
neighbourhood  of  joints,  and  there  is  most  motion  and  pressure,  and  con- 
sequently these  eiihirged  mucous  bags  {hursce.  tuucoscb)  are  oftenest  found, 
about  the  joints.  Tiiere  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  them.  When 
they  first  appear,  and  until  the  inflammation  subsides,  they  may  be  accom- 
panied by  some  degree  of  lameness ;  but  otherwise,  except  when  they 
an  attain  enormous  size,  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  animal, 
or  cause  unsoundness.  The  farriers  used  to  suppose  that  they  contained 
wind;  lience  their  name,  wind-galls  ;  and  hence  the  practice  of  opening 
them,  by  wiiich  dreadl'ul  inflammation  has  often  been  produced,  and  many 
a  valuable  horse  destroyed. 

A  slight  wind-gall  will  scarcely  be  subjected  to  treatment;  but  if  these 
tumours  are  numerous  and  large,  and  seem  to  impede  the  motion  of  the 
limb,  they  may  be  attacked  first  by  bandage.  The  roller  should  be  of 
flannel,  and  soft  pads  should  be  placed  on  each  of  the  enlargements,  and 
bound  down  tightly  upon  them.  The  bandage  may  be  wetted  with  the  lotion 
recommended  for  sprain  of  the  back-sinews.  The  wind-gall  will  often 
diminish  or  disappear  by  this  treatment,  but  will  too  frequently  return  when 
the  horse  is  again  hardly  worked.  A  blister  is  a  more  effectual  remedy  ;  and 
tiring  still  more  certain,  if  the  tumours  be  sufficiently  large  and  annoying 
to  justify  our  having  recourse  to  measures  so  severe.  In  bad  cases,  the 
cautery  is  the  only  cure,  for  it  will  not  only  efl^ect  the  immediate  absorption 
of  the  fluid,  and  tJie  reduction  of  the  swelling,  but  by  contracting  the  skin, 
will  act  as  a  permanent  bandage,  and  tiierefore  prevent  the  reappearance 
of  the  tumour. 

THE   PASTERNS. 

At  the  back  of  the  shank,  just  below  the  knee,  and  in  the  space  between 
the  two  splint-bones,  are  found  two  extraordinary  and  important  ligaments  ; 
extraordinary  as  being  elastic,  and  important  as  being  admirably  adapted 


THE  PASTERNS. 


2iy 


to  obviate  concussion.  They  iiave  their  origin  from  the  liead  of  the  shank- 
bone,  and  also  from  the  heads  of  the  splint-bones;  then  descending  Jown 
the  leo-,  they  fill  the  groove  between  the  splint-bones,  but  are  not  attached 
to  either  of  them;  a  little  lower  down,  they  expand  on  either  side,  and, 
approaching  the  pasterns,  they  divide,  and  are  inserted  into  two  little  bones 
found  at  the  back  of  the  upper  pastern,  one  on  each  side,  called  the  sessa 
moid  bones.  (See  p.  63,  and  in  this  cut,  which  represents  the  pastern  and 
foot,  sawed  through  the  middle.)  They  form  a  kind  of  joint,  both  with  the 
lower  head  of  the  shank-bone  and  the  upper  pastern-bone,  to  both  of 
which  they  are  united  by  ligaments  {i  and  g),  but  much  more  closely  tied 
to  the  pastern  than  to  the  shank.  The  flexor  tendons  pass  down  between 
them  through  a  large  mucous  bag,  to  relieve  them  from  the  friction  to 
wnich,  in  so  confined  a  situation,  they  would  be  exposed.  This  ligament 
is  continued  over  the  sessamoids,  and  afterwards  obliquely  forward  over 
the  pastern  to  unite  with  the  long  extensor  tendon,  and  downward  to  the 
perforated  tendon,  which  it  surrounds  and  fixes  in  its  place,  and  also  to 
the  smaller  pastern-bone.  A  careful  examination  of  the  subjoined  cut  will 
afford  a  familiar  idea  of  this  complicated  structure. 

CUT  OF  THE  PASTERN  AND  OTHER  BONES,  LIGAMENTS,  ETC. 


a  Shank-bone. 

b  Upper  and  larger  pastern-bone. 

c  Sessamoid-bone. 

d  Lower  or  smaller  pastern-bone 

e  Navicular  or  shuttle-bone. 

f  Coffin-bone,  or  bone  of  the  foot. 

g  Suspensory  ligament  inserted  into  the  sessamoid-bone. 

h  Continuation  of  the  suspensory  ligament  inserted  into  the  smaller  pastern-bone. 

•'  Small  inelastic  ligament,  tying  down  the  sessamoid-bone  to  the  larger  pa8t«rn-boiMi 

k  A  long  ligament,  reaching  from  the  pastern-bone  to  the  knee. 

»  Extensor  tendon  inserted  into  both  the  pasterns  and  the  coffin-bone. 

R 


250  THE  HORSE. 

m   Tendon  of  the  perforating-  flexor  inserted  into  the  coffin-bone,  afttr  having  passed 

over  tlie  navicular-bone. 
n     Seat  of  (lie  iiavicular-joint  lameness. 

0  Inner  or  sensible  frog". 
p     Cleft  of  the  horny  frog- 

q  A  ligament  uniting  the  navicular-bone  to  the  smaller  pastern. 

r  A  ligamcnl  uniting  the  navicular-bone  to  the  coffin-bone. 

s  Sensible  sole  between  the  coffin-bone  and  the  horny  sole. 

1  Hor::y  sole. 

M    Crust  or  wall  of  the  foot. 

V     Sensible  lamina;  to  which  the  crust  is  attached. 

in   Coronary  ring  of  the  crust. 

X    The  covering  of  the  coronary  ligament  from  which  the  crust  is  secreted. 

z     Place  of  bleeding  at  the  toe. 

It  will  be  easy  to  perceive,  from  this  description  of  llie  situation  of  the 
suspensory  ligament,  why  splints  placed  backward  on  the  leg  are  more 
likely  to  produce  lameness  than  those  which  are  found  on  the  side  of  the 
leg.  They  may  interfere  with  the  motion  of  this  ligament,  or,  if  they  are 
large,  may  bruise  and  wound  it. 

The  principal  action  of  these  ligaments  is  with  the  sessamoid-bones, 
which  they  seem  to  suspend  in  their  places,  and  they  are  therefore  called  the 
suspensory  ligaments.  The  pasterns  (see  cut,  p.  249)  are  united  to  the 
shank  in  an  oblique  direction,  differing  in  degree  in  the  different  breeds  of 
horses,  and  in  each  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  that  breed  was 
designed.  The  weight  falls  upon  the  pastern  in  the  direction  of  the  shank- 
')one;  and  the  pastern  being  set  on  obliquely,  a  portion  of  the  weight  must 
le  communicated  to  the  sessamoids.  Much  jar  is  saved  by  the  yielding  of 
ihe  pasterns,  in  consequence  of  their  oblique  direction;  and  the  concussion 
which  would  be  produced  by  that  portion  of  weight  which  falls  on  the  ses- 
samoid-bones, is  completely  destroyed ;  for  there  is  no  bone  underneath  to 
receive  it.  They  are  suspended  by  this  ligament ;  an  elastic  ligament, 
which  gradually  yields  to,  and  is  lengthened  by,  the  force  impressed  upon 
it,  and  in  this  gradual  yielding  and  lengthening,  all  painful  or  dangerous 
concussion  is  rendered  impossible.  The  ease  and  comfort  of  the  animal  of 
course  greatly  depends  upon  its  perfect  action. 

If  the  ligament  lengthens,  the  sessamoid-bones  must  descend  when  the 
weight  is  thrown  on  them,  and  it  would  appear  that  they  do  so.  If  the 
thorough-bred  horse,  with  his  long  pasterns,  is  carefully  observed  as  he 
stands,  the  tuft  at  the  fetlock  will  be  some  inches  from  the  turf;  but  when 
he  is  in  rapid  motion,  and  the  weight  is  thrown  violently  on  this  joint,  the 
tuft  descends,  and  sweeps  the  xery  ground.  This,  however,  is  the  combined 
action  of  the  fetlock  and  pastern-joints,  and  the  sessamoid-bones.  The 
sessamoids  do  not  actually  descend,  but  they  revolve,  and  partly  turn  over. 
The  strong  ligament  by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  pastern-bone  acts  as 
a  hinge,  and  the  projecting  part  of  the  bone  to  which  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment  is  united,  tarns  round  with  the  pressure  of  the  weight ;  and  so  that 
part  of  the  bone  becomes  lower.  How  is  it  raised  again  ?  This  ligament, 
strangely  constructed  as  a  ligament,  is  elastic.  It  yields  to  the  force  im. 
pressed  upon  it,  and  lengthens;  but  as  soon  as  the  foot  is  lifted  from  the 
ground,  and  the  weight  no  longer  presses,  and  the  force  is  removed,  its 
elastic  power  is  exerted,  and  it  regains  its  former  dimensions,  and  the  ses- 
samoid-bone  springs  back  into  its  place,  and  by  that  forcible  return  assists 
in  raising  the  liinb.* 

♦  Mr.  Percivall  very  clearly  describes  this:  "Furthermore,  it  seems  tc  us  that  these 
elastic  parts  assist  in  the  elevation  of  the  feet  from  the  ground  in  those  pB">es  in  which 


THE  PASTERNS.  25l 

The  length  and  obliquity  of  the  pastern  vary,  we  have  said,  in  he  ditFer- 
ent  breeds  of  horses,  and  in  proportion  to  the  length  and  slanting  diiection 
of  the  pastern  is  the  springiness  of  the  horse  and  the  easiness  of  his  paces. 
The  pastern  must  be  long  in  proportion  to  its  obliquity,  or  the  fetlock  would 
be  too  close  to  the  ground,  and,  in  rapid  action,  would  come  violently  upon 
it.  It  is  necessary  that  the  fetlock  should  be  elevated  a  certain  distance 
from  the  ground,  and  this  may  be  effected  either  by  a  short  and  upright 
or  a  long  and  slanting  pastern.  In  proportion  as  tiie  pastern  is  oblique  or 
slanting,  two  consequences  will  follow  :  less  weight  will  be  tlirown  on  the  pas- 
tern and  more  on  the  sessamoid,  and,  in  that  proportion,  jar  or  concussion 
will  be  prevented  ;  and  the  jar  of  the  weight  which  is  thrown  on  the  pastern 
will  be  lessened  by  the  very  obliquity  of  the  bones,  agreeably  to  what  we 
have  already  stated  of  the  angular  construction  of  the  limbs. 

Every  advantage  has,  however,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  corresponding  dis- 
advantages. In  proportion  to  the  obliquity,  or  slanting  of  the  pastern,  will 
be  the  stress  on  the  fetlock-joint,  and,  therefore,  the  liability  of  that  joint  to 
injury  and  strain;  and  also  the  liability  to  "sprain  of  the  back-sinews," 
from  the  increased  action  and  play  of  the  flexor  tendons ;  and  likewise  to 
injuries  of  the  pastern-joints,  for  the  ligaments  will  be  weak  in  proportion 
to  their  length.  The  long  and  slanting  pastern  is  an  excellence  in  the  race- 
horse, from  the  springiness  of  action  and  greater  extent  of  stride  by  which 
it  is  accompanied.  A  less  degree  of  it  is  necessary  in  the  hunter,  who  is 
to  unite  continuance  of  exertion  with  ease  of  pace,  and  who,  in  his  leaps, 
requires  almost  as  much  springiness  as  the  race-horse;  but,  for  the  wear 
and  tear  of  the  hackney,  a  still  less  degree  of  obliquity  should  be  found. 
There  should  be  sufficient  to  give  pleasantness  of  going,  but  not  enough  to 
endanger  continuance  and  strength.  Experience  among  horses  will  alone 
point  out  the  most  advantageous  direction  of  the  pastern  for  the  purpose 
required  ;  but  the  slightest  observation  will  prove  the  necessity  of  consider- 
able variety  in  the  structure  of  this  part.  Let  the  reader  imagine  the  heavy 
dray-horse,  with  his  short  and  upright  pasterns,  contending  in  the  race;  or 
the  race-horse,  with  his  long  and  weak  pasterns,  endeavouring  to  dig  his  toe 
into  the  ground  to  move  some  heavy  weight.  The  concussion  is  little  in  a 
cart-horse,  because  his  movements  are  slow,  and  therefore  the  upright  and 
strong  pastern  is  given  to  him,  which  he  can  force  into  the  ground,  and  on 
which  he  can  throw  the  whole  of  his  immense  weight.  The  oblique  pas- 
tern is  given  to  the  race-horse,  because  that  alone  is  compatible  with  extent 
of  stride  and  great  speed.  Except  a  horse  for  general  purposes,  and  par- 
ticularly for  riding,  be  very  hardly  used,  a  little  too  much  obliquity  is  a  far 
less  evil  than  a  pastern  too  upright.  The  upright  pastern  is  unsafe.  The 
very  circumstance  which  enables  the  dray-horse  to  throw  himself  into  his 
collar,  throws  the  riding-horse  down ;  and  while  the  jolting  of  the  upright 
pastern  is  an  insufferable  nuisance  to  the  rider,  it  is  injurious  to  the  horse, 
and  produces  many  diseases  in  the  feet  and  legs.  A  riding-horse,  with 
upright  pasterns,  will  soon  begin  to  knuckle  over,  even  with  ordinary  work  ; 
and  this  will  be  almost  invariably  followed  by  ringbone,  ossification  of  the 
cartilages,  and  contracted  feet. 

they  are  called  into  sudden  and  forcible  action.  The  suspensory  ligament,  by  its  reaction, 
instantaneously  after  extension,  aids  the  flexor-muscles  in  bending-  the  pastern-joints. 
The  astonishing  activity  and  expedition  displayed  in  the  movementa  of  tlie  race-horse  at 
speed,  seem  to  be  referable,  in  part,  to  the  promptitude  with  which  tlie  suspensory  liga 
ment  can  act  before  the  flexor-muscles  are  duly  prepared;  tlie  latter,  we  should  eay, 
tatcli,  as  it  were,  and  then  direct  the  limb  first  snatched  from  the  ground  by  the  powers 
uf  elasticity. — PercivaU'a  Lectures  on  the  Veterinary  Art,  vol.  i.  p.  334. 


252  THE  HORSE. 


RUPTURE  OF  THE  SUSPENSORY  LIGAMENT. 

The  suspensory  ligament  is  sometimes  ruptured  by  extraoi  dinary  exer- 
tion. The  sessamoids  are  then  let  down,  and  the  fetlock  almost  touches 
the  ground.  This  is  generally  mistaken  for  rupture  of  the  flexor  tendon; 
but  one  circumstance  will  sufficiently  demonstrate  that  it  is  the  suspensory 
ligament  which  is  concerned,  viz:  that  the  horse  is  able  to  bend  his  foot. 
Rupture  of  this  ligament  is  a  bad,  ai-,d  almost  desperate  case.  The  horse 
is  frequently  lame  for  life,  and  never  becomes  perfectly  sound.  Keeping 
him  altogether  quiet,  bandaging  the  leg,  and  putting  on  a  high-heeled  shoe, 
will  atford  the  most  probable  means  of  relief. 

THE  FETLOCK. 

The  fetlock-joint  is  a  very  complicated  one,  and  from  the  stress  which  is 
laid  on  it,  and  its  being  the  principal  seat  of  motion  below  the  knee,  it  is 
particularly  subject  to  injury.  THere  are  not  many  cases  of  sprain  of  the 
back-sinew  which  are  not  accompanied  by  inflammation  of  the  ligaments  of 
this  joint;  and  many  supposed  cases  of  sprain  higher  up,  are  simple  afTec- 
tions  of  the  fetlock.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  care,  and  some  considerable 
experience,  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.  The  heat  about  the  part, 
and  the  point  at  which  the  horse  least  endures  the  pressure  of  the  finger, 
will  be  the  principal  guides  in  searching  out  its  locality.  An  affection  of 
the  fetlock-joint  demands  blistering  more  promptly  and  severely  than  one 
of  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons. 

GROGGINESS. 

The  peculiar  knuckling  over  of  the  fetlock-joint,  and  tottering  of  the  whole 
of  the  fore-leg,  known  by  the  name  of  Grogginess,  and  which  is  so  often 
seen  in  old  and  over-worked  horses,  is  seldom  an  affection  of  either  the 
fetlock  or  the  pastern-joints  simply,  although  these  have  their  full  share  in 
the  mischief  that  has  been  produced  by  tasking  the  poor  animal  beyond 
his  strength.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  fix  on  any  particular  joint ;  at 
others,  it  seems  to  be  traced  to  a  joint  deep  in  the  foot,  where  the  flexor 
tendon  runs  over  the  navicular-bone.  It  seems  oftenest  to  be  a  want  of 
power  in  the  ligaments  of  the  joints  generally,  produced  by  frequent  and 
severe  sprains,  or  by  ill-judged  and  cruel  exertion;  and,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  admits  of  no  remedy;  especially  as  dissection  often  discovers  ulcera- 
tion within  the  joints,  and  of  the  membrane  which  lines  the  cartilage,  and 
even  of  the  cartilage  itself,  which  it  was  impossible  to  reach  or  remove. 

CUTTING. 

The  inside  of  the  fetlock  is  often  bruised  by  the  shoe  or  the  hoof  of  th> 
opposite  foot.  Many  expedients  have  been  tried  to  remove  this;  the  inside 
heel  lias  been  raised  and  lowered,  and  the  outside  raised  and  lowered;  and 
sometimes  one  operation  has  succeeded,  and  sometimes  the  contrary;  and 
there  was  no  point  so  involved  in  obscurity,  or  so  destitute  of  principles  to 
guide  the  practitioner.  The  most  successful  remedy,  and  that  which  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  supersedes  all  others,  is  to  put  on  a  shoe  of  even 
thickness  from  heel  to  toe;  to  let  the  bearing  be  perfectly  level;  and  then 
to  drive  but  one  nail,  and  that  near  the  toe,  in  the  inside  of  tl  e  shoe,  which 


CUTTING. 


263 


is  placed  on  the  foot  by  which  the  injury  is  done;  care  being  taken  that  the 
shoe  shall  not  extend  beyond  the  edge  of  the  crust,  and  the  crust  being 
rasped  a  little  at  the  quarters.  The  principle  on  which  this  shoe  acts  lias 
been  stated  when  we  spoke  of  the  speedy  cut.  There  are  some  defects, 
however,  in  the  natural  form  of  the  horse,  which  are  the  causes  of  cutting, 
and  which  no  contrivance  will  remedy  ;  as  when  the  legs  are  placed  too 
near  each  other,  or  when  the  feet  are  turned  inward  or  outward.  A  horse 
with  these  defects  should  be  carefully  examined  at  the  inside  of  the  fetlock, 
and  if  there  be  any  sore  or  callous  places  fuom  cutting,  there  will  be  sufficient 
reason  for  rejecting  the  animal.  Some  horses  will  cut  when  ihey  are 
fatigued,  and  many  colts  will  cut  before  they  arrive  at  their  full  strength. 


Fig.  2. 

Fig-   1- 
a    Upper  pastern. 

b     Lower  pastern. 

c    Navicular-bone. 

d    Coffin-bone. 

Fig.  2. 
a     Sessamoid-bone. 

b  Upper  pastern. 

c  Lower  pastern. 

d  Navicular-bone. 

e  Coffin-bone,  with  the  horny  laminse. 

The  upper  pastern  bone  {b,  p.  249,  and  a  in  the  first  figure,  and  h  in  the 
second  in  this  cut)  receives  the  lower  pulley-like  head  of  the  shank-bone, 
and  forms  a  hinge-joint,  admitting  only  of  banding  and  extension,  but  not 
of  side  motion  ;  it  likewise  articulates  with  the  sessamoid-bones.  Its  lower 
head  has  two  rounded  protuberances,  which  are  received  into  corresponding 
depressions  in  the  lower  pastern.  On  either  side,  above  the  pastern-joint, 
are  roughened  projections  for  the  attachment  of  very  strong  ligaments,  both 
the  capsular  ligaments  and  many  cross  ligaments,  which  render  the  joint 
between  the  two  pasterns  sufficiently  secure. 

The  hioer  jmstern  (fZ,  p.  249,  and  i  in  the  first  figure,  and  c  in  the  second 
in  the  above  cut)  is  a  short  and  thick  bone,  with  its  larger  head  downward. 
Its  upper  head  has  two  depressions  to  receive  the  protuberances  on  the 
lower  head  of  the  upper  bone,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a  pulley,  but 
not  so  decidedly  as  the  lower  head  of  the  shank-bone.  Its  lower  head 
resembles  the  lower  head  of  the  other  pastern,  and  has  two  prominences, 
likewise  somewhat  resembling  a  pulley,  and  by  which  it  articulates  with 
the  coffin-bone;  and  a  depression  in  front,  corresponding  with  a  projection 
in  the  coffin-bone;  and  also  two  slight  depressions  behind,  receiving  enii- 
nences  in  the  navicular-bone.  Neither  of  these  joints  admit  of  any  lateral 
motion.  The  ligaments  of  this  joint,  which  is  called  the  coffin-joint,  are, 
like  those  of  the  pastern-joint,  exceedingly  strong,  both  the  capsular  and 
the  cross  ones.  The  tendon  of  the  extensor  muscle  is  inserted  into  the 
lore  part,  both  of  the  upper  and  lower  pastern-bones,  as  well  as  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  coffin-bone  (/,  p.  249);  and  at  the  back  of  these  bones 
the  suspensory  ligament  is  expanded  and  inserted,  while  a  portion  of  it 
jToes  over  tiie  fore  part  of  the  upper  pastern  to  reach  the  extensor  tendori. 
Th°se  attachments  in  front  of  the  bones  are  seen  in  the  accompanying  cut, 


254  THE  HORSE. 

in  which  a  represents  the  lower  part  of  the  shank, 
bone;  Z>  the  sessamoid-bones ;  c  the  upper  pastern; 
d  the  lower  pastern;  and  e  the  coffin-bone  ;  ff  are 
the  branches  of  the  suspensory  ligaments  going  to 
unite  with  the  extensor  tendon  ;  g  tlie  long  extensor 
tendon  ;  h  ligaments  connecting  the  two  pastern-bones 
together ;   and  i  the  lateral  cartilages  of  the  foot. 

And  now,  having  arrived  at  the  foot,  which  is  the 
most  complicated  and  important  part  in  the  frame  of 
a  horse,  we  shall  defer  the  consideration  of  the  coffin 
and  navicular-bones  until  we  have  described  the 
hinder  extremities.  We  may,  however,  observe  that 
both  these  joints  are  subject  to  sprain,  and  particu- 
larly the  coffin-joint. 

SPRAIN  OF  THE  COFFIN-JOINT. 

Tiie  proof  of  this  is  when  the  lameness  is  sudden,  and  the  heat  and  ten- 
derness are  principally  felt  round  the  coronet.  Bleeding  at  the  toe,  physic, 
fomentation,  and  blisters  are  tlie  usual  means  adopted.  This  lameness  is  not 
easily  removed,  even  by  a  blister;  and,  if  removed,  like  sprains  of  the  fet- 
lock and  of  the  back-sinews,  it  is  apt  to  return,  and  finally  produce  a  great 
deal  of  disorganization  and  miscliief  in  the  foot.  This  wrick,  or  sprain  of 
the  coffin-joint,  sometimes  becomes  a  very  serious  affiiir,  not  being  always 
attended  by  any  external  swelling,  and  being  detected  only  by  heat  around 
the  coronet,  the  seat  of  the  lameness  is  often  overlooked ;  and  the  disease 
is  suffered  to  become  confirmed  before  its  nature  is  discovered. 

From  violent  or  repeated  sprains  of  the  pastern  or  coffin-joints,  or  exten 
sion  of  the  ligaments  attached  to  other  parts  of  the  pastern-bones,  inflam- 
mation  takes  place  in  the  periosteum,  and  bony  matter  is  formed,  which 
often  rapidly  increases,  and  is  recognised   by  the  name  of 

RINGBONE. 

Ringbone  commences  in  one  of  the  pasterns,  and  usually  about  the  pas- 
tern-joint, but  it  rapidly  spreads,  and  involves  not  only  the  pastern-bones, 
bui  the  cartilages  of  the  foot.  When  the  first  deposit  is  on  the  lower  pas- 
tern, and  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  produced  by  violent  inflammation  of  the 
ligaments  of  the  joints,  it  is  recognised  by  a  slight  enlargement,  or  bony 
tumour  on  each  side  of  the  foot,  and  just  above  the  coronet.  (See/,  in 
tiie  following  cut.)  This  is  more  frequent  in  the  hind-foot  than  in  the  fore, 
because,  from  the  violent  action  of  the  hind-legs  in  propelling  the  horse 
forward,  the  pasterns  are  more  subject  to  ligamentary  injury  behind  than 
before;  yet  the  lameness  is  not  so  great,  because  the  disease  is  confined 
principally  to  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones  have  not  been  injured  by  con- 
cussion ;  while,  from  the  position  of  the  fore  limbs,  and  their  exposure  to 
concussion,  there  will  generally  be  in  them  injury  of  the  bones  to  be  added 
to  that  of  the  ligaments.  In  its  early  stage,  and  when  recognised  onlv  by 
a  bony  enlargement  on  both  sides  of  the  pastern-joint,  or  in  some  kw  cases 
on  one  side  only,  the  disease  may  frequently  be  removed  by  active  blister- 
ing, or  by  the  application  of  the  cautery ;  but  there  is  so  much  wear 
and  tear  in  this  part  of  the  animal,  that  the  inflammation  and  the  disposi 
tion  to  the  formation  of  bone  rapidly  spread.  The  pasterns  first  become 
connected  together  bv  bone  instead  of  ligament,  and  thence  results  what  is 
called  an  anchylosed  or  fixed  joint.     Its  motion  is  lost.     From  this  joint 


RI^JGBONE. 


255 


the  disease  proceeds  to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot,  and  to  the  union  between 
the  lower  pastern,  and  the  coffin  and  navicular  bones;  and  the  motion  of 
these  parts  likewise  is  impeded  or  lost,  and  tlie  whole  of  this  part  of  the  foot 
becomes  one  mass  of  spongy  bone.  From  this  disposition  to  spread,  (and 
at  first  round  the  pastern-joint,  which  is  situated  just  above  the  coronet,) 
this  disease  has  acquired  the  name  of  ringbone. 


CUT    OF     THE    LEG. 


This  cut  will  show  the  situation  and 
appearance  of  this  and  some  other 
detects  of  the  fore-leg.  a  will  represent 
the  capped  hock  or  enlargement  of 
the  joint  of  the  elbow  ;  b  the  tying-in 
of  the  leg  below  the  knee ;  c  the 
most  frequent  situation  of  splint  on  the 
side  of  the  shank-bone,  and  not  pro- 
ducing lameness  after  its  first  formation, 
because  it  does  not  interfere  with  the 
motion  of  the  knee,  or  injure  the  sus- 
pensory ligament,  d  is  the  situation 
and  appearance  of  the  enlargement 
accompanying  sprain  of  the  back-sin- 
ews.  This,  however,  is  an  aggravated 
case  ;  and  the  sprain  may  be  great,  and 
the  lameness  distressing,  without  all  thi? 
swelling,  e  is  the  place  of  wind-gall. 
y  gives  the  appearance  of  ring-bone, 
when  it  first  appears  on  the  side  of  the 
pastern,  about  the  joint,  and  where 
there  is  naturally  some  prominence  of 
bone ;  g  is  the  situation  of  sand-crack 
in  the  fore-leg.  h  the  situation  of  the 
mollenders. 

Ringbone  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
lamenesses  with  which  the  horse  can  be 
afliicted.  It  is  unsoundness  when  ex- 
isting in  the  slightest  degree,  for  the 
lateral  enlargement  may  speedily  ex- 
tend  ;  and  when  the  body  deposit  begins 
to  spread,  th*^  disease  is  incurable. 

The  fore-ltgs,  when  viewed  in  front, 
should  be  v  idest  at  the  chest,  and 
should  gradually  approach  each  other 
as  we  descen  1  towards  the  fetlock. 
The  degree  of  width  must  depend  on 
the  purposes  for  which  the  horse  is 
wanted.  The  legs  of  a  heavy  draught- 
horse  can  scarcely  be  too  far  apart- 
His  rounded  chest  enables  him  to  throw 
more  weight  into  the  collar  ;  and  being 
seldom,  if  ever,  required  for  speed,  he 
wants  not  tliat  occasionally  increased 
expansion  of  chest  which  the  circular 
form   is    not   calculated   to  give.      A 


256  THE  HORSE. 

hunter,  a  liackney,  and  a  ccach-horse,  should  have  sufficient  expansion  ot 
the  chest,  or  the  legs  sufficiently  wide  apart,  to  leave  loom  for  the  play 
of  the  lungs ;  but  depth  more  than  roundness  of  chest  is  here  required, 
because  the  deep  chest  admits  of  most  expansion,  when  the  horse,  in  rapid 
action,  and  the  circulation  proportionably  quickened,  needs  more  room 
to  breathe;  yet  if  the  breast  be  too  wide,  tliere  will  be  considerable  weight 
thrown  before,  and  the  horse  will  be  heavy  in  the  hand,  and  unsafe. 

Whether  the  legs  are  near  to  each  other  or  wide  apart,  they  should  be 
straight.  The  elbow  should  not  have  the  slightest  inclination  inward  or 
outward.  If  it  inclines  towards  the  ribs,  its  action  will  be  confined,  and 
the  leg  will  be  thrown  outward  when  in  motion,  and  describe  a  curious 
and  awkward  curve  ;  and  this  will  give  a  peculiar  rolling  motion,  unpleasant 
to  the  rider  and  unsafe  to  the  animal.  The  toe  will  likewise  be  turned 
outward,  which  will  not  only  prevent  the  foot  from  coming  flat  on  the 
ground  in  its  descent,  but  be  usually  accompanied  by  cutting,  even  more 
certainly  than  when  the  toe  turns  inward.  If  the  elbow  is  turned  outward, 
the  toes  will  necessarily  be  turned  inward,  which  is  a  great  unsightliness,  and 
to  a  certain  degree  injurious.  The  weight  cannot  be  perfectly  distributed 
over  the  foot ;  the  bearing  cannot  be  true ;  there  will  be  undue  pressure  on  the 
inner  quarter,  a  tendency  to  unsafeness,  and  a  disposition  to  splint  and  corn. 
The  legs  should  come  down  perpendicularly  from  the  elbow.  If  they 
incline  backward  and  under  the  horse,  there  is  undue  stress  on  the  extensor 
muscles ;  and  the  legs  being  brought  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity,  undue 
weight  is  thrown  forward,  and  the  horse  is  liable  to  knuckle  over  and 
become  unsafe  ;  if  the  legs  have  a  direction  forward,  the  flexor  muscles 
are  strained,  and  the  action  of  the  horse  is  awkward  and  confined.  The 
toe  should  be  found  precisely  under  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  If  it  be  a 
little  more  forward,  the  horse  will  probably  be  deficient  in  action  ;  if  it  be 
more  under  the  horse,  unsafeness  will  be  added  to  the  still  greater 
defect  in  going. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE    HIND   LEGS. 

THE  HAUNCH. 

In  describing  the  hinder  extremities,  we  must  begin  with  the  bones  of  the 
naunch.  The  haunch  (see  O,  p.  63,  and  the  cut,  p.  230)  is  composed  of 
three  bones.  The  first  is  the  ilium,  principally  concerned  in  the  formation 
of  the  haunch.  Its  extended  branches  behind  the  flanks  are  prominent  in 
every  horse ;  and  when  they  are  more  than  usually  wide,  the  animal  is 
said  to  be  ragged-hipped.  A  branch  runs  up  to  the  spine  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sacral  vertebrae  E,  and  here  the  haunch-bones  are  fimly  united 
with  the  bones  of  the  spine.  The  ischium,  or  hip-bone,  is  behind  and 
below  the  ilium.  Its  tuberosities  or  prominences  are  seen  under  the  tail, 
(cut,  p.  63).     The  pubis  unites  with  the  two  former  below  and  behind. 

From  the  loins  to  tlie  setting  on  of  the  tail,  the  line  should  be  carried  on 
almost  straight,  or  rounded  only  in  a  very  slight  degree.  Thus  the  haunch- 
bones  will  be  most  oblique,  and  will  produce  a  corresponding  obliquity,  or 
slanting  direction  in  the  thigh-bone  ;  a  direction  in  which,  as  we  stated  wlien 
describii  g  the  fore-legs,  the  '  nuscles  act  with  most  advantage.     This  di-ei;- 


THE  THIGH.  257 

tion  of  the  haunch  is  characteristic  of  the  thorough-bred  horse;  and  by 
tlie  degree  in  which  it  is  found,  we  judge  as  mucli  as  by  any  thing  of  the 
breeding  of  the  animal.  If  the  bones  at  D  and  E,  p.  03,  took  a  somewhat 
arched  form,  as  they  do  in  the  cart-horse,  it  is  evident  that  the  bone  O  must 
be  more  upright,  the  tliigh-bone  P  would  likewise  be  more  upright,  the 
stifle  Q  would  not  be  so  far  under  the  body,  and  the  power  of  the  horse 
would  be  considerably  impaired.  The  oblique  direction  of  the  haunch  and 
thigh-bones,  produced  by  the  straightness  of  the  line  of  the  spine,  does  not, 
as  is  commonly  supposed,  afford  increased  surface  for  the  attachment  of 
muscles,  but  places  the  muscles  in  a  direction  to  act  with  great  advantage. 
It  is  in  the  advantageous  direction,  quite  as  much  as  in  the  bulk  of  the 
muscle,  that  the  strength  of  the  horse  consists.  It  will  be  seen,  from  our 
cuts,  that  the  angles  formed  by  the  fore  and  hind  extremities  have  different 
directions.  One  points  forward,  and  the  other  backward.  We  should 
expect  this ;  for  thus  the  action  of  the  fore-legs  least  interferes  with  the 
chest,  and  that  of  the  hind  legs  with  the  belly. 

Width  of  haunch  is  a  point  of  great  consequence,  for  that  actually 
affords  more  room  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  ;  and  even  though  it  should 
be  so  great  as  to  subject  the  horse  to  the  charge  of  being  ragged-kipped, 
and  may  somewhat  offend  the  eye,  it  is  no  detriment  to  action.  If  the 
loins  be  broad,  and  the  horse  be  well  ribbed  home,  the  protuberances  of  the 
ilium  can  scarcely  be  too  far  apart.  Many  a  ragged-hipped  horse  has  pos- 
sessed both  fleetness  and  strength,  but  few  which  were  narrow  across  the 
haunch  could   boast  of  the  latter  quality. 

The  opening  through  the  centre  of  these  bones,  which  constitutes  the 
passage  through  which  the  young  animal  is  expelled  from  the  mother,  is 
large  in  the  mare,  and  in  every  quadruped,  because  there  cannot  be,  from 
the  form  of  the  animal,  any  danger  of  abortion  from  the  weight  of  the 
foetus  pressing  on  the  part. 

The  only  parts  of  these  bones  exposed  to  injury  or  fracture  are  the 
tuberosities  or  prominences  of  the  haunch.  A  fall  or  blow  may  chip  off 
and  disunite  a  portion  of  them.  There  are  no  means  of  forcibly  bringing 
the  disunited  parts  together,  and  retaining  them  in  their  natural  position. 
Nature,  however,  will  cause  them  to  unite,  yet  generally  attended  by 
deformity  and  lameness.  A  charge,  or  very  strong  adhesive  plaster,  across 
ihe  haunch  may  be  useful,  as  helping,  in  some  slight  degree,  to  support  the 
parts,  and  hold  them  together. 

THE  THIGH. 

In  the  lower  and  fore  part  of  the  hip-bones  is  a  deep  cavity  or  cup  for  the 
reception  of  the  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh.*  Although  in  the 
tiction  of  the  hind-legs  there  cannot  be  the  concussion  to  which  the  fjre-legs 
are  exposed  (for  the  weight  of  the  body  is  never  thrown  violently  upon 
them),  yet  in  the  powerful  action  of  these  limbs  there  is  much  strain  on  the 
joints,  and  we  shall  find,  therefore,  that  there  are,  in  all  of  them,  admirable 
provisions  against  injury.  The  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  is 
received  into  a  deep  cup  (the  acetabulum),  by  which  it  is  surrounded  on 
every  side,  and  dislocation  from  which  would  seem  almost  impossible.  But 
the  bony  cup  may  give  way  ?     No  !  provision  is  made  against  this:  all  three 

♦This,  altlioua-h  the  true  thigrh-bone,  is  so  concealed  by  thick  muscles,  and  seeming-ly 
'.ly  the  continuation  of  tlie  carcase,  that  its  situation  and  shape  are  not  visilile  to  the  eye, 
and  it  is  g-enorally  overlooked  by  horsemen,  who  call  the  next  bone,  extending-  from  the 
Btirii-  t  >  the  hock,  the  thigh:  therefore,  to  render  cursives  intelligible,  wc  term  thii  the 

upper  bone  of  lite  Ihigh. 


258  THE  HORSE. 

of  the  hauncli-bones  unite  in  the  formation  of  this  cup,  and  the  sutures  J)y 
which  these  bones  are  held  together  are  of  such  a  nature,  that  one  ^-ould 
think  no  shock,  or  exertion,  or  accident,  could  disunite  them.  There  is  even 
something  more  added  to  make  the  attachment  doubly  sure.  Besides  the 
usual  capsular  and  other  ligaments,  a  singularly  strong  one  rises  from  the 
base  of  the  cup,  and  is  inserted  into  the  head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the 
thigh,  and  would  seem  to  render  separation  or  dislocation  altogether  impos- 
sible, and  yet  such  is  the  amazing  power  of  the  muscles  of  the  hind  limb, 
th-at  with  all  these  attachments,  sprain  of  the  ligaments  of  the  haunch- 
joint,  or  the  round  bone,  as  horsemen  call  it,  and  even  dislocation  of  the 
head  of  the  thigh-bone,  are  occasionally  found. 

The  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  we  should  expect  to  be,  from  the  powerful 
muscles  that  are  attached  to  it,  a  very  strong  bone,  and  it  is  both  the 
largest  and  strongest  in  the  frame.  It  is  short  and  thick,  and  exhibits  the 
most  singular  prominences,  and  roughnesses,  and  hollows,  for  the  insertion 
oi'the  immense  muscles  which  belong  to  it.  Four  prominences,  in  particu- 
lar, called  by  anatomists  trochanters,  two  on  the  outside,  one  on  the  inside, 
and  one  near  the  head  of  the  bone,  afford  attachment  to  several  important 
muscles.  The  head  of  the  bone  is  placed  at  right  angles  with  its  body,  by 
which  this  important  advantage  is  gained,  that  the  motion  of  the  thigh-joint 
is  principally  limited  to  that  of  bending  and  extending,  although  it  possesses 
some  slight  lateral,  and  even  some  rotatory  or  round  action.  The  lower  head 
of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  is  complicated  in  its  form.  It  consists  of 
two  prominences,  which  are  received  into  corresponding  depressions  in  the 
next  bone,  and  a  hollow  in  front,  in  which  the  bone  of  the  knee  plays  aa 
over  a  perfect  pulley. 

A  short  description  of  the  muscles  of  the  hinder  extremities  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  the  horseman.     The  next  cut  will  give  a  few  of  them. 

The  muscles  of  the  hind  extremity  are  more  powerful  in  action  than  those 
of  any  other  part  of  the  frame ;  therefore  there  is  a  provision  made  to  hold 
them  down  in  their  respective  situations,  and  thus  contribute  to  thei* 
security  and  strength.  When  the  skin  is  taken  from  the  hind  limb,  we  dr 
not  at  once  arrive  at  the  muscles,  but  they  are  thickly  covered  by  a  dense, 
strong,  tendinous  coat,  which  reaches  over  the  whole  of  the  haunch  and 
thigh,  and  only  ceases  to  be  found  at  the  hock,  where  there  are  no  muscles 
to  be  confined.  If  the  power  of  the  muscles  be  sufficient  to  dislocate  and 
fracture  the  thigh-bone,  they  need  the  support  and  confinement  of  this  ten- 
dinous coat.  When  this  tendinous  band  is  dissected  off,  another  is  found 
beneath,  which  is  represented  at  a,  raised  and  turned  back,  larger  than  the 
former,  thicker  and  more  muscular.  It  proceeds  from  the  haunch-bones  to 
the  stifle,  upon  the  fore  and  outer  part  of  the  haunch  and  thigh,  and  is 
intended  to  lighten  and  strengthen  the  other. 

Under  the  part  of  this  flat  and  binding  muscle,  which  is  represented  in 
our  cut  as  raised,  is  a  large  round  muscle  proceeding  from  the  ilium,  not 
far  from  the  cup  which  receives  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  running 
straight  down  this  bone — and  thence  its  name  rectus — it  is  inserted  into  the 
bone  of  the  stifle.  An  inspection  of  the  cut,  p.  63,  will  show  that  it  is  so  situ- 
ated  as  to  be  enabled  to  exert  its  great  power  in  the  most  advantageous  w-ay. 
It  is  a  ver)'  prominent  muscle,  and  forms  what  we  may  term  the  edge  of  the 
thigh  forward.  It  terminates  in  a  tendon,  which  is  short  and  very  strong, 
and  w'lich  is,  before  its  insertion  in  the  patella,  united  with  the  prolongation 
of  the  tendinous  substance  at  ^,  in  the  cut,  p.  2G0,  and  also  witli  the  tendon 
of  the  muscle  at  i,  in  that  cut,  and  at  c,  in  the  following  cut,  and  which  is 
properly  called  vastus,  from  its  great  bulk.     Some  have  divided  this  into  two 


THE  THIGH. 


J>5fi 


CUT    OF    THE    MUSCLES    OF    THE    INSIDE    OF    THE    THIGH. 

muscles,  the  external  anr 
internal.  They  proceed, 
the  external  from  the  outer 
surface  of  the  upper  bone 
of  the  thigh;  the  internal 
from  the  inner  surface; 
and  are  inserted  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  bone  of 
the  stifle,  both  on  the  inner 
and  outer  side.  These 
muscles  act  at  considera- 
ble mechanical  disadvan. 
tage ;  they  form  a  very 
slight  angle,  not  at  all  ap- 
proaching to  a  right  angle  ; 
but  they  are  muscles  of 
immense  size,  and  occupy 
all  the  fore-part  of  the 
thigh,  from  the  stifle  up- 
wards.  They  are  power- 
ful extensors  of  the  thigh, 
and  of  the  hinder  leg  gen- 
erally, for  they  are  all 
inserted  into  the  bone  of 
the  knee,  and  that  is  con- 
nected  by  strong  tendons 
with  the  bone  of  the  true 
leg.  We  shall  have  more 
to  say  of  the  action  of 
this  muscle  when  we  have 
described  the  bone  of  the  knee. 

On  the  inside  of  the  thigh  are  several  other  large  fleshy  muscles,  as 
distinct  to  the  eye  as  these,  and  which  will  be  recognised  after  the  slightest 
observation  of  the  thigh  of  the  living  horse.  First,  we  have  a  long,  narrow, 
prominent  muscle,  the  sartor/us,  or  tailor's  muscle,  enabling  him  to  sit  cross- 
legged,  d,  arising  from  the  edge  of  the  haunch-bone,  about  half  way  down 
it,  and  inserted  into  the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh, 
for  thus  we  call  this  bone  extending  from  the  stifle  to  the  hock,  and  which 
in  the  human  being  would  be  properly  the  leg.  It  bends  the  leg,  and  turns 
it  inward,  not  useful  in  the  latter  case  in  progression,  but  in  many  of  the 
natural  actions  of  the  hoi'se. 

Next  comes  a  broad  thin  muscle,  e,  which  cannot  be  mistaken,  occupying 
the  greater  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  inner  part  of  the  thigh,  and  par- 
ticularly  the  prominent  part  of  it.  It  is  called  the  gracilis,  or  slender 
nmscle.  It  arises  from  the  lower  part  of  the  haunch-bone,  and,  in  its 
passage  downward,  uniting  with  the  last  muscle,  is  inserted  with  it  into 
the  inner  and  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh.  It  also  turns  the 
leg.  If  its  direction  be  considered,  it  acts  with  evident  advantage  ;  but  its 
insertion  into  the  bone  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  is  very  disadvantageous. 
It  applies  its  power  very  close  to  the  joint  or  centre  of  motion,  and  the  weigiii, 
consisting  of  the  whole  limb,  and  which  may  be  supposed  to  te  concentrulecJ 
alout  its  middle,  is  far  distani. 


260 


THE  HORSE. 


Still,  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  and  forming  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
tliigh  inwards,  and  contributing  niucii  to  its  bulk,  is  anoliier  of  the 
principal  muscles  of  the  thigh, y,  proceeding  from  the  first  bones  of  the  tail, 
from  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  and  from  the  tendinous  expansion 
which  we  have  described,  and  principally  inserted  into  the  upper  and  fore- 
part of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  but  a  portion  of  it  going  to  the  head  of 
the  lower  bone.  That  part  which  goes  to  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  acts 
with  very  great  mechanical  advantage  (see  cut,  p.  65),  and  most  powerfully 
bends  the  thigh  on  the  pelvis,  and  lifts  and  extends  the  limb.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  effectual  of  the  extensor  muscles.  Considering  the  weight  of  limb 
which  it  has  to  raise  and  extend,  it  had  need  to  possess  great  power.  At^ 
is  another  muscle  concerned  in  the  same  otiice. 

We  now  turn  to  some  of  the  muscles  which  are  very  evident  to  the  eye 
on  the  outside  of  the  thigh. 


CUT    OF    THE    MUSCLES    OF    THE    OUTSIDE    OF    THE    THIGH. 


First  is  the  outer  G/utceus, 
or  buttock  muscle,  d,  being 
little  more  than  a  fleshy  slip 
attached  to  the  muscle  next  to 
be  described.  It  rises  as  high 
up  as  the  spine.  It  runs  along 
the  back  part  of  the  thigh  in 
the  form  of  a  ridge,  and  is 
inserted  into  the  smaller  outer 
prominence  of  the  upper  bone 
of  the  thigh.  Next  is  the 
great  gluimis  muscle,  arising 
from  the  spinous  and  trans- 
verse processes  of  several  of 
the  bones  of  the  loins,  and 
from  the  sacrum  and  from  the 
different  edges  of  the  ilium, 
and  inserted  into  the  great  pro- 
tuberance of  the  upper  bone 
of  the  thigh  (page  63).  behind 
and  a  little  above  the  joint  that 
unites  the  thigh  to  the  haunch- 
bone.  It  is  seen  at  c,  in  this 
cut;  constitutes  the  upper  and 
outer  part  of  the  haunch,  and 
gives  that  fullness  and  round- 
ness to  it,  which  good  judges 
so  much  admire  in  the  quarters 
of  the  horse.  It  is  one  of  the 
main  instruments  in  progres- 
sion. When  the  thigh  has 
been  brouglit  forward  under  the  body  by  the  muscles  already  described, 
the  p.ain  action  of  these  glutsei  muscles  is  to  extend  the  haunch,  and  force 
or  project  the  body  onward.  To  effect  this  they  must  be  very  powerful, 
and  therefore  they  are  so  large,  and  rise  from  such  an  extensive  surface; 
and  thev  ought  to  act  at  great  mechanical  advantage,  and  so,  in  one  sense, 
they  do;    springing  from  the  loins  and  ilium  and  the  sacrum,  they  uc^ 


THE  THIGH.  20 1 

almost  in  a  right  or  perpendicular  line;  in  that  l.ne  in  which  we  have  seen 
that  the  greatest  power  is  gained.  A  reference  to  the  plate  of  the  skeleton 
will  place  this  in  a  striking  point  of  view  ;  and  this  advantage  is  the  more 
necessary,  hecause,  as  is  almost  uniformly  the  case,  there  is  a  corresponding 
disadvantage  to  be  overcome.  These  muscles  are  inserted  into  the  great 
trochanter  or  protuberance  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  that  is  but 
a  very  little  way  removed  from  the  joint  or  centre  of  motion.  The  powei 
is  close  to  the  centre  of  motion  ;  the  weight  supposed  to  be  concentrated 
in  the  middle  of  the  limb,  is  far  off".  It  is  more  than  30  times  as  far  as 
the  power,  and  this  muscle  must  act  with  a  disadvantage  of  more  than 
30  to  1  :  or,  if  the  hinder  extremity,  and  the  weight  of  the  trunk  above 
amount  to  600  pounds,  the  force  applied,  or  the  power  of  the  muscle,  must 
be  equal  to  30  times  600,  or  18,000  pounds.  The  numerous  origins  of 
these  muscles,  and  the  extensive  surfaces  whence  they  arise,  and  their 
immense  bulk,  render  them  equal  to  this;  and  then,  as  we  have  demon- 
strated  with  regard  to  the  flexor  muscles  of  the  arm,  what  is  lost  in  powe" 
is  gained  in  velocity ;  for  while  this  portion  of  the  upper  thigh-bone  moves 
rapidly  through  a  certain  space,  by  the  powerful  contraction  of  the  gluta;/' 
and  other  muscles,  the  extremity  of  that  bone  moves  through  30  times  the 
space,  and  the  extremity  of  the  whole  limb  or  the  foot  moves  through  more 
than  100  times  that  space,  and  hence  results,  and  hence  only  could  result, 
>he  speed  of  the  horse. 

Now  comes  another  consideration  ;  in  proportion  as  this  protuberance 
behind  and  above  the  joint  is  lengthened,  so  is  the  shorter  arm  of  the 
lever  lengthened,  and  so  is  power  or  muscular  exertion  spared.  This 
protuberance  is  lengthened  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  croup,  and 
the  depth  of  the  quarters,  and  hence  the  importance  of  this  conformation. 
We  have  explained  this  as  it  regards  the  depth  of  the  elbow.  It  holds 
more  especially  good  here,  because  these  are  the  parts  with  which  the 
speed  and  power  of  the  horse  are  most  concerned.  The  quarters  com- 
mence by  the  common  consent  of  sporting  men,  from  about  the  middle  of 
the  back,  and  extend  to  the  hock  downward,  and  to  the  tail  behind  ;  and 
although  little  regarded  by  those  who  are  unnaccustomed  to  horses,  and  tiie 
just  proportions  of  those  parts  understood  but  by  few  who  pretend  to  know 
the  horse,  the  quarters  are  by  far  the  most  important  points  in  his  frame. 
Their  muscularity  will  indicate  power,  and  the  depth  of  the  quarters  the 
proper  direction  and  the  advantageous  action  of  that  power.  Therefore,  it 
behooves  those  who  are  about  making  a  selection,  to  have  a  careful  eye,  in 
regard  to  these  parts,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the  animal  is  naturally 
formed  for  the  purposes  required. 

There  is  another  and  smaller  glutceus  muscle  under  that  we  have  last 
described,  rising  likewise  from  the  back  of  the  ilium,  and  inserted  into 
the  same  protuberance  of  the  thigh-bone,  and  assisting  in  the  same  office. 
It  is  not  visible  in  our  cut.  There  are  also  several  other  muscles  pro- 
ceeding from  different  parts  of  the  haunch-bones,  and  inserted  about  the 
heads  of  the  upper  thigh-bone,  and  performing  the  same  work  ;  but  there 
are  two  muscles  to  which  we  must  particularly  refer.  The  first  occupies 
the  outer  part  of  the  quarter  behind,  and  is  beautifully  developed  in  the 
blood  horse  ;  it  is  found  at  e,  p.  200.  It  rises  high  up  from  the  bones  of 
the  spine,  fn^m  others  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  from  the  protuberances  of 
the  ischium  {vide  cut,  p.  63),  and  from  other  bones  of  the  pelvis.  It  in  fact 
consists  of  three  muscles,  but  is  usually  described  as  one  muscle  with  three 
heads.  Triceps  femoris  (the  three-headed  muscle  of  the  thigh).  It  is  inserted 
into  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  its  oflice  is  the 
same  as  the  last^  to  draw  back  the  thigh  when  placed  under  the  trunk, 


«fi2 


THE  HORSE 


nnd  by  so  doing  urge  forward  the  body.  Being  inseited  nearly  in  a  per- 
peiidicular  direction,  it  has  great  power,  but  tliat  power  is  employed 
(iisadvantageously,  on  account  of  being  placed  so  near  the  joint  or  centre 
of  motion. 

The  muscle  at  /,  descending  likewise  from  the  sacrum,  and  from  the 
first  bones  of  the  tail,  runs  down  posterior  to  the  last  muscle,  and  forms 
the  hinder  border  of  the  haunch.  It  is  inserted  into  the  lower  bone  of  the 
thigh,  and  assists  in  performing  the  same  kind  of  motion.  All  these 
muscles  are  particularly  prominent  in  the  thorough-bred  horse,  and  are  the 
source  of  his  strength  and  speed  ;  and  hence  another  very  important  point 
in  the  horse.  These  muscles,  to  perform  their  full  action,  should  be  so 
developed,  that  the  horse,  when  the  observer  stands  behind  him,  although 
wide  enough  at  the  loins  and  haunch,  should  yet  be  perceptibly  wider  at 
the  thighs.  The  following  cut,  containing  one  excellence  above,  and  many 
defects  below,  will  illustrate  our  meaning. 

CUT  OF  THE  HAt^NCH  AND  HIND  LEGS. 


over  Ine  joi 


STRAIN  OF  THE  ROUND  BONE. 

The  joint  of  the  upper  bone  of 
the  thigh  with  the  haunch  is  com- 
monly called  the  whirl  or  round 
bone.  It  has  been  stated,  that  it 
has,  in  some  rare  instances,  been 
dislocated  and  fractured :  it  is 
however  much  oftener  sprained, 
but  not  so  often  as  the  groom  or 
farrier  imagine.  There  is  noth- 
ing peculiar  in  the  lameness  to 
detect  injury  of  this  part,  except 
that  frequently  the  horse  will 
drag  his  leg  after  him  on  the  toe. 
Injury  of  the  round  bone,  or  hip 
joint,  will  be  principally  dis- 
covered by  heat  and  tenderness 
in  the  situation  of  the  joint. 

A  part  so  deeply  seated  is 
treated  with  difficulty.  Fomen- 
tations should  first  be  used  to 
abate  the  inflammation,  and  after 
that  an  active  blister  should  be 
applied.  Strains  of  this  joint  are 
not  always  immediately  relieved, 
and  the  muscles  of  the  limb  con- 
siderably waste ;  and  therefore  it 
may  be  necessary  to  repeat  the 
blister,  while  absolute  rest  should 
accompany  every  stage  of  the 
treatment.  It  may  even  be  re- 
quisite to  fire  the  part,  or,  as  a 
last  resort,  a  charge  may  h".  pat 


int,  and  the  h  rse  turned  out  fc;  •  two  or  three  months. 


THE    STIFLE.  263 


THE  STIFLE. 


The  upper  bone  of  Uie  thigh  is  united  to  the  lower  by  a  somewhat  com- 
plicated  joint.  It  terminates  by  two  round  prominences  behind,  which  are 
received  into  slight  depressions  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  lower  bone; 
and  in  front  is  a  curious  groove,  over  which  plays  a  small  irregular  bone, 
the  patella  or  stifle-bone.  The  whole  is  called  by  farriers  tlie  stifle-joint. 
The  patella  (Q,  p.  63)  answers  to  the  kneepan  in  the  human  subject. 
Some  of  the  tendons  of  the  strongest  muscles  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh 
are  inserted  into  it,  and  continued  from  it  over  the  lower  bone.  This 
important  joint  is  hereby  much  strengthened  ;  for  the  proper  ligament? 
between  the  upper  and  lower  bones,  and  these  additional  tendons  and 
ligaments  from  the  patella,  must  form  altogether  a  very  powerful  union 
The  patella  likewise  answers  another  and  even  more  important  purpose 
The  tendons  of  some  of  the  strong  muscles  are  inserted  into  it.  When 
these  muscles  are  not  in  action,  the  patella  lies  in  the  groove  which  nature 
has  contrived  for  it;  but  when  they  begin  to  contract,  it  starts  from  its  par- 
tial hiding-place,  becomes  prominent  from  the  joint,  and  alters  the  Ime  of 
direction  in  which  the  muscles  act:  it  increases  the  angle,  and  thus  very 
materially  increases  the  power  of  the  muscles. 

The  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  is  double:  the  larger  portion,  in  front, 
extending  from  the  stifle  to  the  hock,  is  called  the  tibia.  The  smaller  bone, 
or  fibula,  behind  (see  R,  p.  63),  reaches  not  more  than  a  third  of  the  way 
down.  It  is  united  to  the  shank-bone,  like  the  splint-bone,  by  a  cartilagin- 
ous  substance,  which  is  soon  changed  for  bone.  Of  the  use  of  these  little 
bones  we  caimot  speak. 

The  lower  bone  of  the  thigh  forms  an  angle  with  the  upper,  the  reverse 
of  that  which  exists  between  the  upper  bone  and  the  pelvis.  The  objecl 
of  this  is  twofold ;  to  obviate  concussion,  and  to  give  a  direction  to  the 
muscles  favourable  to  their  powerful  action;  and  in  proportion  to  the  acute- 
ness  of  the  angle,  or  the  degree  ia  which  the  stifle  is  brought  under  the 
horse,  will  these  purposes  be  accomplished.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  differ- 
ence in  this  in  ditferent  horses,  and  the  construction  of  this  part  of  the  frame 
is  a  matter  worthy  of  more  regard  than  is  generally  paid  to  it. 

This  part  of  the  thigh  should  likewise  be  long.  In  proportion  to  the 
length  of  the  muscle  is  the  degree  of  contraction  of  which  it  is  capable; 
and  in  proportion  to  the  contraction  of  the  muscle,  is  the  extent  of  motion 
in  the  limb:  but  it  is  still  more  necessary  that  this  part  of  the  thigh  should 
have  plenty  of  muscle,  that  the  strength  may  be  added  to  this  extent  or 
compass  of  motion.  We  should  not  expect  much  endurance  from  a  horse 
with  a  thin  arm:  a  horse  with  thin  and  lanky  thighs  cannot  possibly  be  good 
for  any  thing.  In  our  cuts,  259  and  260,  the  principal  muscles  of  this  part 
jf  the  thigh  are  delineated.  They  are  usually  somewhat  prominent,  and 
may  readtly  be  traced  in  the  living  animal :  a  very  brief  notice  of  them 
may  not  be  uninteresting. 

We  will  first  take  the  external  ones,  beginning  in  front.  The  continua- 
tion  from  g,  p.  260,  is  the  tendinous  expansion  given  to  bind  and  strengthen 
these  muscles. 

n  is  a  very  important  muscle :  it  is  the  principal  extensor  mujcle  of  the 
hind-leg  {extensor  pedis,  extensor  of  the  foot).  It  rises  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and  from  the  upper  part  of  the  lower  bone. 
It  is  a  strong,  round,  fleshy  muscle:  a  little  before  it  reaches  the  hock,  it 
will  be  seen  to  assume  a  tendinous  form.  It  is  covered  and  defended  by  a 
sheath  of  its  own  ;  and  the  cut  will  show  the  bands  by  which  it  is  tied  down 


264  THE  HORSE. 

in  ita  place,  within  which  its  plays.  It  is  seen  continuing  its  course  on  the 
front  of  the  cannon  or  shank-bone.  Having  arrived  at  the  fetlock-joint,  it 
begins  to  expand,  and  is  finally  inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin- 
bone,  or  bone  of  the  foot,  after  having  given  various  fibres  to  both  the 
pasterns.  The  course  of  the  corresponding  tendon  in  the  fore-leg  is  given 
in  the  cut,  p.  249,  fig.  I. 

At  7n,  p.  260,  is  another  of  the  e.xtensor  muscles,  called  the  "peroncBus, 
from  a  name  given  to  the  fibula.  It  rises  from  the  whole  course  of  the 
fibula,  and  also  becomes  tendinous  before  it  reaches  the  hock.  About  half 
way  down  the  shank  it  is  found  in  the  same  sheath  with  the  principal  exten- 
sor muscle,  and  is  inserted  with  it  into  the  coffin-bone.  The  office  of  the 
extensor  nmscles  is  to  raise  the  foot  from  the  ground,  and  to  bring  it  forward 
under  the  body. 

At  0  is  the  Jlexor  pedis,  one  of  the  principal  flexor  (bending)  muscles 
of  the  foot,  rising  from  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia.  As  it  approaches  the 
hock,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  large  round  tendon,  which  is  seen  to  enter 
into  a  groove  at  the  back  of  the  hock.  It  is  continued  down  the  back  of 
the  leg  like  a  similar  muscle  in  the  fore-leg,  is  the  perforating  flexor 
muscle  of  the  hind-leg,  and  assists  in  bending  the  pastern  and  coffin, 
joints. 

k  is  a.  very  slender  muscle,  rising  from  the  head  of  the  fibula,  and  pro* 
ceeding  over  the  external  part  of  the  thigh,  and,  just  above  the  hock,  uniting 
with  the  tendon  of  the  perforating  muscle. 

j  is  a  very  powerful  muscle,  springing  from  the  head  of  the  upper  bone 
of  the  thigh,  and,  midway  down  the  lower  bone  of  the  thigh,  ending  in  a 
flat  tendon,  which  is  inserted  into  the  point  of  the  hock.  Its  use  is  to  extend 
the  hock.  It  is  evidently  most  advantageously  situated  for  powerful  action; 
for  it  acts  almost  at  right  angles,  and  its  effect  is  increased  in  proportion  to 
the  projection  of  the  point  of  the  hock. 

We  now  turn  to  the  inner  side.     See  cut,  p.  259. 

m  gives  a  portion  of  the  muscle  which  we  have  just  described. 

n  an  inside  view  of  the  perforating  flexor  muscle  of  the  foot. 

I  is  the  peronaeus. 

0  is  the  perforated  flexor  tendon,  having  its  origin  from  near  the  lower 
head  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh  ;  becoming  tendinous  as  it  passes  down 
the  thigh  ;  expanding  over  and  surrounding  the  point  of  the  hock,  and 
assisting  in  extending  it ;  and  then  pursuing  its  course  down  the  posterior  part 
of  the  leg,  in  a  manner  so  much  resembling  that  of  similar  tendons  in  the 
fore-leg,  that  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  referring  to  a  description  of 
the  perforated  and  perforating  flexor  tendons  at  page  239. 

At  e  is  a  continuation  of  the  gracilis  muscle,  p.  259,  over  the  stifle. 

At  h  is  the  extensor  pedis,  already  described,  p.  263,  with  its  tendon. 

At  i  is  a  muscle  used  to  bend  the  hock,  the  Jlexor  metatarsi,  or  bender  of 
the  leg;  rising  from  the  lower  part  of  the  upper  bone  of  the  thigh,  and 
inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  shank-bone ;  and  also  the  inner  small 
splint-bone.  It  is  a  muscle  of  considerable  power,  although  disadvan- 
tageously  situated,  both  as  to  its  direction  and  its  being  inserted  so  near  to 
the  joint. 

At  k  is  a  short  muscle,  extending  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  thigh-bones 
(the  poplitfEus),  bending  the  stifle  and  turning  the  limb  inward. 

These  cuts  represent  the  situation  of  some  of  the  principal  blood-vessels 
and  nerves  of  the  hind  extremities. 

In  the  cut  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  page  259,  p  represents  the  course 
of  the  principal  artery ;  at  q  are  blood-vessels  belonging  to  the  groin  ;  at 
r  is  the  large  cutaneous  vein,  or  the  vein  immediately  under  the  skin.     The 


THOROUGH-PIN— THE  HOCK.  <26.7 

principal  nerves  on  the  fore-part  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh  pursue  their 
course  at  t,  in  the  direction  of  the  cutaneous  vein ;  and  those  of  the  pos- 
terior part  are  seen  at  s,  and  at  u  are  those  important  ligamentous  bands  at 
the  bending  of  the  hock  which  confine  the  tendon. 

In  the  cut  of  the  outside  of  the  thigh,  page  260,  p  will  give  the  course 
of  the  anterior  arteries  and  veins;  q  the  course  of  the  principal  nerves, 
and  coming  into  sight  below ;  and  r  the  bands  described  in  the  former 
plate. 

Also,  in  the  cut  of  the  outside  of  the  shoulder  and  arm,  p.  233,  the  figures 
1,  2,  and  3,  designate  the  places  of  the  principal  artery,  nerve  and  vein  of 
the  leg  ;  4  gives  the  subcutaneous  vein  running  within  the  arm  ;  and  5,  the 
subcutaneous  vein  of  the  side  of  the  chest. 

In  the  cut  of  the  inside  of  the  arm,  p.  235,  the  lines  above  represent,  in 
the  order  from  the  front,  the  principal  nerves,  the  arteries,  and  veins  of  the 
shoulder  and  arm,  and,  on  the  muscles,  k  gives  the  principal  subcutaneous 
vein  of  the  inside  of  the  arm,  and  i  the  artery  by  which  it  is  accompanied. 

The  stifle-joint  is  not  often  subject  to  sprain.  The  heat  and  tenderness 
will  guide  to  the  seat  of  injury.  Occasionally,  dislocation  of  the  patella 
has  occurred,  and  the  horse  drags  the  injured  limb  after  him,  or  I'ests 
it  on  the  fetlock ;  the  aid  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is  here  requisite.  The 
muscles  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  generally,  have  been  sometimes  sprained  : 
this  may  be  detected  by  ditfused  heat,  or  heat  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh 
above  the  stifle ;  rest,  fomentations,  bleeding,  and  physic  will  be  the  proper 
means  of  cure. 

THOROUGH-PIN. 

We  have  observed  that  there  are  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  joints, 
certain  bags,  containing  a  mucous  fluid  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the 
parts,  and  that  these  sometimes  become  inflamed  and  enlarged.  We  have 
spoken  of  wind-galls  and  their  treatment.  A  similar  enlargement  is  found 
above  the  hock,  between  the  tendons  of  the  flexor  of  the  loot  and  the 
extensor  of  the  hock.  As  from  its  situation  it  must  necessarily  project  an: 
both  sides  of  the  hock,  in  the  form  of  a  round  swelling,  it  is  called  a. 
thorough-pin,  a,  p.  262.  It  is  an  indication  of  considerable  work,  but,, 
except  it  be  of  a  very  great  size,  it  is  rarely  attended  by  lameness.  The 
mode  of  treatment  must  resemble  that  recommended  for  wind-galls. 
Although  thorough-pin  cannot  be  pronounced  to  be  unsoundness,  yet  it. 
behooves  the  buyer  to  examine  well  a  horse  with  thorough-pin,  and  to  ascer- 
tain whether  undue  work  may  not  have  injured  him  in  other  respects 

THE  HOCK. 

We  now  arrive  at  a  very  important  joint,  often  the  evident,  and  much^ 
oftener  the  unsuspected  seat  of  lameness,  and  the  proper  formation  of  which 
is  essentially  connected  with  the  excellence  and  value  of  the  horse.  We 
shall  describe  it  at  length. 

The  inferior  head  of  the  tibia  is  formed  into  two  deep  grooves,  with  three 
sharpened  ridges,  one  separating  the  grooves,  and  the  other  two  forming  the 
sides  of  them,  It  is  seen  at  a  in  the  ibllowmg  cut.  It  rests  upon  a  very 
singular  bone,  &,  called  the  astragalus  (shaped  like  the  die  or  dice  used  by 
the  ancients),  which  has  two  circular  risings  or  projections,  and  with  a' 
depression  between  them,  answering  exactly  to  the  irregularities  of  the 
tibia,  and  these  are  received  and  morticed  into  each  other.  At  the  posterior 
part  its  convex  surface  is  received  into  a  concavity  near  the  base  of  anothur 
S 


266 


THE  HORSE. 


CUT    OF    THE    HOCK. 

bone,  and  with  which 
it  is  united  by  very 
strong  ligaments.— 
This  bone  c,  is  called 
the  OS  ca/cis,  or  bone 
of  the  heel,  and  it 
projects  upwards, 
flattened  at  its 
sides,  and  receives, 
strongly  implanted 
into  it,  the  tendons 
of  powerful  muscles. 
These  bones  rest  on 
two  others,  the  os 
cuhoides,  d,  (cube- 
formed)  behind,  and 
the  larger  cuneiform 
or  wedge-shaped 

bone  e,  in  front.  The 
larger  wedge-shaped 
bone  is  supported  by 
two  smaller  ones 
f,  and  these  two 
smaller  ones  and 
the  cube-bone  by  the 
upper  heads  of  the 
shank. bone  g,  and 
the  splint-bones  h. 
The  cube-bone  is 
placed  on  the  exter- 
nal splint-bone,  and 
the  cannon-bone ;  the 
small  wedge-bone, 
principally  on  the 
inner  splint-bone, 
not  seen  in  the  cut; 
and  the  middle 
wedge-bone  rests  on 
the  iinf(iik-bone  orlv,  g.  These  bones  are  all  connected  together  by  very 
strong  ligaments  which  prevent  dislocation,  but  allow  a  slight  degree  of 
motion  among  them,  and  the  surfaces  which  are  opposed  to  each  other  are 
thickly  covsTed  by  elastic  cartilage. 

Considermg  the  situation  and  action  of  this  joint,  the  weight  and  stress 
thrown  upon  it  must  be  exceedingly  great,  and  it  must  be  liable  to  much 
injury  in  rapid  and  powerful  motion.  What  are  the  provisions  to  prevent 
injury  ?  The  grooved  or  pulley-like  heads  of  the  tibia,  and  the  as'ragalus, 
received  deeply  into  one  another,  and  confined  by  powerful  ligaments, 
admit  freely  of  hinge-like  motioi/,  but  of  no  side  motion,  to  which  the 
joint  might  be  exposed  in  rapid  action,  or  on  an  uneven  surface.  The 
Blightest  inspection  of  the  cut  will  show  that  the  stress  or  weight  thrown 
by  the  tibia  a,  on  the  ast"agalus  b,  does  not  descend  perpendi';;ularly,  but 
'n  a  slantine:  diroction,  b"    which  a  sreat  deal  of  concussion  is  avoided,  or 


EXLARGEMENT  OF  THE  HOCK-CURB.  2G'7 

more  readily  diffused  among  the  different  bones;  and  the  joint,  consisting 
of  six  bones,  each  of  them  covered  with  elastic  cartilage,  and  eacl 
admitting  of  a  certain  degree  of  motion,  this  diminished  concussion  is  dif. 
fused  among  them  all,  and  thereby  neutralized  and  rendered  harmless. 
Eacii  of  these  bones  is  covered  not  only  by  cartilage,  but  by  a  membrane 
eecreting  tiie  synovia  or  oily  fluid  of  which  we  have  spoken  in  otiier  joints-, 
so  that  these  bones  are  formed  into  so  many  distinct  joints,  separated  from 
each  other,  and  therefore' guarded  from  injury,  yet  united  by  various  liga- 
ments, possessing  altogether  sufficient  motion,  yet  bound  together  so  strongly 
as  to  defy  dislocation.  VViien,  iiowever,  we  consider  the  work  which  tliis 
joint  has  to  perform,  and  tiie  thoughtlessness  and  cruelty  with  which  that 
work  is  often  exacted,  we  shall  not  wonder  if  this  necessarily  complicated 
mechanism  is  sometimes  deranged.  The  hock  is,  from  its  complicated 
structure  and  its  work,  the  principal  seat  of  lameness  behind.  Nine- 
tenths  of  the  lamenesses  that  occur  in  tlie  hind-leg  are  to  be  traced  to  this 
joint,  and  when,  after  careful  examination,  we  are  unable  to  find  any  other 
seat  of  lameness,  we  shall  usually  be  justified  in  affirming  that  the  hock 
is  affected. 

ENLARGEMRNT  OF  THE  HOCK. 

First,  there  is  inflammation  or  sprain  of  the  hock-joint  generally,  rising 
principally  from  sudden  violent  concussion;  from  ciieck  at  speed;  or  from 
over-weigiit,  and  attended  by  enlargement  of  the  wliole  joint,  and  great 
tenderness  and  lameness.  This,  iiowever,  like  other  dilfused  inflammations, 
is  not  so  untractable  as  intense  inflammations  of  a  more  circumscribed 
nature;  and  by  rest  and  fomentation,  or  percliance  firing,  tlie  limb  recovers 
its  action,  and  the  liorse  becomes  fit  for  ordinary  work.  The  swelling, 
however,  docs  not  always  suijside.  Enlargement,  sj)rcad  over  the  whole 
of  the  hock-joint,  remains.  A  horse  witli  an  enlarged  iiock  must  always 
be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  is,  in  truth,  unsound.  Tiie  parts,  altered  in 
structure,  are  to  a  certain  degree  weakened.  The  horse  may  discharge  his 
usual  work  through  life,  witiiout  return  of  lameness,  but  if  one  of  those 
emergencies  should  occur  when  all  his  energies  require  to  be  exerted,  the 
disorganized  and  weakened  part  will  fail.  The  purciiase,  therefore,  of  a 
horse  with  enlarged  hock,  will  depend  on  circumstances.  If  he  has  other 
excellencies,  he  will  not  be  uniformly  rejected  ;  for  he  may  be  ridden  or 
driven  moderately  for  many  a  year  without  inconvenience,  yet  one  extra 
hard  day's  work  may  lame  him  for  ever. 

CURB. 

There  are  oftener  injuries  of  particular  parts  of  the  hock-joint.  We 
have  iiad  occasion  frequently  to  describe  the  ring-like  ligaments,  which,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  joints,  so  usefully  tie  down  the  tendons.  From 
sudden  or  over  exertion  these  ligaments  may  be  extended,  and  inflamma- 
tion, swelling,  and  lameness  may  ensue  ;  or  the  siieaths  of  the  tendons  in 
the  neighbouriiood  of  joints,  from  their  extent  of  motion  in  these  situations, 
may  be  susceptilile  of  injury.  C'Jkb  is  an  affection  of  this  kind.  It  is  an 
enlargement  at  the  back  of  the  hock,  about  tliree  or  four  inches  below  the 
point  of  the  hock.  It  is  represented  at  d,  p.  '202,  and  it  is  either  a  strain  in 
ihe  rinf-like  ligament  wiiich  binds  the  tendons  down  in  their  place,  or  in  the 
Kheath  of  the  tendons;  oftener,  we  are  inclined  to  tiiink,  of  the  ligament 
■.iian  of  the  slieath.  Any  sudden  action  of  the  limb  of  more  than  usua. 
violence  may  produce  it,  and  therefore  horses  are  found  to  'throw  out  curbs' 


2QS  THE   HORSE. 

aftei  a  Jardly  contested  race,  an  extraordinary  leap,  a  severe  gallop  over 
Ijeavy  ground,  or  a  sudden  check  in  tiie  gallop.  Young  horses  arc  partic- 
ularly liable  to  it,  and  horses  that  are  cow-hocked,  (vide  cut,  p.  '2&2,)  or 
whose  hocks  and  legs  resemble  those  of  the  cow,  the  l)ocks  being  turned 
inward,  and  the  legs  forming  a  considerable  angle  outwards.  This  is  intel. 
ligible  enough;  for  in  the  hocks  so  formed,  the  annular  ligament  must  be 
continually  on  the  stretch  to  confine  the  tendon. 

Curbs  are  generally  accompanied  by  considerable  lameness  at  their  first 
appearance,  but  the  swelling  is  not  always  great ;  indeed,  it  sometimes  pre- 
sents  so  gradual  a  curve,  that  it  is  scarcely  perceivable  when  we  stand  behind 
the  horse,  and  both  the  horseman  and  the  veterinary  surgeon  have  over 
'ooked  it.     It  is  best  detected  by  observing  the  leg  sideway. 

The  first  object  in  attempting  the  cure  is  to  abate  infiammation,  and  this 
will  be  most  readily  accomplished  by  cold  evaporating  lotions,  frequently 
applied  to  the  part.  Equal  portions  of  spirit  of  wine,  water,  and  vinegar, 
will  afford  an  excellent  application.  It  will  be  almost  impossible  to  keep 
a  bandage  on.  If  the  heat  and  lameness  are  considerable,  it  will  be  prudent 
to  physic  the  horse,  and  to  bleed  from  the  subcutaneous  vein,  whose  course 
is  represented  at  r,  page  259.  Whether  the  injury  be  of  the  annular  liga- 
ment, or  the  sheath  of  the  tendon,  more  active  means  will  be  necessary  to 
perfect  the  cure.  Either  a  liquid  blister  should  be  rubbed  on  the  part, 
consisting  of  a  vinous  or  turpentine  tincture  of  cantharides,  and  this  daily 
applied  until  some  considerable  swelling  takes  place,  which  should  be 
allowed  to  subside,  and  then  the  liniment  again  resorted  to;  or,  what  is  the 
preferable  plan,  the  hair  should  be  cut  off",  and  the  part  blistered  as  soon  as 
the  heat  has  been  subdued.  The  blister  should  be  repeated  until  the  horse 
goes  sound,  and  the  swelling  has  disappeared.  In  severe  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  fire,  but  we  cannot  recommend  the  indiscriminate  recourse  tc 
the  hot  iron  in  every  case  of  curb,  and  we  would  uniformly  give  a  fail 
trial  to  milder  measures.  If  the  iron  be  used,  the  strokes  should  be  in 
straight  lines. 

There  are  few  complaints  in  which  absolute  and  long-continued  rest  is 
more  requisite  than  in  curb.  An  injury  so  serious  leaves  the  parts  very 
materially  weakened,  and  if  the  horse  be  soon  put  to  work  again,  the  lame- 
ness will  frequently  return.  No  horse  that  has  had  curbs  should  be  put 
even  to  ordinary  work  in  less  than  a  month  after  the  apparent  cure,  and 
even  then  he  should  very  gradually  resume  his  former  habits. 

A  horse  with  a  curb  is  manifestly  unsound.  A  liorse  with  the  vestige 
of  curb  we  should  regard  with  much  suspicion,  or  generally  condemn  as 
unsound  ;  for  although  the  neighbouring  parts  may  have  accommodated 
themselves  to  the  slight  enlargement  that  remains,  they  are  not  in  their 
natural  situation,  and  have  lost  a  portion  of  their  natural  strength:  some 
latent  disposition  to  relapse  may  continue,  which  extraordinary  exertion 
may  rouse  to  action ;  and,  besides  this,  it  should  be  remembered  that  curb 
is  an  hereditary  complaint,  and  that  there  may  be  some  constitutional  weak, 
ness  of  these  parts. 

BOG- SPAVIN. 

The  hock  is  plentifully  furnished  with  mucous  bags,  to  lubricate  the  dif- 
ferent portions  of  this  complicated  joint.  Some  of  these  are  found  on  the 
inside  of  the  joint,  which  could  not  be  represented  in  our  cut,  page  262 
From  over-exertion  of  the  joint  they  become  inflamed,  and  considerably 
enlarged.  They  are  wind-galls  of  the  hock.  The  subcutaneous  vein 
passes  over  tht  inside  of  the  hock,  and  over  some  of  these  enlarg'jd  bags, 


BONE-SPAVIN.  2G9 

and  is  compressed  between  the  skin  and  the  enlarged  bag;  and,  consc 
quently,  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  it  is  partially  stopped.  Th» 
blood,  however,  continues  to  be  returned  from  the  leg  and  foot,  and  being 
thus  arrested  in  its  course,  a  portion  of  the  vein  below  the  impediment,  and 
between  it  and  the  next  valve,  is  distended,  and  causes  the  soft  tumour 
on  the  side  of  tlie  hock,  called  the  bog  or  blood  spavin.  This  is  a  very 
serious  disease,  attended  with  no  great,  but  often  permanent  lameness,  and 
a  disease  too  apt  to  return,  when  the  enlargement  has  subsided  under  med- 
ical  treatment.  It  must  be  considered  as  decided  unsoundness.  In  a 
horse  for  slow  draught,  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  even  to  attack  it.  In  a 
horse  destined  for  rapid  action,  the  probability  of  a  relapse  should  not  be 
forgotten,  wiien  the  chances  of  success,  and  the  expenses  of  treatment  are 
calculated. 

The  disease  (the  enlarged  mucous  capsule)  lies  deep,  and  is  with  difficulty 
operated  upon.  Uniform  pressure  will  sometimes  cause  the  absorption  of 
the  fluid  contained  in  cysts  or  bags  like  these,  but  in  a  joint  of  such 
extensive  motion  as  the  hock,  it  is  difficult,  or  almost  impossible,  to  confine 
the  pressure  on  the  precise  spot  where  it  is  required ;  and  could  it  be  made 
to  bear  on  the  enlarged  bag,  it  would  likewise  press  on  the  vein,  and'  to  a 
greater  degree  hinder  the  passage  of  the  blood,  and  increase  the  dilatation 
below  the  obstruction.  The  old  and  absurd  method  of  passing  a  ligature 
above  and  below  the  enlarged  portion  of  the  vein,  and  then  dissecting  out 
the  tumour,  is  not,  in  the  advanced  stage  of  veterinary  science,  practised  by 
any  surgeon  who  has  a  regard  to  his  reputation.  The  only  method  of 
relief  which  holds  out  any  promise  even  of  temporary  success,  is  by  ex- 
citing a  great  deal  of  inflammation  on  the  skin,  and  thus  rousing  the  deeper 
seated  absorbents  to  carry  away  the  fluid  effused  in  the  enlarged  bag. 
Repeated  blisters  then  will  aflx)rd  the  fairest  prospect  of  removing  the  tumour, 
or  firing  may  be  tried ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  disease  will  bid 
defiance  to  all  our  means,  or  will  return,  and  baffle  our  hopes  when  we  had 
seemed  to  have  been  accomplishing  our  object.  A  horse  with  bog-spavin 
will  do  very  well  for  ordinary  work.  He  may  draw  in  a  cart,  or  trot  fairly 
in  a  ligliter  carriage,  with  little  detriment  to  his  utility,  but  he  will  never 
do  for  rapid  or  hard  work,  and  it  is  in  vain  to  attemot  to  make  him. 

BONE-SPAVIN. 

A  still  more  formidable  disease  ranks  under  the  name  of  spavin,  and  is 
an  affection  of  the  bones  of  the  hock-joint.  We  have  observed  that  the 
bones  of  the  leg,  the  shank-bone,  g,  page  2G6,  and  the  two  little  splint-bones 
behind,  h,  support  the  lower  layer  of  the  bones  of  the  hock.  The  cube 
bone,  d,  rests  principally  on  the  shank-bone,  and  in  a  slight  degree  on  the 
outer  splint-bone.  The  middle  wedge-bone,  f,  rests  entirely  upon  the 
shank-bone,  and  the  smaller  wedge  (not  seen  in  the  cut)  rests  in  a  very 
sliglit  degree  on  the  shank-bone,  but  principally  or  almost  entirely  on  the 
inner  splint-bone.  Then  the  splint-bones  sustain  a  very  unequal  degree  of 
concussion  and  weight.  Not  only  is  the  inner  one  placed  more  under  the 
body,  and  nearer  the  centre  of  gravity,  but  it  has  almost  the  whole  of  the 
weight  and  concussion  communicated  to  the  little  wedge-bone  carried  on  to 
it.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  wondered  at,  that  in  the  violent  action  of  this 
joint  in  galloping,  leaping,  heavy  draught,  and  especially  in  young  horses, 
and  before  the  limbs  have  become  properly  knit,  the  inner  splint-bone,  oi 
its  lioaments,  or  the  substance  which  connects  it  with  the  shank-bone, 
shouii  suffer  material  injury.     The  smith  increases  the  tendency  to  this, 


270  THE  HORSE. 

by  liis  injudicious  management  of  the  feet.  It  is  a  common  notion,  that 
cutting,  and  wounds  in  the  feet,  from  one  foot  treading  on  the  other,  are 
prevented  by  putting  on  a  shoe  with  a  calkin  on  the  outer  heel,  that  is,  the 
extremity  of  the  heel  of  the  shoe  being  bent,  and  thus  the  outer  heel  con- 
siderably raised  from  the  ground.  It  is  not  unusual  to  sefe  whole  teams  of 
horses,  and  that  all  the  year  round,  with  the  outer  heel  of  the  hind-foot 
considerably  raised  above  the  other.  This  unequal  bearing,  or  distribution 
of  the  weight  cannot  fail  of  being  injurious;  it  will  place  an  unequal  strain 
on  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  and  particularly  of  the  hock-joint,  and 
increase  the  tendency  to  spavin. 

The  weight  and  concussion  which  are  thus  thrown  on  the  inner  splint- 
bone,  produce,  in  the  first  place,  inflammation  of  the  cartilaginous  substance 
which  unites  it  to  the  shank-bone.  The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  tlie 
cartilage  is  absorbed,  and  bone  deposited ;  the  union  between  the  splint- 
bone  and  the  shank  becomes  bony  instead  of  cartilaginous;  the  degree  of 
elastic  action  between  them  is  des-troyed,  and  there  is  formed  a  splint  of  the 
hind-leg.  This  is  uniformly  on  the  inside  of  the  hind-leg,  because  the 
greater  weight  and  concussion  are  thrown  on  the  inner  splint-bones.  As  in 
the  fore-leg,  the  disposition  to  form  bony  matter  having  commenced,  and 
the  cause  which  produced  it  continuing  to  act,  bone  continues  to  be  deposited, 
and  it  appears  generally  in  the  form  of  a  tumour,  where  the  head  of  the 
splint-bone  is  united  with  the  shank,  and  in  front  of  that  union.  It  is  seen 
at  c,  page  262.  This  is  called  bone-spavin.  Inflammation  of  the  liga- 
ments of  any  one  of  the  small  bones  of  the  hock,  proceeding  to  bony  tumour 
would  equally  class  under  the  name  of  spavin ;  but,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, the  disease  commences  on  the  precise  spot  we  have  described. 

When  spavin  is  forming,  there  is  always  lameness,  and  that,  frequently, 
to  a  very  great  degree;  but  when  the  membrane  of  the  bone  has  accom- 
modated itself  to  the  tumour  which  extended  it,  the  lameness  subsides,  or 
disappears,  or  depends  upon  the  degree  in  which  the  bony  deposit  interferes 
with  the  motion  of  the  joint.  We  often  see  horses  with  exceedingly  large 
spavins,  that  are  only  slightly  lame,  or  that  merely  have  a  stiffness  in  their 
gait  at  first  starting,  and  that  gradually  goes  off  after  a  little  motion;  and 
we  meet  with  others  with  the  bony  tumour  comparatively  small,  yet  the 
lameness  so  great  as  to  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  horse.  There  is 
always  this  peculiarity  in  the  lameness  of  spavin,  that  it  abates,  and  some- 
times disappears,  on  exercise;  and,  therefore,  a  horse,  with  regard  to  which 
there  is  any  suspicion  of  spavin,  should  be  examined,  when  it  first  in  the 
morning  is  taken  from  the  stable. 

If  the  spavin  continues  to  increase,  the  bony  deposit  first  spreads  over 
the  lower  wedge-bones,  y,  page  266,  for  these  are  nearest  to  its  original 
seat.  They  are  capable  of  slight  motion,  and  share  in  every  action  of  the 
joint,  but  their  principal  design  was  to  obviate  concussion.  The  chief 
motion  of  the  joint,  and  that  compared  with  which  the  motion  of  the  others 
is  scarcely  to  be  regarded,  is  confined  to  the  tibia  a,  and  the  astragalus  h,  and 
therefore,  stiffness,  rather  than  lameness,  may  accompany  spavin,  even 
when  it  is  beginning  to  affect  the  small  bones  of  the  joint.  Hence,  too,  we 
see  the  advantage  of  these  bones  having  each  its  separate  ligaments  and 
membranes,  and  constituting  so  many  joints,  since  injury  may  happen  to 
some  of  them,  without  the  effect  being  propagated  to  the  rest.  When  the 
bony  deposit  continues  to  enlarge,  and  takes  in  the  second  layer  of  bones,  the 
larger  wedge-bones  e,  and  even  spreads  to  the  cube-bones  on  the  other  side, 
even  then  the  lameness  may  not  be  excessive,  because  these  two  are  joints, 
or  parts  of  the  joint,  in  which  the  motion  is  small;  but  when  it  extendsi 


BONE-SPAVIN. 


271 


lu  Ifie  union  of  the  tibia  a,  and  the  astragalus  b ;  when  the  joint,  in  which 
is  the  chief  motion  of  the  hock,  is  attacked,  the  lameness  is  indeed  forrnid- 
able,  and  the  horse  becomes  nearly  or  quite  useless.  A  recollection  of 
the  situation  of  the  dilFerent  bones  of  the  hock,  may,  in  some  measure, 
guide  the  purchaser  as  to  the  probable  value  and  use  of  the  spavined  horse; 
but  he  must  not  depend  on  this,  for  deep-seated  deposits  of  bone,  which  the 
eye  cannot  reach,  may  interfere  more  with  the  action  of  the  joint,  than  any 
outwaid  enlargement,  however  great. 

Spavined  horses  are  generally  capable  of  slow  work.  They  are  equal 
to  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  therefore  they  will  not  be 
always  rejected  by  the  small  farmer,  and  may  generally  be  procured  a 
little  price.  These  horses  are  not  only  capable  of  agricultural  work,  but 
they  generally  improve  under  it;  they  become  less  lame,  and  even  the 
bony  tumour  to  a  certain  degree  diminishes.  There  is  sufficient  moderate 
motion  and  friction  of  the  limb  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  action,  and  cause 
them  to  take  up  a  portion  of  the  bony  matter  thrown  out,  but  not  enough  to 
renew  or  prolong  inflammation.  We  cannot  say  that  the  plough  affords  a 
cure  for  spavin,  but  we  have  seen  many  instances  in  which  the  spavined 
horse  has  very  materially  improved  at  it. 

For  fast  work,  and  for  work  that  must  be  regularly  performed,  they  are 
not  so  well  calculated ;  for  this  lameness  behind  produces  great  difficulty 
in  rising  up,  and  the  consciousness  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  rise  without 
painful  effort,  prevents  the  horse  from  lying  down  at  all ;  and  a  horse  that 
cannot  rest  well,  cannot  long  travel  far  and  fast.  This  is  well  known  te 
postmasters.  A  foundered  horse  may  do  his  work,  for  as  soon  as  he  hat 
satisfied  his  appetite  he  is  down ;  but  the  horse  that  will  seldom  or  never 
lie  down,  must  be  speedily  worn  out. 

Our  cut  shows  at  e,  the  natural  situation  of  spavin,  but  there  is  some- 
times an  expansion  of  the  heads  of  the  bones  of  the  leg,  that  looks  very 
much  like  it,  and  has  been  mistaken  for  it.  Both  hocks  should  be  examined, 
for  it  is  rare  that  there  will  be  an  unnatural  growth  of  bone  of  precisely 
the  same  form  and  appearance  in  both  ;  and  if  there  be  a  natural  projection, 
or  breadth  of  the  heads  of  the  bones,  all  the  other  joints  will  present  the 
same  bold  character. 

The  treatment  of  spavin  is  simple  enough,  but  not  always  effectual. 
The  owner  of  the  horse  will  neither  consult  his  own  interest,  nor  the 
dictates  of  humanity,  if  he  suffers  the  chisel  and  mallet,  or  the  gimlet,  or 
the  pointed  iron,  or  arsenic  to  be  used  ;  yet  measures  of  considerable 
severity  must  be  resorted  to.  Repeated  blisters  will  usually  cause 
either  the  absorption  of  the  bony  deposit,  or  the  abatement  or  removal  of 
the  inflammation  of  the  ligaments.  As  a  last  resort,  however,  the  hot  iron 
may  be  applied. 

We  have  thus  presented  our  readers  with  a  fearful  list  of  diseases 
belonging  to  the  hock,  but  our  catalogue  is  not  completed.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  horse  is  frequently  subject  to  lameness  behind,  when  no  ostensible 
cause  for  it  can  be  found,  and  there  is  no  external  heat  or  enlargement  to 
indicate  its  seat.  Farriers  and  grooms  pronounce  these  to  be  affections  of 
■he  stifle,  or  round  bone;  or  if  the  gait  of  the  horse  and  peculiar  stifihess 
of  motion  point  out  the  hock  as  the  affected  part,  yet  the  joint  may  be  of 
its  natural  size,  and  neither  heat  nor  tenderness  can  be  discovered.  The 
groom  has  here  a  method  of  unravelling  the  mystery  :  he  says  that  it  is  the 
beginning  of  spavin ;  but  months  and  years  pass  away,  and  the  spavin  does 
not  appear,  and  the  horse  is  at  length  destroyed,  as  incurably  lame.  Horse- 
men are  indebted  to  Mr.  W.  J.  Goodwin  for  the  discovery  of  the  seat  of  fre- 
quent lameness  behind.     Our  cut  represents  two  layers  of  small  bones  on 


272  THE  HORSE. 

the  inside  ar*  the  hock  ;  the  larger  wedge-like  bone  e  above ;  and  the  imd 
dley,  and  ihe  smaller  one  below,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  almost  the  whole 
of  the  weight  of  the  horse,  communicated  by  the  tibia  a,  is  thrown  upon 
these  bones.  The  cube-bone  d  does  little  more  than  support  tiie  poin; 
of  the  liock  c.  It  is  easy  then  to  suppose,  tiiat  in  the  concussion  of  hard 
work  or  rapid  travelling,  these  bones,  or  the  delicate  and  sensible  mem 
branes  in  which  they  are  wrapped,  may  be  severely  injured.  Repeated 
dissections  of  horses  that  have  been  incurably  lame  behind,  without  any 
thing  external  to  point  out  the  place  or  cause  of  lameness,  have  shown 
that  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining  these  joints,  and  secreting  the 
fluid  that  lubricates  them,  has  taken  place  ;  and  has  been  accompanied  by 
all  the  pain  of  joint  disease,  and  evils  corresponding  to  those  which  we 
have  described,  when  treating  of  broken  knees,  and  the  consequent  inflam- 
mation of  the  membrane  and  internal  part  of  the  joint.  Indeed,  so  clearly 
is  this  now  established,  that  when,  after  careful  and  repeated  examination 
by  a  competent  person,  no  seat  or  cause  of  lameness  can  be  discovered, 
we  shall  be  right  nineteen  times  out  of  twenty,  in  deciding  that  it  is  disease 
in  this  portion  of  the  hock.  No  enlargement,  no  heat,  will  indicate  its 
existence,  but  when  it  has  been  long  established,  and  ossified  matter  has 
been  thrown  out  between  these  bones,  it  will,  like  the  true  spavin,  spread, 
and  appear  either  on  the  inside  of  the  hock,  or  surrounding  the  whole  of 
the  joint. 

In  these  cases,  then,  of  mysterious  lameness,  and  when,  after  the 
removal  of  the  shoe,  and  the  most  patient  search,  we  have  failed  in  dis- 
covering a  cause  of  lameness  elsewhere,  we  shall  be  justified  in  considering 
this  as  the  affected  part,  and  treating  it  accordingly:  and  as  the  injury  is 
deep,  and  in  the  very  centre  of  the  joint,  we  must  adopt  severe  measures 
in  order  to  reach  it.  We  must  blister  immediately,  and  repeat  the  blister, 
and  enjoin  perfect  quietude  and  rest;  but  here,  as  in  the  bone-spavin, 
and  oftener  than  in  that  disease,  all,  our  appliances  and  means  may  be 
fruitless.  Our  only  hope  lies  in  an  early  attempt  to  combat  the  evil ;  and 
in  all  these  obscure  cases,  he  is  unjust  to  himself  who  does  not  speedily 
have  recourse  to  their  advice,  to  whom  science  and  practice  have  given  a 
facility  in  detecting  latent  disease. 

THE  POINT  OF  THE  HOCK. 

If  the  reader  has  not  forgotten  what  we  have  said  concerning  the  projection 
)f  the  elbow,  he  will  be  convinced  that  the  form  of  the  hock  is  materially 
connected  with  the  value  of  the  horse.  The  most  powerful  of  the  fle.xor 
or  bending  muscles  are  inserted  into  the  point  of  the  hock,  or  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  OS  caJcis,  c;  and  in  proportion  to  the  projection  of  the  hock, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  length  of  this  bone,  will  two  purposes  be  etfected. 
The  line  of  direction  will  be  more  advantageous,  for  it  will  be  nearer  to  a 
perpendicular ;  and  the  arm  of  the  lever  to  which  the  power  is  applied  will 
be  lengtbenesl,  and  mechanical  advantage  will  be  gained  to  an  almost 
incredible  extent.  Suppose  this  bone  of  the  hock  to  be  three  inches  in 
length ;  the  joint  formed  by  the  tibia  and  the  astragalus  is  evidently  the 
centre  of  motion ;  and  the  weight  concentered  about  the  middle  of  the 
shank,  is  the  obstacle  to  be  overcome.  If  the  weight  be  four  times  as  far 
from  the  centre  of  motion,  as  the  power,  a  force  equal  to  four  times  the 
weight  would  raise  it.  It  is,  however,  here  to  be  remembered,  that  it  is 
not  merely  the  weight  of  the  leg  whicli  is  to  be  raised,  tiut  the  weight  of 
the  horse,  for  the  time  resting  upon  the  leg,  and  that  weight  to  be  pro- 
elled  or  driven  forward.     At  what  shall  we   calculate  this  ?      We  mav 


CAPPED  HOCK,  ETC.  27? 

Ijirly  suppose  that  the  muscles  whose  tendons  are  inserted  into  the  point 
of  the  hock  exert  an  energy  equal  to  4000  lbs.  Let  us  further  suppose, 
that  an  inch  is  added  to  the  point  of  the  hock,  which  will  be  an  addition  ol 
one-tliird  to  its  length :  a  muscular  power  of  less  than  3000  lbs.  will  now 
eiJect  the  same  purpose.  The  slightest  lengthening,  therefore,  of  the 
point  of  the  hock  will  make  an  exceedingly  great  difference  in  the  muscular 
energy  by  which  the  joint  is  moved  ;  and  a  ditference  that  will  wonderfully 
tell  in  a  long  day's  work.  On  this  account,  tlie  depth  of  the  hock,  or  the 
length  of  the  bone  of  which  we  are  speaking,  is  a  point  of  the  greatest 
importance. 

Tliere  is,  however,  a  limit  to  this.  In  proportion  to  the  length  of  this 
oone  must  be  the  space  which  it  passes  over  in  order  sufficiently  to  bend 
the  limb  ;  and  in  that  proportion  must  be  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  ;  and 
consequently  the  length  of  the  muscle,  that  it  may  be  enabled  thus  to 
contract;  and,  therefore,  if  this  hone  were  inordinately  lengthened,  there 
would  require  a  depth  of  quarter  which  would  amount  to  deformity.  A 
hock  of  tills  disadvantageous  length  is,  however,  rarely  or  never  met  with, 
and  it  is  received  among  the  golden  rules  in  judging  of  the  horse,  that  this 
bone  of  the  hock  cannot  be  too  long. 

CAPPED  HOCK. 

The  point  of  the  hock  is  sometimes  swelled.  A  soft  fluctuating  tumour 
appears  on  it.  This  is  an  enlargement  of  one  of  those  mucous  bags  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  and  which  surrounds  the  insertion  of  the  tendons 
into  the  point  of  the  hock.  It  is  seldom  accompanied  by  lameness,  but  yet 
it  is  a  serious  business.  It  is  usually  produced  by  blows,  and,  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  by  the  injury  which  the  horse  inflicts  upon  himself 
by  kicking  :  therefore  a  horse  with  a  capped  hock  is  properly  regarded  with 
a  very  suspicious  eye.  The  whole  of  the  hock  should  be  most  carefully 
examined,  in  order  to  discover'  whether  there  are  other  marks  of  violence, 
and  the  previous  history  of  the  animal  should,  if  possible,  be  obtained. 
Generally  the  kicking  is  in  harness,  but  some  horses  have  the  habit  of 
kicking  in  the  stall ;  it  is  possible,  however,  that  lying  on  a  thin  bed,  or  no 
bed,  may  bruise  the  hock,  and  produce  the  swelling,  or  it  may  even  result 
from  sprain  of  the  hock ;  but  we  repeat  that  it  is  far  oftener  the  conse- 
quence of  external  violence. 

Here  again  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  apply  a  bandage;  and  puncturing 
the  tumour,  or  passing  a  seton  through  it,  would  be  a  most  injudicious  and 
dangerous  practice.  Blisters,  repeated  as  long  as  may  be  necessary,  are 
the  proper  means  to  be  employed.  Sometimes  the  tumour  will  disappear  of 
itself,  but  at  others  it  will  attain  a  very  large  size,  or  will  assume  a  calloua 
structure  that  will  bid  defiance  to  all  the  means  ^e  can  employ. 

MALLENDERS  AND  SALLENDERS. 

In  the  inside  of  the  hock,  or  a  little  below  it,  as  well  as  at  the  bend  of 
the  knee,  (see  h,  page  254,)  there  is  sometimes  a  scurfy  eruption,  called 
Mallkxijei!S  in  tiie  fore-leg,  and  Sallenders  in  the  hind-leg.  They 
seldom  produce  lameness,  but  if  no  means  are  taken  to  get  rid  of  them,  a 
discliarge  proceeds  from  them  which  it  is  afterwards  difficult  to  stop; 
and  certainly  they  have  an  unsightly  appearance,  and  generally  argue 
bad  stable  mana.i;ement.     A  diuretic  ball  should  be  occasionally  given,  and 


274  THE  HORSE. 

an  ointment,  composed  of  one  part  of  sugar  of  hsad,  two  of  tar,  and  six  of 
'ard,  rubbed  over  tiie  part.  Should  this  fail,  tlie  weak  mercurial  ointment 
should  be  used. 

COW-HOCKS. 

The  lir'ie  of  direction  of  the  logs  beneath  the  hocks  sliould  not  be  dis- 
regarded.  The  leg  should  descend  perpendicularly  to  the  fetlock.  The 
weight  and  stress  will  thus  be  equally  diffused,  not  only  over  the  wiiole  of 
the  h.ick,  but  also  the  pasterns  and  the  foot.  Some  iiorscs,  however,  have 
their  hocks  closer  tlian  natural  to  eacli  other,  and  the  legs  take  a  divei-genl 
direction  outward,  and  the  toes  likewise  are  turned  outward  Tlicse 
horses  are  said  to  be  cat  or  cow-hocked.  They  are  generally  supposed  to 
possess  considerable  speed,  and  we  believe  that  they  do ;  and  we  thus 
account  for  it.  The  cow-hocked  horse  has  his  legs  not  only  turned  more 
outward,  but  bent  more  under  him,  and  this  increases  the  distance  between 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  the  tendons  of  the  perforating  muscle  :  (see  b,  cut, 
page  262).  It  increases  the  space  which  is  usually  occupied  by  thorough-pm, 
a,  in  the  same  page.  Then  the  point  of  the  hock,  moved  by  the  action  ot 
the  muscles,  is  enabled  to  describe  a  greater  portion  of  a  circle;  and  in 
proportion  to  the  increased  space  passed  over  by  the  point  of  the  hock,  will 
the  space  passed  over  by  the  limb  beneath  be  increased,  and  so  the  sliide 
of  the  horse  may  be  lengthened,  and  thus  far  his  speed  may  be  increased. 
But  this  advantage  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  many  evils.  This 
increased  contraction  of  the  muscles  is  an  expenditure  of  animal  power, 
and,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the  weight  and  the  concussion  being  so 
unequally  distributed  by  this  formation  of  the  limbs,  some  part  must  be 
overstrained  and  overworked,  and  injury  must  ensue.  On  tliis  account  it 
is,  that  the  cow-hocked  horse  is  more  subject  than  others  to  thorough-pin 
and  spavin;  and  is  so  disposed  to  curbs,  that  these  hocks  are  denominated 
by  horsemen  curhy  hocks.  The  mischief  extends  even  farther  than  this. 
Such  a  horse  is  peculiarly  liable  to  wind-gall,  sprain  of  the  fetlock,  cutting, 
and  knuckling. 

A  slight  inclination  to  this  form  in  a  strong,  powerful  horse  may  not  be 
very  objectionable,  but  a  horse  decidedly  cow-hocked  should  never  be 
selected 

STRING-HALT. 

Before  we  quit  the  hock,  we  must  notice  a  peculiar  involuntary  twitchmg 
of  the  hind  leg,  or  convulsive  action  of  the  muscles  by  which  it  is  bent, 
and  which  is  termed  Stking-Halt.  This  is  evidently  an  affection  of 
some  of  the  nerves  which  communicate  motion  to  these  muscles.  It  is  an 
irregular  action  of  nervous  energy  ;  but  what  particular  fibril  is  affected, 
or  what  muscle  is  chiefly  spasmed,  has  never  been  ascertained.  It  is 
principally  observed  when  the  horse  first  comes  from  the  stable,  ano 
gradually  ceases  after  he  has  been  exercised  a  while.  It  is  unpleasant 
to  the  rider,  but  it  cannot  be  denominated  unsoundness ;  on  the  contrary, 
common  opinion  has  given  to  the  horse  with  string-halt  a  more  than  usual 
share  of  strength  and  endurance  ;  and  if  it  be  an  excess  of  nervous  energy, 
although  irregularly  exerted,  we  shall  find  no  difficulty  in  associating  it 
with  general  powerful  muscular  action.  However  this  may  be,  the  precise 
nature  of  the  defect  has  never  been  determined,  nor  has  any  ';ure  for  it 
been  discovered. 


SVVELLED-LEGS.  27>i 


THE  HIND-LEG 


The  construction  of  the  hind-leg,  and  the  injuries  U  which  it  is  subjeiit. 
are  so  similar  to  those  of  the  fore-leg,  that  we  shall  content  oiirselves  with 
referring  to  our  description  of  them  given  at  page  243,  only  observing  that 
the  shank-bone  is  longer  than  that  of  the  fore-leg ;  the  outer  spl'int-bone  is 
considerably  larger  than  the  inner  one,  and  the  pasterns  are  longer  than 
those  of  the  fore-leg,  and  less  oblique. 

On  tiie  back  part  of  the  leg  (f,  page  262),  are  sometimes  excrescences 
called  by  farriers  rat-tails,  from  the  appearance  they  give  the  hair.  They 
will  generally  yield  to  the  mild  mercurial  ointment,  but  in  very  bad  cases  it 
may  be  necessary  to  remove  them  with  a  knife. 

Before  we  quit  the  legs,  we  must  notice  two  very  frequent  and  very 
troublesome  diseases.     The  first  is 

SWELLED-LEGS. 

The  fore-legs  are  sometimes  subject  to  considerable  enlargement,  but 
much  oftener  the  hind  ones.  Occasionally  when  the  horse  does  not  seem 
to  labour  under  any  other  disease,  and  sometimes  from  apparent  shifting  of 
inflammation  from  other  parts,  (inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  the  eye  not 
unfrequently  thus  changes  its  seat,)  the  hind-legs  suddenly  swell  to  an 
enormous  degree  from  the  hock,  and  almost  from  the  stifle  to  tiie  fetlock, 
attended  by  heat,  and  extreme  tenderness  of  the  skin,  and  excessive  and 
very  peculiar  lameness.  The  pulse  likewise  becomes  quick  and  hard,  and 
the  horse  evidently  labours  under  considerable  fever.  It  is  acute  inflam- 
mation of  the  cellular  substance  of  the  legs,  and  that  most  sudden  in  its 
attack,  most  violent  in  its  degree,  and  therefore  attended  by  the  pouring  out 
of  a  great  deal  of  fluid,  in  this  cellular  substance.  It  occurs  in  young 
horses,  and  in  those  which  are  over-fed  and  little  exercised,  without  previ- 
ous inflammation  in  any  other  part.  Fomentation,  diuretics,  or  physic,  or, 
if  there  be  much  fever,  a  moderate  bleeding,  will  often  relieve  the  distension 
almost  as  suddenly  as  it  appeared. 

The  kind  of  swelled-legs  most  frequent  of  occurrence,  and  most  trou. 
blesome,  is  of  a  different  nature,  or  rather  it  is  so  various  in  its  kind  and 
causes,  and  consequences  and  mode  of  treatment,  that  it  deserves  attentive 
consideration.  One  principle,  however,  will  guide  us  to  a  right  opinion  and 
treatment  of  it:  that  it  is  produced  either  by  actuator  comparative  debility 
or  loss  of  power  in  the  part  attacked.  Horses  seemingly  in  perfect  health, 
and  with  a  full  allowance  of  food,  if  suffered  to  remain  several  days  without 
exercise,  will  have  swelled-legs.  The  arterial  capillary  vessels  have  con- 
veyed a  great  deal  of  fluid  to  the  extremities;  from  over-feeding  and  want 
of  muscular  exertion  and  the  perspiration  connected  with  it,  the  fluids  have 
accumulated,  and  are  lodging  in  the  extremities,  because  the  vessels  have 
not  power  to  return  them.  The  heart  is  acting  upon  an  additional  quantity 
of  fluid,  while,  by  want  of  exercise,  the  limbs  are  deprived  of  the  principal 
power  by  which  the  fluids  are  returned  ;  for  the  blood  is  materially  assisted 
in  its  return  through  the  veins  by  the  action  of  the  muscles,  and  the 
absorbents  are  roused  to  action  by  the  exercise  and  motion  of  the  different 
parts.  The  cure,  therefore,  is  sufficiently  plain;  by  physic  or  diuretics, 
the  quantity  of  the  fluid  is  lessened,  and  by  exertion  increasing  the  perspi- 
ration, it  is  likewise  diminished,  and,  what  is  nf.ore  important,  both  the  veins 
and  the  absorbents  are  assisted  in  their  actioa 


i76 


THE  HOUSE, 


Horsea  taken  fron:  grass  and  brought  into  close  stables  very  speedily 
have  swclled-legs,  because  the  difference  of  food,  and  increase  of  nutri- 
ment, rapidly  increase  the  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid  ;  while  the  wanl 
of  exercise  takes  away  the  means  by  which  it  might  be  got  rid  of.  The 
remedy  here  needs  not  to  be  stated.  Svvelled-legs,  however,  may  proceed 
from  general  debility  ;  they  may  be  the  consequence  of  starvation,  or  dis- 
ease tliat  has  considerably  weakened  the  animal ;  and  these  parts,  being 
farthest  from  tlie  centre  of  circulation,  are  the  first  to  show  the  loss  of  power 
by  the  accumulation  of  fluid  in  them.  Here  the  means  of  cure  would  be 
to  increase  the  general  strength,  with  which  the  extremities  would  sympa- 
thize, and  mild  diuretics  and  tonics  are  evidently  indicated. 

Horses  in  the  spring  and  fall  are  subject  to  swelled-legs.  The  powers  oi 
the  constitution  are  principally  employed  in  providing  a  new  coat  for  the 
animal,  and  the  extremities  have  not  their  share  of  vital  influence.  Mingled 
cordials  and  diuretics  are  indicated  here;  the  diuretic  to  lessen  the  quantity 
of  the  circulating  flood ;  the  cordial  to  invigorate  the  frame  and  restore  the 
tone  of  tlie  stomach. 

Svvelled-legs  are  most  teasing  in  horses  that  are  in  tolerable  or  good 
health,  but  whose  work  is  somewhat  irregular.  The  pleasure-horse  and 
the  hunter  are  frequent  subjects  of  this  complaint.  The  cure  is  to  give 
more  equable  exercise ;  to  walk  the  horse  out  daily  when  the  usual  work  isj 
not  required,  and  by  some  mechanical  means  to  supply  to  the  extremities  the 
want  of  motion  of  the  parts,  and  the  consequent  urging  on  of  the  return 
of  the  fluid.  Friction,  by  hand-rubbing,  is  an  excellent  means  of  fining 
the  legs,  at  least  for  a  time.  Bandages  have  a  greater  and  more  durable 
effect,  for  nothing  tends  more  to  support  the  capillary  veins,  and  rouse  the 
action  of  the  absorbents,  than  moderate  pressure.  Hay-bands  will  form  a 
very  good  bandage  for  the  agricultural  horse,  and  their  effect  will  probably 
be  increased  by  previously  dipping  them  in  water.  As  to  medicines,  we 
have  little  to  say:  the  fewer  of  them  that  are  given  in  these  cases  the  better. 
The  diuretic,  or  urine-ball,  the  constant  resource  of  the  idle  groom  or 
carter,  is  particularly  objectionable.  Its  frequent  and  undue  stimulus  of 
the  urinary  organs  will  be  followed  by  speedy,  and  often  incurable  debility. 
If  the  swelling  bids  defiance  to  exercise,  and  friction,  and  bandage,  the  aid 
of  the  diuretic  may  be  resorted  to,  but  never  until  these  have  failed,  unless 
there  be  an  evident  tendency  to  grease  or  humour. 

GREASE. 

Swelled-legs,  although  distinct  from  Grease,  are  apt  to  degenerate  into  it. 
This  disease,  therefore,  comes  next  under  our  consideration.  It  is  an 
inflammation  of  the  skin  of  the  heel,  sometimes  of  the  fore,  but  oftener  of 
the  hind-foot.  It  is  not  a  contagious  disease,  although  when  it  once  appears 
in  a  stable  it  frequently  goes  through  it,  for  it  is  usually  to  be  traced  to  bad 
stabk  management.  The  skin  of  the  heel  of  the  horse  somewhat  differs 
from,  that  of  any  other  part.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  motion  in  the  fetlock, 
and  to  prevent  the  skin  from  excoriation  or  chapping,  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  be  kept  soft  and  pliable;  therefore,  in  the  healthy  state  of  the  part, 
the  skin  of  the  heel  has  a  peculiar  greasy  feel.  Under  inflammation,  the 
secretion  of  this  greasy  matter  is  stopped ;  the  heels  become  red,  dry,  and 
scurfy;  and  being  almost  constantly  in  motion,  cracks  soon  succeed:  thesn 
sometimes  extend,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  heel  becomes  a  mass  of 
soreness,  ulceration  and  fungus. 

The  heel  is  subject  to  this  virulent  inflammation,  on  account  of  itf  si»ua 


GREASE.  277 

tion,  far  removed  from  the  centre  of  the  circulation.  It  is  likewise  exposed 
to  more  variations  of  temperature  than  any  other  part  of  the  frame.  As 
the  horse  stands  in  the  closed  stable,  the  heat  of  the  part  is  increased  by 
being  deeply  imbedded  in  straw.  When  the  stable-door  is  open,  the  heela 
are  nearest  to  the  door,  and  most  powerfully  receive  the  current  of  cold 
air;  and  when  the  horse  is  taken  from  the  stable  to  his  work,  the  heels  are 
covered  with  mire  and  wet,  and  chilled  by  the  slow  and  long  process  of 
evaporation,  which  is  taking  place  from  them.  We  cannot  wonder  then  at 
the  frequency  with  which  the  heels  are  attacked  with  inflammation,  nor  the 
difficulty  there  is  in  subduing  that  inflammation.  In  the  winter  season, 
chaps  and  cracks  will  occasionally  appear  in  the  best  conducted  stables; 
but  where  the  comfort  of  the  animal  is  neglected,  and  every  kind  of  fllth 
is  suffered  to  accumulate,  the  disease  will  be  more  frequent  and  more 
virulent. 

The  farmer's  horse  is  not  so  subject  to  grease  as  many  others,  because 
he  is  not  usually  exposed  so  much  to  sudden  and  extreme  changes  of 
temperature,  and  the  heels  particularly  are  not  thus  exposed.  In  many 
instances  he  lives  al.most  entirely  out  of  doors,  or,  if  he  is  stabled,  the 
stables  of  the  little  farmer  are  not  always  air-tight.  The  wind  finds  its 
way  through  many  a  cranny,  instead  of  entering  at  the  door  alone,  and 
blowing  upon  the  heels. 

A  great  deal  of  error  has  prevailed,  and  it  has  led  to  much  bad  practice, 
in  connecting  grease  with  the  notion  of  humours  flying  about  the  horse, 
which  must  have  vent  somewhere,  and  which  attack  the  heeis  as  the 
weaker  part  of  the  frame.  Thence  arise  the  physicking,  and  the  long 
course  of  diuretics,  which  truly  weaken  the  animal,  and  often  do  irreparable 
mischief.  Grease  is  a  local  complaint;  it  is  produced  principally  by 
causes  which  act  locally;  and  it  is  most  successfully  treated  by  local  appli- 
cations. Physic  and  diuretics  may  be  useful  in  abating  inflammation  ;  but 
the  grand  object  is  to  abate  the  inflammatory  action  which  exists  in  the  skin 
of  the  heel,  and  to  heal  the  wounds,  and  remedy  the  mischief  which  it 
has  occasioned. 

The  first  appearance  of  grease  is  usually  a  dry  and  scurfy  state  of  the 
skin  of  the  heel,  with  redness,  heat,  and  itchiness.  The  heel  should  be 
well  washed  with  soap  and  water;  as  much  of  the  scurf  should  be  detached 
as  is  easily  removable:  white  ointment,  composed  of  one  drachm  of  sugar 
of  lead,  rubbed  down  with  an  ounce  of  lard,  will  usually  supple,  and  cool, 
and  heal  the  part. 

When  cracks  appear,  the  mode  of  treatment  will  depend  on  their  extent 
and  depth.  If  they  are  but  slight,  a  lotion,  composed  of  a  solution  of  two 
drachms  of  blue  vitriol,  or  four  of  alum,  in  a  pint  of  water,  will  often 
speedily  dry  them  up  and  close  them.  But  if  the  cracks  are  deep,  with  an 
ichorous  discharge,  and  the  lameness  considerable,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
poultice  the  heel.  A  poultice  of  linseed  meal  will  be  the  most  eflfectual, 
unless  the  discharge  is  thin  and  offensive,  when  an  ounce  of  finely  pow- 
■iered  charcoal  should  be  mixed  with  the  linseed  meal,  or  a  poultice  may  be 
made  of  carrots  boiled  soft,  and  mashed.  The  efficacy  of  a  carrot  poultice 
is  seldom  sufficiently  appreciated  in  cases  like  these. 

When  the  inflammation  and  pain  have  evidently  subsided,  and  the  cracks 
discharge  good  matter,  they  may  be  dressed  with  an  ointment  composed  of 
one  part  of  resin,  and  three  of  lard,  melted  together,  and  one  part  of  cala- 
mine  powder  added,  when  these  begin  to  get  cool.  The  healing  will  be 
quickened  if  the  cracks  are  occasionally  washed  with  either  the  vitriol,  or 
alum  solution.  A  mild  diuretic  may  here  be  given  every  third  day.,  hut  a 
mild  do.se  of  physic  will  form  the  best  medicine  that  can  be  afimini.stf  red. 


^78  T'HK  HORSE. 

After  the  chaps  or  cracks  have  healed,  the  legs  will  sometimes  continue 
gorged  and  swellfd.  A  flannel  bandage,  evenly  applied  over  tiie  whole  of 
the  swelled  part,  will  be  very  serviceable,  or,  should  the  season  admit  of 
it,  a  run  at  grass,  particularly  spring  grass,  should  be  allowed.  A  blister 
is  inadmissible,  from  the  danger  of  bringing  back  the  inflammation  of  skin, 
and  discharge  from  it;  but  the  actual  cautery,  taking  especial  care  not  to 
penetrate  the  skin,  must  be  occasionally  resorted  to. 

In  some  cases  the  cracks  are  not  confined  to  the  centre  of  the  heels,  but 
spread  over  them,  and  extend  on  tiie  fetlock,  and  even  up  the  leg,  while  the 
legs  are  exceedingly  swelled,  and  there  is  a  waterv  discharge  from  the 
cracks,  and  apparently  oozing  through  the  skin  at  other  places.  The  parts 
are  exceedingly  tender,  and  sometimes  hot,  and  there  is  an  appearance 
which  the  farrier  thinks  very  decisive  as  to  the  state  of  the  disease,  and 
which  the  better  informed  man  should  not  overlook  :  the  hee/s  smoke;  the  skin 
is  so  hot,  that  the  watery  fluid  partly  evaporates  as  it  runs  from  the  cracks, 
or  oozes  through  the  skin. 

There  will  be  great  danger  in  suddenly  stopping  this  discharge.  Inflam- 
mation of  a  more  important  part  has  rapidly  succeeded  to  the  injudicious 
attempt.  The  local  application  should  be  directed  to  the  abatement  of  the 
inflammation.  The  poultices  just  referred  to  should  be  diligently  used  night 
and  day,  and  especially  the  carrot  poultice  ;  and,  when  the  heat,  and  tender- 
ness, and  stiffness  of  motion  have  diminished,  astringent  lotions  may  be 
applied;  either  the  alum  lotion,  or  a  strong  decoction  of  oak  bark,  changed, 
or  used  alternately,  but  not  mixed.  The  cracks  should  likewise  be  dressed 
with  the  ointment  above-mentioned ;  and  the  moment  the  horse  can  bear  it, 
a  flannel  bandage  should  be  put  on,  reaching  from  the  coronet,  to  thre<i  or 
four  inches  above  the  swelling. 

The  medicine  should  be  confined  to  mild  diuretics,  mixed  with  one-third 
part  of  cordial  mass,  or,  if  the  horse  be  gross,  and  the  inflammation  run 
high,  a  dose  of  physic  may  be  given.  From  the  account  we  have  given, 
it  will  easily  be  distinguished  in  what  cases  physic  is  indicated,  and  in  what 
states  of  the  constitution  or  disease  we  may  be  content  with  diuretics.  If 
the  horse  be  strong,  and  full  of  flesh  and  fat,  physic  should  always  precede, 
and  sometimes  supersede  the  diuretics;  in  cases  of  much  debility,  diuretics 
with  aromatics  or  tonics  will  be  preferable. 

The  feeding  will  likewise  vary  with  the  case,  but  with  these  rules,  which 
admit  of  no  exception,  that  green  meat  should  be  given,  and  more  especially 
cari'ots,  when  they  are  not  too  expensive,  and  mashes,  if  the  horse  will  eat 
them,  and  never  the  full  allowance  of  corn. 

Walking  exercise  should  be  resorted  to  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  able  to  bear 
it,  and  this  by  degrees  may  be  increased  to  a  gentle  trot. 

From  bad  stable  management  at  first,  and  neglect  during  the  disease,  a 
yet  worse  kind  of  grease  is  occasionally  found.  The  ulceration  extends 
over  the  skin  of  the  heel  and  the  fetlock,  and  a  fungus  springs  from  the 
surface  of  both,  highly  sensible,  bleeding  at  the  slightest  touch,  and  inter- 
spersed  with  scabs.  By  degrees,  portions  of  the  fungus  begin  to  be  covered 
with  a  horny  substance,  protruding  in  the  form  of  knobs,  and  collected 
together  in  bunches.  These  are  known  by  the  name  of  grapes.  A  fetid 
and  very  peculiar  discharge  proceeds  from  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
unnatural  substance.  The  horse  evidently  suffers  much  and  is  gradually 
worn  down  by  the  disease.  The  assistance  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is 
here  indispensable. 

Some  horses  are  more  subject  to  grease  than  others,  particularly 
draught-horses,  both  heavy  and  light,  but  particularly  the  former,  and  if 
ihey  have  no  degree  of  blood  in  them       It  was  the  experience  of  tliis  whic/) 


GREASE.  270 

partly  contributed  to  the  gradual  change  of  coach  and  other  draught-horses 
to  those  of  a  lighter  breed.  It  may,  however,  be  affirmed,  without  daijger 
of  error,  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  grease  rises  from  mismanage- 
ment and  neglect ;  and  the  farmer  and  the  horse-proprietor  would  not  be 
unjust  to  their  servants,  and  would  materially  promote  their  own  interest, 
if  they  exacted  a  fine  for  every  case  of  grease  that  occurred  in  their  stable. 

Every  thing  that  has  a  tendency  to  excite  inflammation  in  the  skin  of  the 
heel  is  a  cause  of  grease.  Therefore,  want  of  exercise,  for  the  reasons 
which  we  have  stated  when  treating  of  swelled-legs,  is  a  frequent  cause ; 
the  fluid  which  accumulates  about  the  extremities,  and  is  unable  to  return, 
is  a  source  of  irritation  by  its  continued  pressure.  When  high  feeding  is 
added  to  irregular  or  deficient  exercise,  this  disease  is  evidently  still  more 
likely  to  be  produced.  Want  of  cleanliness  in  the  stable  is  a  fruitful  source 
of  this  complaint.  When  the  heels  are  embedded  in  filth  they  are  weakened 
by  the  constant  moisture  surrounding  them,  and  irritated  by  the  acrimony 
of  the  dung  and  the  urine,  and  little  prepared  to  endure  the  evaporation 
and  cold  to  which  they  are  exposed  when  the  horse  is  taken  out  of  the 
stable.  We  believe,  however,  that  the  absurd  practice  of  washing  the  feet 
and  legs  of  horses  when  they  come  from  their  work,  and  either  carelessly 
sponging  them  down  afterwards,  or  leaving  them  to  dry  as  they  may,  is  by 
far  tlie  most  common  origin  of  grease. 

When  the  horse  is  warmed  by  his  work,  and  the  heels  share  in  the  warmth, 
the  momentary  cold  of  washing  may  not  be  injurious  if  the  animal  be 
immediately  rubbed  dry;  yet  even  this  would  be  better  avoided:  but  to 
wash  out  the  heels,  and  then  leave  them  partially  dry,  or  perfectly  wet,  and 
suffering  from  the  extreme  cold  which  is  produced  by  evaporation  from  a 
wetted  surface,  is  the  most  absurd,  dangerous,  and  injurious  practice  that 
can  be  imagined.  It  is  worse  when  the  post-horse  or  the  plough-horse  is 
plunged  up  to  his  belly  in  the  river  or  pond,  immediately  after  his  work. 
The  owner  is  little  aware  hew  many  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
and  bowels,  and  feet,  and  he8ls,  follow.  It  would,  therefore,  be  an  excel- 
lent rule  never  to  wash  the  heels  of  these  hordes.  After  they  have  been 
suffered  to  stand  for  twenty  minutes  in  the  stable,  during  which  time  the 
horse-keeper  or  the  carter  may  be  employed  in  taking  care  of  the  harness, 
or  carriage,  or  beginning  to  dress  the  horse,  the  greater  part  of  the  dirt 
which  had  collected  about  the  heels  may  be  got  rid  of  with  a  dry  brush  ; 
and  the  rest  will  disappear  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  under  the  opera- 
tion of  a  second  brushing.  The  trouble  will  not  be  greater,  and  the  heels 
will  not  be  chilled  and  subject  to  inflammation. 

There  has  been  some  dispute  as  to  the  propriety  of  cutting  the  hair  from 
the  heels.  Custom  has  very  properly  retained  the  hair  on  our  farm-horses. 
Nature  would  not  have  given  it  ha-d  it  not  been  useful.  It  guards  the 
beel  from  being  injured  by  the  inequalities  of  the  ploughed  field  ;  it  pre- 
vents the  dirt,  in  which  the  heels  are  constantly  enveloped,  from  reaching 
and  caking  on  and  irritating  the  skin ;  it  hinders  the  usual  moisture,  which 
is  mixed  with  the  clay  and  mould,  from  reaching  the  skin,  and  it  preserves 
an  equal  temperature  in  the  parts.  If,  however,  the  hair  be  suffered  to 
remain  on  the  heels  of  our  farm-horses,  there  is  greater  necessity  for 
brushing  and  hand-rubbing  the  heels,  and  never  washing  them ;  for  the 
water  used  in  washing  will  readily  penetrate  through  the  hair,  and  it  will 
be  absolutely  impossible  to  get  rid  of  it  again.  Indeed,  we  would  neglect 
the  heels  altogether,  or  let,  a^^  many  careless  carters  do,  the  dirt  accumu- 
late from  month  to  month,  rather  than  wash  them.  This  would,  indeed,  be 
idle  and  injurious  treatment,  but  it  would  be  by  far  the  lesser  evil. 

Fashion  and  utility  have  removed  the  hair  from  the  heels  of  our  hacknevs 


380  THE  HORS*;. 

and  carriage-horses.  In  the  usual  state  of  our  roads  this  defence  is  not 
wanted,  or,  rather,  tlie  hair  would  be  a  perfect  nuisance.  The  hand- 
rubbing  or  dry  brushing  will  be  an  easy  process;  or,  if  the  heels  must  be 
washed,  let  them  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  dried.  We  close  this  part 
of  our  treatise  by  repeating  that  grease  is  the  child  of  negligence  and 
mismanagement.  It  is  driven  from  our  cavalry,  and  it  will  be  the  fault 
of  the  gentleman  and  the  farmer,  if  it  be  not  speedily  banished  from  every 
stable. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE  FOOT. 


The  foot  is  composed  of  the  horny  box  which  covers  the  extremities  of 
the  horse,  and  the  contents  of  that  box.  We  will  fiivst  consider  the  hoof, 
or  box,  which  is  composed  of  the  crust  or  wall,  the  bars,  the  sole,  and  the 
horny  frog. 

THE  CRUST  OR  WALL  OF  THE  HOOF. 

The  crust,  or  wall,  is  that  portion  which  is  seen  when  the  foot  is  placed 
on  the  ground,  and  reaches  from  the  termination  of  the  hair  to  the  ground. 
It  is  deepest  in  front,  where  it  is  called  the  toe  (see  cut,  p.  255) ;  shal- 
lower at  the  sides,  which  are  denominated  the  quarters;  and  of  least  extent 
behind,  where  it  is  termed  the  heel.  It  is  placed  flat  on  the  ground,  but 
ascends  obliquely  backward,  and  possesses  different  degrees  of  obliquity  in 
different  feet.  In  a  sound  hoof,  the  proper  degree  of  slanting  is  calculated 
at  forty-five  degrees,  or  the  fourth  part  of  a  semicircle.  When  it  is  more 
oblique,  or  the  crust  is  said  to  have  "fallen  in,"  it  indicates  undue  flatness 
of  the  sole,  or,  if  the  obliquity  be  very  much  increased,  pumiced,  or  convex 
sole.  If  it  be  more  upright  than  the  angle  we  have  mentioned,  it  shows 
a  contracted  foot,  and  a  sole  too  concave ;  so  that  there  is  no  necessity  to 
take  up  the  foot  in  order  to  ascertain  either  of  these  states  of  it.  It  is  also 
of  importance  to  observe  whether  the  depth  of  the  crust  appears  rapidly  or 
slowly  to  decrease  from  the  front  to  the  heel.  If  the  decrease  be  little, 
and  even  at  the  heel  the  crust  is  high  and  deep,  it  indicates  a  foot  liable 
to  contraction,  and  sand-crack,  and  thrush  and  inflammation,  and  the 
pastern  is  u.pright,  and  the  paces  of  the  horse  are  not  pleasant.  If  the 
crust  diminish  rapidly  in  depth,  and  the  heels  are  low,  this  is  accompanied 
by  too  great  slanting  of  the  pastern,  and  disposition  to  sprain  of  the  back 
sinew  ;  the  foot  itself  is  liable  to  be  weak  and  flat  and  bruised,  and  there 
is  likewise  more  tendency  to  that  frequent  but  obscure  lameness  of  which 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  treat,  termed  the  "  navicular-joint  disease."  The 
foot  has  spread  out  too  much  at  the  side,  instead  of  growing  upward,  and 
therefore  it  is  too  much  exposed. 

The  crust  in  front  is  rather  more  than  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
becomes  gradually  thinner  towards  the  quarters  and  heels.  If,  therefore, 
there  be  but  half  an  inch  for  nail-hold  at  the  toe,  and  not  so  much  at  the 
quarters,  we  need  not  wonder  if  horses  are  occasionally  wounded  In  shoe- 
ing, and  especially  when  some  of  them  are  so  unmanageable  while  under- 
going that  process. 

While  the  crust  gets  thinner  towards  both  quarters,  it  is  thinner  at  the 
inner  quarter  than  it  is  at  the  outer,  because  more  weight  is  thrown  upot 


THE  CRUST  OF  THE  HOOF.  28i 

It  than  upon  the  outer.  It  is  more  under  the  horse :  It  is  under  the  innei 
splint-bone  on  which  so  much  more  of"  the  weight  rests  than  on  the  outer, 
and,  being  thinner,  it  is  able  to  expand  more  ;  its  elasticity  is  called  more 
into  play,  and  concussion  and  injury  are  avoided.  When  the  expansion  of 
the  quarters  is  prevented  by  their  being  nailed  to  an  unbending  shoe,  the 
inner  quarter  suffers  most.  Corns  are  ottenest  found  there  ;  contraction 
begins  there  ;  sand-crack  is  seated  there.  Nature  meant  that  this  should 
be  the  most  yielding  part,  in  order  to  obviate  concussion,  because  on  it  the 
weight  was  principally  thrown,  and  therefore  when  its  power  of  yielding  is 
taken  away,  it  must  be  the  first  to  suffer. 

A  careful  observer  will  likewise  perceive  that  the  inner  quarter  is  a  little 
higher  than  the  outer.  While  it  is  thin  to  yield  to  the  shock,  its  increased 
surface  gives  it  sufficient  strength. 

On  account  of  its  thinness,  and  the  additional  weight  which  it  bears, 
the  inner  heel  wears  away  quicker  than  the  outer ;  a  circumstance  that 
should  never  be  forgotten  by  the  smith.  His  object  is  to  give  a  plane  and 
level  bearing  to  the  whole  of  the  crust.  To  accomplish  this,  it  will  be 
often  scarcely  necessary  to  remove  any  thing  from  the  inner  heel,  for  it 
is  already  removed  by  the  wear  of  the  foot.  If  he  forgets  this,  as  he  too 
often  seems  to  do,  and  takes  off  with  his  knife  or  his  buttress  an  equal 
portion  all  round,  he  leaves  the  inner  and  weaker  quarter  lower  than  the 
outer;  he  throws  an  uneven  bearing  upon  i-t ;  and  produces  corns  and 
sand-cracks  and  splints,  which  a  little  care  and  common 
sense  might  have  avoided.  The  crust  does  not  vary  much 
in  thickness,  (see  a,  page  249,  and  h  in  the  accompanying 
cut,)  until  near  the  top,  at  the  coronet,  or  union  of  the 
horn  of  the  f^ot  with  the  skin  of  the  pasterns  where  {w, 
page  249)  it  rapidly  gets  thin.  It  is  in  a  manner  scooped 
and  hollowed  out.  It  likewise  changes  its  colour  and  its 
■vi/ffii'jp^  consistence,    and    seems    almost  like    a    continuation   of 

^'^*^  the  skin,  but  easily  separable  from  it  by  maceration,  or 

disease.  This  thin  part  is  called  the  coronary  ring,  x,  p.  249;  and  it 
receives  within  it,  or  covers,  a  thickened  and  bulbous  prolongation  of  the 
skin,  called  the  coronary  ligament  (see  h  in  the  accompanying  cut).  This 
requires  a  better  name,  for  it  has  not  a  portion  of  ligamentous  structure 
in  it.  This  prolongation  of  the  skin  is  thickly  supplied  with  blood-vessels. 
It  is  almost  a  mesh  of  blood-vessels  connected  together  by  fibrous  texture, 
and  many  of  these  vessels  are  employed  in  secreting  or  forming  the  crust 
or  wall  of  the  foot.  Nature  has  enabled  the  sensible  laminte  of  the  coffin, 
bone,  c,  which  will  be  described  presently,  to  secrete  some  horn,  in  order 
to  afford  an  immediate  defence  for  itself  when  the  crust  is  wounded  or 
taken  away.  Of  this  we  have  proof,  when  in  sand-crack,  or  quittor,  we 
are  compelled  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  crust.  A  pellicle  of  horn,  or 
of  firm  hard  substance  resembling  it,  soon  covers  the  wound;  but  the 
crust  is  principally  formed  from  this  coronary  ligament.  Hence  it  is,  that 
in  sand-crack,  quittor,  and  other  diseases,  in  which  strips  of  the  crust 
are  destroyed,  it  is  so  long  in  being  renewed,  or  grotoing  down.  It  must 
proceed  from  the  coronary  ligament,  and  so  gradually  creep  down  the 
foot  with  the  natural  growth  or  lengthening  of  the  horn,  of  which,  as  in; 
the  human  nail,  a  supply  is  slowly  given  to  answer  to  the  wear  and  tear 
of  the  part. 

Below  the  coronary  ligament   is   a   thin   strip  of  horny  matter,   vvhich 

has  been  traced   from   tie   frog,  and    has   been   supposed   by  some   to   be 

connected  with  the  support  or  action  of  the  frog,  but  which  is  evidently 

intended  to  add  to  the  security  of  the  part  on  which  it  is  found,  and  to 

T 


•282 


THE  HORSE. 


bind  together  those  various  substances  which  are  collected  at  the  coronet. 
It  resembles,  more  than  any  thing  else,  the  strip  of  skin  which  surrounds 
the  root  of  the  human  nail,  and  which  is  placed  there  to  strengthen  the 
union  of  the  nail  with  the  substance  from  which  it  proceeds. 


a  The  external  crust  seen  at 
the  quarter. 

b  The  coronary  ring. 

c  The  little  horny  plates  lining 
the  crust. 

d  The  same  continued  over  the 
bars. 

e  e  The   two   concave   surfaces 
of  the  inside  of  the  horny  frog. 

./  That  which  externally  is  the 
cleft  of  the  frog. 


g  The  bars. 

h  The    rounded    part    of    the 
heels,  belonging  to  the  frog. 


The  crust  is  composed  of  numerous  fibres  runnmg  at  the  toe  in  a 
straight  direction  from  the  coronet  to  the  ground,  but  at  the  quarters, 
taking  an  oblique  direction  from  the  heel  forwards.  This  construction 
is  best  calculated  to  enable  the  foot  to  expand  when  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  ground,  and  by  that  expansion,  permitting  the  gradual  descent  of 
the  bones  of  the  foot,  and  obviating  much  concussion.  The  crust  is  thinner 
at  the  quarters  and  towards  the  heels,  because  those  are  the  parts  at  which 
the  principal  expansion  must  take  place.  These  fibres  are  held  together 
by  a  glutinous  substance,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  a  slight  degree 
of  separation,  or  to  bestow  the  power  of  expansion  on  the  foot ;  and  when 
recently  separated  from  the  foot,  it  is  an  exceedingly  elastic  substance,  and 
very  tough,  that  it  may  not  chip  and  break  with  the  violence  to  which  it  is 
often  exposed. 

In  the  absurd  method  of  stable  management,  to  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  again  and  again  to  refer,  it  sometimes  loses  much  of  this  tough- 
ness, and  becomes  brittle  and  liable  to  chip  and  break.  Inflammation  of 
the  internal  part  of  the  foot,  by  the  increased  heat  which  is  produced, 
will  cause  brittleness  of  the  hoof;  deficiency  of  moisture  and  neglect  of 
stopping  will  produce  the  same  effect.  Many  horses  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  brittle  hoofs  during  the  summer;  this  is  a  very  serious  defect,  and  in 
some  cases  so  much  of  the  hoof  is  gradually  broken  away,  that  there  is  no 
hold  left  for  the  nails.  A  mixture  of  one  part  of  oil  of  tar,  and  tM'o  of 
common  fish  oil,  well  rubbed  into  the  crust  and  the  hoof,  will  restore  the 
natural  pliancy  and  toughness  of  the  horn,  and  very  much  contribute  to  (he 
quickness  of  its  growth. 

The  wall  of  the  hoof  should  be  smooth  and  level  :  protuberances  or  rings 
round  the  crust  indicate  that  the  horse  has  had  fever  in  the  feet ;  and  that 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  produce  an  unequal  growth  of  horn,  and  probably  to 
leave  some  injurious  consequences  in  the  internal  part  of  the  foot.  If  there 
be  a  depression  or  hollow  in  the  front  of  the  foot,  it  betrays  a  sinking  of 
the  coffin-bone,  and  a  ilat  or  pumiced  sole  ;  if  the  hollow  be  at  the  quarters^ 
it  u  the  worst  system  of  bad  contraction. 


THE  BARS.  283 

The  colour  of  the  hoof  is  a  matter  of  some  consequence.  The»e  is  a 
common,  and  we  believe  a  well-founded  prejudice  against  white  feet,  and 
especially  whiteness  of  the  near  foot.  VVhite  horn  is  said  to  be  weaker 
than  that  of  tiie  usual  dark  colour;  the  sjle  is  almost  uniformly  flat,  and 
the  quarters  are  weak. 

The  inside  of  the  crust  is  covered  by  numerous  thin  horny  leaves, 
extending  all  round  it,  and  reaching  from  the  coronary  ring  to  the  toe. 
They  are  about  500  in  number,  broadest  at  their  base,  and  terminating  in 
the  most  delicate  expansion  of  hoi'n.  They  very  much  resemble  the  inner 
surface  of  a  mushroom.  In  front  they  run  in  a  direction  from  the  coronet 
to  the  toe,  and  towards  the  quarters  they  are  more  slanting  from  behind 
forward.  They  correspond  with  similar  cartilaginous  and  fleshy  leaves 
on  the  surface  of  the  coffin-bone,  called,  from  their  construction,  sensible 
laminse,  or  lamellcz,  (little  leaves  that  have  feeling,)  and  the  one  being 
received  within  the  other,  they  form  together  a  most  elastic  body,  by  which 
ihe  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  supported. 

THE    BARS. 

a  a  The  frog-. 

b  The  sole. 

c  c    The  bars. 

d  d  The  crust. 

At  tne  back  part  of  the  foot,  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  instead  of  being  con- 
tinned  round,  and  forming  a  circle,  is  suddenly  bent  in,  as  in  the  accom- 
panying cut,  where  d  represents  the  base  of  the  crust,  and  c  this  inflexion 
or  bending  of  it.  The  cut  will  show  that  we  do  not  refer  to  that  bend, 
which  forms  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  but  to  a  more  sudden  one,  constituting 
the  commencement  of  the  bars.  The  bars  are,  in  fact,  a  continuation  of 
the  crust,  forming  an  acute  angle,  and  meeting  at  a  point  at  the  toe  of  the 
frog  a :  and  the  inside  of  the  bars,  like  the  inside  of  the  crust  (see  the  pre- 
ceding cut),  presents  a  continuance  of  the  horny  leaves  wiiich  we  have 
just  described,  showing  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  same  substance,  and  helping 
to  discharge  the  same  ottice. 

It  needs  only  the  slightest  consideration  of  the  cut,  or  of  the  natural 
hoof,  to  show  the  importance  of  the  bars.  The  arch  which  they  form  on 
either  K>ide,  between  the  frog  and  the  quarters  is  admirably  contrived,  both 
to  admit  of,  and  to  limit  to  its  proper  extent,  the  expansion  of  the  foot. 
When  the  foot  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  the  weight  of  the  animal  is 
thrown  on  the  little  leaves,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  we  can 
miagine  these  arches  shortening  and  widening,  in  order  to  admit  oi'  the 
expansion  of  the  quarters;  and  we  can  see  again  the  bow  returning  to  its 
natural  curve,  and  powerfully  assisting  the  foot  in  regaining  its  usual  form. 
We  can  also  perceive  what  protection  these  bars  must  form  against  the 
contraction,  or  wiring  in  of  the  quarters.  If  they  are  taken  away,  there 
will  be  nothing  to  resist  the  falling  of  the  quarters  when  the  foot  is  exposed 
to  any  disease  or  bad  management  which  would  induce  it  to  contract. 
Again,  we  see  the  security  wliich  they  afford  the  frog  a;  and  the  effectual 
protection  which  they  give  against  the  pressure  of  tiie  lateral  or  side  parts 
ot  the  foot.  Then  appears  the  necessity  of  sparing  and  leaving  them  prom- 
inent  when  the  foot  is  pared  for  shoeing.     It  is  the  custom  with  too  many 


5JQ4  THE  HORSE. 

smiths  lo  cut  them  perfectly  away.  They  imagine  that  that  gives  a  more 
open  appearance  lo  the  heels  of  the  horse;  a  seeming  width  wnich  may 
impose  upon  the  unwary.  Horses  shod  for  the  purpose  of  sale  have 
usualiv  the  bars  removed  with  this  view  ;  and  the  smiths  in  the  neighbour- 
liood  of  tlie  metropolis  and  large  Ic  A-ns,  shoeing  for  dealers,  too  often  habit- 
ually  pursue,  without  regard  to  their  customers,  the  injurious  practice  of 
removing  the  bars.  The  horny  frog,  deprived  of  its  guard,  will  speedily 
contract,  and  become  elevated  and  thrushy ;  and  the  whole  of  the  heel, 
deprived  of  the  power  of  resilience  or  re-action,  which  the  curve  between 
the  bar  c  and  the  crust  d  affords,  will  speedily  fall  in.  Therefore,  when 
treating  of  shoeing,  we  shall  lay  it  down  as  a  golden  rule,  that  the  bars 
should  be  left  prominent,  and  we  shall  show  why  it  is  of  essential  import- 
ance that  the  shoe  should  rest  on  the  angle  formed  by  the  crust  and  the  bar. 

THE   FROG. 

In  the  space  between  the  bars,  and  accurately  filling  it,  is  the  frog.  It 
is  a  triangular  portion  of  horn,  projecting  from  the  sole,  almost  on  a  level 
with  the  crust,  and  covering  and  defending  a  soft  and  elastic  substance, 
called  the  sensible  frog.  It  is  wide  at  the  heels,  and  there  extending  above 
a  portion  of  the  crust ;  narrowing  rapidly  when  it  begins  to  be  confined 
between  the  bars,  and  terminating  at  a  point  at  somewhat  more  than  half 
the  distance  from  the  heel  to  the  toe.  It  consists  of  two  rounded  or  project, 
ing  surfaces,  with  a  fissure  or  cleft  between  them,  reaching  half  way  down 
the  frog,  and  the  two  portions  again  uniting  to  form  the  point  or  toe  of  the 
frog.  The  frog  is  firmly  united  to  the  sole,  but  it  is  perfectly  distinct  from 
it.  It  is  of  a  different  nature,  being  softer,  and  far  more  elastic;  and  it  is 
secreted  from  a  ditferent  surface,  for  it  is  thrown  out  from  the  substance 
which  it  covers.  Without  entering  into  many  of  the  questions  which  have 
been  agitated,  with  far  too  much  warmth  among  veterinarians,  as  to  the 
uses  of  the  frog,  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  our  cut,  and  consider  the  form 
and  situation  of  this  part.  It  very  much  resembles  a  wedge  with  the  sharp 
point  forwards;  and  it  is  placed  towards  the  back  part  of  the  foot.  The 
foot  is  seldom  put  flush  and  flat  upon  the  ground,  but  in  a  direction  down- 
wards, yet  somewhat  forwards ;  then  the  frog  evidently  gives  safety  to  the 
tread  of  the  animal ;  for  it,  in  a  manner,  ploughs  itself  into  the  ground,  and 
prevents  the  horse  from  slipping.  This  is  of  considerable  consequence, 
when  we  remember  some  of  the  paces  of  the  horse,  in  which  his  heels 
evidently  come  first  to  the  ground,  and  in  which  the  danger  from  slipping 
would  be  very  great.  We  need  only  refer  to  the  gallop  of  speed  as  illus- 
trative of  this. 

The  frog  being  placed  at,  and  filling  the  hinder  part  of  the  foot, 
discharges  a  part  of  the  duty  sustained  by  the  crust;  for  it  supports  the 
weight  of  the  animal.  It  assists,  likewise,  and  that  to  a  material  degree, 
in  the  expansion  of  the  foot.  It  is  formed  internally  of  two  prominences 
on  the  sides  (see  a,  p.  283),  and  a  cleft  in  the  centre,  presenting  two  con- 
cavities with  a  sharp  projection  in  the  middle,  and  a  gradually  rounded  one 
oi  each  side.  It  is  also  composed  of  a  substance  peculiarly  flexible  and 
elastic  What  can  be  so  well  adapted  for  the  expansion  of  the  foot,  when 
a  portion  o'  the  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  on  it  ?  How  easily  will  these 
irregular  surfaces  yield,  and  spread  out,  and  how  readily  return  again  to 
their  natural  state?  In  this  view,  therefore,  the  horny  frog  is  a  powerful 
agent  in  openiaig  the  foot;  and  the  dimunition  of  the  substance  of  the  frog, 
eiid  its  elevation  above  the  ground,  are  both  the  cause  and  the  consequence 


THE  SOLE.  285 

)f  contraction :  the  cause,  as  being  able  no  longer  powerfully  to  act  in 
expanding  the  heels;  and  the  consequence,  as  obeying  a  law  of  nature, 
by  which  that  which  no  longer  discharges  its  natural  function  is  gradu- 
ally removed.  It  is,  however,  the  cover  and  defence  of  the  internal  and 
sensible  frog,  at  which  we  are  not  yet  arrived,  and,  therefore,  we  are  at 
present  unable  to  develop  its  full  use;  but  we  have  said  enough  to  show 
the  absurdity  of  the  common  practice  of  unsparingly  cutting  it  away.  To 
discharge,  in  any  degree,  some  of  the  offices  which  we  have  assigned  to 
it,  and  fully  to  discharge  even  one  of  them,  it  must  come  in  occasional 
contact  witii  the  ground.  In  the  unshod  horse  it  is  constantly  so:  but  the 
additional  support  given  by  the  shoes,  and  more  especially  the  hard  roads 
over  which  the  horse  is  now  compelled  to  travel,  render  this  complete 
exposure  of  the  frog  to  the  ground,  not  only  unnecessary,  but  injurious. 
Being  of  so  much  softer  consistence  than  the  rest  of  the  foot,  it  would  be 
speedily  worn  away:  occasional  pressure,  however,  or  contact  with  the 
ground,  it  must  have. 

The  rough  and  detached  parts  should  be  cut  off  at  each  shoeing,  and  the 
substance  of  the  frog  itself,  so  as  to  bring  it  just  above  or  within  the  level 
jf  the  shoe.  It  will  then,  in  the  descent  of  the  sole,  when  the  weight  of 
;he  horse  is  thrown  upon  it  in  the  putting  down  of  the  foot,  descend  like- 
wise, and  pressing  upon  the  ground,  do  its  duty;  while  it  will  be  defended 
from  the  wear,  and  bruise,  and  injury  which  it  would  receive  if  it  came 
upon  tiie  ground  with  the  first  and  full  shock  of  the  weight.  This  will  be 
the  proper  guide  to  the  smith  in  operating,  and  to  the  proprietor  in  the 
directions  wiiich  he  gives;  and  the  latter  should  often  look  to  this,  for  it  is  a 
point  of  very  great  moment.  A  few  smiths  carry  the  notion  oi"  frog  pres- 
sure to  an  absurd  extent,  and  leave  the  frog  beyond  the  level  of  the  sole; 
a  practice  which  is  dangerous  in  the  horse  of  slow  draught,  and  destructive 
to  the  hackney  or  the  hunter;  but  the  majority  of  them  err  in  a  contrary 
way,  and,  cutting  off  too  much  of  thft  frog,  lift  it  above  the  ground,  and 
destroy  its  principal  use.  It  should  be  left  jusl  above,  or  wUhin  the  level  of 
tke  shoe. 

THE  SOLE. 

This  is  the  under  concave  and  elastic  surface  of  the  foot  (see  b,  p.  283), 
extending  from  the  crust  to  the  bars  and  frog.  It  is  not  so  thick  as  the 
crust,  because,  notwithstanding  its  situation,  it  has  not  so  much  weight  or 
stress  thrown  on  it  as  there  is  on  the  crust;  and  because  it  was  intended 
lo  expand,  in  order  to  prevent  concussion,  when,  by  the  descent  of  the 
bone  of  the  foot,  the  weight  was  thrown  upon  it.  It  is  not  so  brittle  as  the 
crust,  and  it  is  more  elastic  than  it.  It  is  thickest  at  the  toe  (see  /,  page 
249),  because  the  first  and  principal  stress  is  thrown  on  that  part.  The 
coffin-bone  y  is  driven  forward  and  downward  in  that  direction.  It  is  like- 
wise thicker  where  it  unites  with  the  crust  than  it  is  towards  the  centre, 
for  a  similar  and  evident  reason,  because  tiiere  the  weight  is  first  and  prin- 
cipally thrown. 

In  a  state  of  nature  it  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  hollow.  The  reason  of 
this  is  plain.  It  is  intended  to  descend  or  yield  with  the  weight  of  the 
horse,  and  by  that  gradual  descent  or  yielding,  most  materially  lessen  the 
shock  which  would  result  from  the  sudden  action  of  the  weight  of  the 
animal  in  rapid  and  violent  action  ;  and  this  descent  can  only  be  given  by 
u  hollow  sole.  A  flat  sole,  already  pressing  upon  the  ground  could  not 
U;  b:-ought  lower:  nir  could  the  functions  of  the  frog  be  then  discharged; 


2Q0  THE  HORSE. 

nor  would  thw  loot  have  so  secure  a  hold.  Then,  if  the  sole  be  naturall> 
hollow,  and  hollow  because  it  must  descend,  the  smith  must  not  interfert 
with  this  important  action.  When  the  fool  will  bear  it,  he  must  pare  out 
suflicient  of  the  horn  to  preserve  the  proper  concavity,  a  small  portion  at 
the  too  and  near  the  crust,  and  cutting  deeper  towards  the  centre;  and 
he  must  put  on  a  shoe  which  shall  not  prevent  the  descent  of  the  sole; 
which  not  only  shall  not  press  upon  it,  but  shall  leave  sufficient  room 
between  it  and  the  sole  to  admit  of  this  descent.  If  the  sole  is  pressed  upon 
by  the  coffin-bone,  by  the  lengthening  of  the  elastic  leaves,  and  the  shoe 
will  not  permit  its  descent,  the  sensible  part  between  the  coffin-bone  and 
the  horn  will  necessarily  be  bruised,  and  inflammation  and  lameness  will 
ensue.  It  is  from  this  cause,  that  if  a  stone  insinuates  itself  between  the 
shoe  and  the  sole,  it  produces  so  much  lameness.  Of  the  too  great  concav- 
ity of  the  sole,  or  the  want  of  concavity,  we  shall  treat  when  we  arrive  al 
the  diseases  of  the  foot. 

THE   COFFIN-BONE. 

We  proceed  to  the  interior  part  of  the  foot.  The  lower  pastern,  a  small 
portion  of  which  (see  d,  page  249)  is  contained  in  the  horny  box,  has  been 
already  described.  Beneath  it,  and  altogether  inclosed  in  the  hoof,  is  the 
coffin-bone,  or  proper  bone  of  the  foot,  (see^,  page  249,  and  d,  fig.  1,  page 
253).  It  is  fitted  to,  and  fills  the  fore  part  of  the  hoof,  occupying  about 
half  of  it.  It  is  of  a  light  and  spongy  structure  (see  d,  fig  1,  page  253), 
and  filled  with  numerous  holes.  Through  these  pass  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  foot,  which  are  necessarily  numerous,  considering  the  important  and 
various  secretions  there  carrying  on,  and  the  circulation  through  the  foot 
it  is  plain  could  not  possibly  be  kept  up,  if  these  vessels  did  not  run 
through  the  substance  of  the  bone.  The  holes  about  the  body  of  the  coffin- 
bone  convey  the  blood  to  the  little  leaves  with  which  it  is  covered ;  those 
near  the  lower  part  go  to  the  sole.  Considering  the  manner  in  which  this 
bone  is  inclosed  in  the  horny  box,  and  yet  the  important  surfaces  around 
and  below  it  which  are  to  be  nourished  with  blood,  the  circulation  which  is 
thus  carried  on  within  the  very  body  of  the  bone  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful provisions  of  nature  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  whole  of  the  frame. 
No  inconvenience  can  arise  from  occasional  or  constant  pressure,  but  the 
bone  allows  free  passage  to  the  blood,  and  protects  it  from  every  possible 
obstruction. 

The  fore-part  of  the  coffin-bone  is  not  only  thus  perforated,  but  it  is  curi- 
ously roughened  for  the  attachment  of  the  numerous  little  leaves  about  to 
be  described.  On  its  .upper  surface  it  presents  a  concavity  for  the  head 
of  the  lower  pastei'n,  p.  235.  In  front,  immediately  above  d,  is  a  striking 
prominence,  into  which  is  inserted  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  foot.  At  the 
back,  e,  p.  249,  it  is  sloped  for  articulation  with  the  navicular-bone,  and 
more  underneath,  is  a  depression  for  the  reception  of  the  perforating  flexor 
tendon,  m,  continued  down  the  leg,  passing  over  the  navicular-bone  at  n, 
and  at  length  inserted  into  this  bone.  On  either  side,  as  seen  at  p.  254. 
are  projections,  commonly  called  the  wings  or  the  heels  of  the  coffin-bone, 
and  at  the  bottom  it  is  hollowed  to  answer  to  the  convexity  of  the  interna' 
part  of  the  sole. 

That  which  deserves  most  attention  in  the  coffin-bone  is  the  production 
of  numerous  little  leaves  round  its  front  and  sides.  They  are  prolongations 
of  the  thick  and  elastic  membrane  covering  the  coffin-bone,  and  consist  of 
cartilaginous,  fleshy  plates,  proceeding  from  it,  running  down  the  coffin 


SENSIBLE  SOLE  AND  FROG.  287 

bone,  and  corresponding  with,  and  'received  between  the  horny  leaveb  ihat 
line  the  inside  of  the  crust.  The  horny  little  leaves  are  secreted  from,  or 
produced  by  the  fleshy,  and  being,  as  we  have  stated,  five  hundred  in  num. 
I)er,  their  union  with  each  other  is  so  strong,  that  no  violence  can  separate 
them.  While  the  animal  is  at  rest,  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  sup- 
ported  by  them,  and  not  by  the  sole.  This  extraordinary  fact  has  been  put 
to  the  test  of  experiment.  The  sole,  bars,  and  frog  were  removed  from  the 
foot  of  a  horse,  and  yet  as  he  stood,  the  coffin-bone  did  not  protrude,  or  in 
the  slightest  degree  descend ;  but  when  the  rapidity  with  which  the  foot 
descends  is  added  to  the  weight  of  the  horse,  these  little  leaves,  horny  and 
fleshy,  gradually  lengthen,  and  suffer  the  bones  to  press  upon  the  sole 
The  sole  then  descends,  and,  in  descending,  expands;  and  so,  by  an 
admirable  mechanism,  the  violent  sliock  which  would  be  produced  by  tne 
pressure  of  such  a  weight  as  that  of  the  horse,  and  the  velocity  with 
which  it  descends,  is  lessened  or  destroyed,  and  the  complicated  apparatus 
of  the  foot  remains  uninjured.  When  the  foot  is  again  lifted,  and  the 
weight  wliich  pressed  upon  it  is  removed,  the  principle  of  elasticity  is  called 
into  exercise,  and  by  it  the  sole  resumes  its  concavity,  and  the  horny 
frog  its  folded  state;  tiie  quarters  return  to  their  former  situation;  the  little 
leaves  regain  their  former  length,  and  every  thing  is  prepared  for  a  repeti- 
tion  o{  action. 

HE   SENSIBLE-SOLE. 

Between  the  coflin-bone  and  the  horny-sole  is  situated  the  sensible-sole  s, 
p.  249,  formed  above  of  a  substance  of  a  ligamentous  or  tendinous  uature, 
and  below  of  a  cuticular,  or  skin-like,  substance,  plentifully  supplied  with 
blood-vessels.  It  was  placed  between  the  coffin-bone  and  the  sole,  by  its 
yielding  nature  to  assist  in  preventing  concussion,  and  also  to  form  a  supply 
of  horn  for  the  sole.  It  extends  beyond  the  coffin-bone,  but  not  at  a'l  under 
the  frog;  leaving  a  space  for  the  frog,  it  proceeds  over  the  bars,  and  there 
is  covered  with  some  laminae,  to  unite  with  those  we  have  described,  page 
283,  as  found  in  the  bars.  It  is  here  likewise  thicker,  and  more  elastic, 
and  by  its  elastieity  is  evidently  assisting  in  obviating  concussion.  It  is 
supplied  with  nervous  fibres,  and  is  highly  sensible,  as  the  slightt-st  experi- 
ence  in  horses  will  evince.  The  lameness  which  ensues  from  the  pressure 
of  a  stone  or  of  the  shoe  on  the  sole  is  caused  by  inflammation  of  the 
sensible-sole.  Corns  result  from  bruise  and  inflammation  of  the  sensible- 
sole,  between  the  crust  and  the  bar. 


THE  SENSIBLE-FROG 

The  coffin-bone  does  not  occupy  more  than  one  half  of  the  hoof.  The 
posterior  part  is  filled  by  a  soft  mass,  partly  ligamentous  and  partly  ten- 
dinous  (o,  page  249).  Its  shape  below  corresponds  with  the  cavities  of  the 
horny  frog:  in  front  it  is  attached  to  the  inferior  part  of  the  coffm-bone; 
and  farther  back  it  adheres  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cartilages  of  the  heels, 
where  they  begin  to  form  the  rounded  protuberances  which  constitute  the 
heel  of  the  foot.  It  occupies  the  whole  of  the  back  part  of  the  foot,  above 
the  horny  frog,  and  between  the  cartilages.  Running  immediately  above 
♦he  frog,  and  along  tlie  greater  part  of  it,  we  find  the  perforans  flexor  ten- 
don,  which  passes  over  the  navicular-bone,  e,  p.  249,  and  is  inserted  into 
the  heel  of  the  coffin-bone. 


288  THE  HORSE. 


THE  NAVICULAR-BONE. 

This  navicular  bone  is  placed  behind  and  below  the  lower  paslern-bone 
and  behind  and  above  the  heel  ol"  the  coffin-bone,  e,  p.  249,  so  that  it  forms 
a  joint  with  both  bones,  and  answers  a  very  important  office  in  strengthen- 
ing the  union  between  these  parts;  in  receiving  a  portion  of  tlie  weight 
which  is  thrown  on  the  lower  pastern  ;  and  in  enabling  the  flexor  tendon  to 
act  with  more  advantage.  Supposing  that  this  tendon  were  inserted  into 
the  coffin-bone,  without  the  intervention  of  the  navicular-bone,  it  would  act 
in  a  very  disadvantageous  way,  in  bending  the  pastern,  for  it  is  inserted 
near  the  end  of  the  coffin-bone,  and  the  weight,  concentrated  about  the 
middle  of  the  bone,  is  far  off,  and  requires  a  power  to  raise  it  proportionate 
to  the  distance  between  the  weight  and  the  power,  from  tlie  centre  of 
motion,  which  is  here  the  place  where  the  tendon  passes  over  tlie  end  of 
the  coffin-bone :  but  when  the  navicular-bone  is  interposed,  the  centre  of 
motion  becomes  the  posterior  edge  of  that  bone,  where  it  is  in  contact  with 
the  tendon,  and  then  it  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  of  the  power  from  the 
centre  of  motion  is  nearly  or  quite  the  same  as  the  weight,  and  very  great 
expenditure  of  muscular  power  will  be  saved.  In  the  one  case,  the  power 
must  be  at  least  double  the  weight,  in  the  other  they  will  be  nearly  equal; 
and  also  the  angle  at  which  the  tendon  is  inserted,  is,  like  the  angle  pro- 
duced by  the  introduction  of  the  knee-bone,  considerably  more  advantageous. 
We  are  inclined  to  believe  that  this  is  the  principal  ir,e  of  the  navicular- 
bone;  but  at  the  same  lime  we  are  aware  of  the  benefit  which  accrues  (see 
page  249)  from  a  portion  of  the  weight  being  taken  from  the  coffin-bone, 
and  thrown  on  the  navicular-bone,  and  from  it  on  the  tendon,  and  the  ten- 
don resting  on  the  elastic  frog  underneath.  The  navicular-bone  is  some- 
limes,  but  inaccurately,  said  to  descend  with  the  motion  of  the  foot.  It  does 
not  do  that;  it  cannot;  for  it  is  connected  both  with  the  pastern  and  coffin, 
bones,  by  inelastic  ligaments.  When,  however,  the  horny  bulb,  with  its 
tuft  of  hair,  at  the  back  of  an  oblique  fetlock,  descends  in  the  rapid  gallop, 
and  almost  touches  the  ground,  the  navicular-bone,  being  as  it  were  a  part 
of  the  pastern,  must  descend  with  it:  but  with  this  exception,  both  in  the 
extending  and  the  bending  of  the  pastern,  the  navicular-bone  turns  or  rolls 
upon  the  other  bones,  rather  than  descends,  or  ascends,  and  with  this 
remarkable  advantage,  that  when  the  pastern  is  extended  (see  page  249), 
the  navicular-bone  is  placed  in  that  situation  which  enables  the  flexor  tendon 
to  act  with  greatest  advantage,  in  again  bending  the  foot. 


THE   CARTILAGES  OF  THE  FOOT 

There  is  a  groove  extending  along  the  upper  part  of  the  coffin-bone,  and 
on  either  side,  except  at  the  protuberance  which  receives  the  extensor  ten- 
don  d,  p.  253,  occupied  by  cartilage,  which,  like  the  crust,  is  convex  out- 
wards and  concave  inwards,  and  which  extends  to  the  very  posterior  part 
of  the  foot;  rising  about  the  quarters,  half  an  inch  or  more  above  the  hoof, 
and  diminishing  in  height  forward  and  backward.  These  cartilages  occupy 
a  greater  portion  of  the  foot  than  does  the  coffin-bone,  as  will  be  seen  in 
the  cut,  page  254,  where  they  are  represented  as  extending  far  behind  the 
coffin-bone.  They  are  held  in  their  situation  not  merely  by  this  groove, 
but  by  other  connections  with  the  coffin-bone,  the  navicular-bcne,  and  the 
flexor  tendon,  and  are  thus  perfectly  secured. 


INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  FOOT.  289 

Below  are  other  cartilages  connected  with  the  under  edges  of  the  former, 
and  on  either  side  of'  tiie  frog. 

Between  these  cartilages  is  the  sensible  frog,  filling  up  the  whole  of  the 
space,  and  answering  several  important  purposes,  being  an  elastic  bed  on 
which  the  navicular-bone,  and  the  tendon  (see  page  249),  can  play  with 
security,  and  with  concussion  or  shock,  by  which  all  concussion  communi- 
cated to  the  cartilages  of  the  foot  is  destroyed,  and  by  which  these  carti- 
lages  are  kept  asunder,  and  the  expansion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  foot 
preserved.  As  the  descent  of  the  sole  increases  the  width  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  foot,  so  the  elevation  of  the  frog,  a  portion  of  it  being  pressed 
upward  and  outward  by  the  action  of  the  navicular-bone  and  tendon,  causes 
the  expansion  of  its  upper  part.  Precisely  as  the  strong  muscle  peculiar 
to  quadrupeds  at  the  back  of  the  eye  (see  page  88)  being  forcibly  con- 
tracted, presses  upon  the  fatty  matter  in  which  the  eye  is  imbedded,  which 
may  be  displaced,  but  cannot  be  squeezed  into  less  compass,  and  which, 
being  forced  towards  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  drives  before  it  that 
important  and  beautiful  mechanism  of  the  haw,  so  the  elastic  and  yielding 
substance  of  the  frog,  being  pressed  upon  by  the  navicular-bone  and  the 
tendon,  and  the  pastern,  and  refusing  to  be  condensed  into  less  compass, 
forces  itself  out  on  each  side  of  them,  and  expands  the  lateral  cartilages, 
and  which  again,  by  their  inherent  elasticity,  recur  to  their  former  situation, 
when  the  frog  no  longer  presses  them  outward.  It  appears,  that  by  a 
different  mechanism,  but  both  equally  admirable,  and  referable  to  the  same 
principle,  viz.,  that  of  elasticity,  the  expansion  of  the  upper  and  lower 
portions  of  the  hoof  are  effected,  the  one  by  the  descent  of  the  sole,  thn 
other  by  the  compression  and  rising  of  the  frog. 

It  is  this  expansion  upward,  which  contributes  principally  to  the  preser- 
vation of  the  usefulness  of  the  horse,  when  our  destructive  methods  of 
shoeing  are  so  calculated  to  destroy  the  expansion  beneath.  In  draught- 
horses,  from  the  long  continued,  as  well  as  violent  pressure  on  the  frog,  and 
from  the  frog  on  the  cartilage,  inflammation  is  occasionally  produced,  which 
terminates  in  the  cartilages  being  changed  into  bony  matter. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

THE    DISEASES   OF    THE    FOOT. 

Of  these,  we  have  a  long  list  to  lay  before  our  readers,  but  that  will  not 
be  wondered  at  by  those  who  have  duly  considered  the  complicated  structure 
of  the  foot,  the  duty  it  has  to  perform,  and  the  injuries  to  which  it  is  exposed. 
We  begin  with  that  which  is  the  cause  of  many  other  diseases  of  the  foot, 
and  connected  with  almost  all. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  FOOT,  OR  ACUTE  FOUNDER. 

The  sensible  lamellae,  or  the  fleshy  plates  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the 
coffin-bone,  being  replete  with  blood-vessels,  are,  like  every  other  vascular 
Dart,  liable  to  inflammation,  from  its  usual  causes,  and  particularly  from 
the  violence  with  which,  in  rapid  and  long-continued  action,  they  are  length- 
ened and  strained.  When  in  a  severely  contested  race  they  have  been 
stretclied  to  the  utmost ;  while,  at  the  fullest  stride  of  the  horse,  his  weight 
was  thrown  on  them  with  destructive  force;  or,  when  the  feet  have  been 
\)atterea  and  bruised  in  a  hard  day's  journey,  no  one  will  wonder  if  inflam- 


29(1  THE   HORSE. 

niation  of  the  over-worked  parts  should  ensue,  and  the  occurrence  of  it  ina) 
probably  be  produced  and  the  disease  aggravated  by  the  too  prevalent  absurd 
rriode  of  treating  the  animal.  If  a  horse  that  has  been  ridden  or  driven 
hard  be  suffered  to  stand  in  the  cold,  or  if  his  feet  be  washed  and  not 
speedily  dried,  he  is  very  likely  to  have  "fever  in  the  feet."  There  is  no 
more  fruitful  source  of  inflammation  in  the  human  being,  or  the  brute,  than 
these  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  This  has  been  explained  as  it 
regards  grease,  but  it  bears  more  immediately  on  the  point  now  under  con- 
sideration.  The  danger  is  not  confined  to  tiie  change  from  heat  to  cold  ;  a 
sudden  transition  from  cold  to  heat  is  as  injurious,  and  therefore  it  is  that  so 
many  horses,  after  having  been  ridden  far  in  the  frost  and  snow,  and  placed 
immediately  in  a  hot  stable,  and  littered  up  to  the  knees,  are  attacked  by 
this  complaint.  The  feet  and  the  lungs  are  the  organs  oftenest  attacked, 
because  they  have  previously  suffered  most  by  our  mismanagement,  and 
are  most  disposed  to  take  on  disease.  Whatever  would  cause  slight  inflam- 
mation of  other  parts,  or  trifling  general  derangement,  will  produce  all  its 
mischief  on  these  organs. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  sudden  change  of  inflammation  from  one  organ  to 
another.  A  horse  shall  have  laboured  for  several  days  under  evident  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs;  all  at  once  that  will  subside,  and  the  inflammation  will 
appear  in  the  feet,  or  inflammation  of  the  feet  may  follow  similar  affections 
in  the  bowels  or  the  eyes. 

To  the  attentive  observer  the  symptoms  are  clearly  marked,  and  yet  there 
is  no  disease  so  often  overlooked  by  the  groom  and  carter,  and  even  by  the 
veterinary  surgeon.  The  earliest  symptoms  of  fever  in  the  feet  are  fidgeti- 
ness, frequent  shifting  of  the  fore-legs,  but  no  pawing,  much  less  any 
attempts  to  reach  the  belly  with  the  hind-feet.  The  pulse  will  soon  be 
quickened,  the  flanks  heaving,  the  nostrils  red,  and  the  horse,  by  his  anx- 
ious countenance,  and  perhaps  by  moaning,  indicating  great  pain.  Pres- 
ently, he  will  look  about  his  litter,  as  if  preparing  to  lie  down,  but  he  does 
not  do  it  immediately;  he  continues  to  shift  from  foot  to  foot;  he  is  afraid 
to  draw  his  feet  sufficiently  under  him  for  the  purpose  of  lying  down :  but 
at  length  he  drops.  The  circumstance  of  his  lying  down  at  an  early  period 
of  the  disease  will  sufficiently  distinguish  inflammation  of  the  feet  from 
that  of  the  lungs,  in  which  the  horse  obstinately  persists  in  standing  until 
he  drops  from  mere  exhaustion;  and  his  quietness  when  down  will  distin- 
guish  it  from  colic  or  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  in  both  of  which  the 
horse  is  frequently  up  and  down,  and  rolling  and  kicking  when  down. 
When  the  grievance  is  in  the  feet,  the  horse  experiences  so  much  relief, 
from  getting  rid  of  the  weight  painfully  distending  the  inflamed  and  highly 
sensible  little  plates,  that  he  is  glad  to  lie  as  long  as  he  can.  He  will  like- 
wise, as  clearly  as  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  bowels,  point  out  the  seat 
of  disease  by  looking  at  the  part:  his  muzzle  will  sometimes  rest  on  the  feet 
or  the  affected  foot     It  is  easy  to  conclude  what  all  this  indicates. 

If  the  feet  be  now  examined,  they  will  be  evidently  hot;  the  horse  will 
express  pain  if  they  are  slightly  rapped  with  a  hammer,  and  the  artery  at 
the  pastern  will  throb  violently.  No  great  time  will  now  pass,  if  the  disease 
be  suffered  to  pursue  its  course,  before  he  will  be  perfectly  unable  to  rise ; 
or,  if  he  is  forced  to  get  up,  and  one  foot  be  lifted,  he  will  stand  with  diffi- 
culty  on  the  other,  or  perhaps  drop  at  once  from  intensity  of  pain. 

The  treatment  will  resemble  that  of  other  inflammations,  with  such 
differences  as  the  situation  of  the  disease  may  suggest.  Bleeding  is  indis- 
pensable;  and  that  to  its  fullest  extent.  If  the  disease  be  confined  to  the 
fore-feet,  four  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken  as  soon  as  possible  from  the 
toe  of  each,  at  the  situation  pointed  out,  fig.  2,  p.  249,  and  in  the  manner 


PUMICEL   FEET.  2<JJ 

al»'eaily  described  ;  poultices  of  linseed  meal,  made  very  soft,  should  cover 
the  vvliole  of  the  foot  and  the  pastern,  and  be  frequently  renewed,  which  will 
promote  evaporation  from  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  possibly  through  the 
pores  of  tlie  hoof,  and,  by  softening  and  suppling  the  hoof,  will  relieve  its 
painful  pressure  on  the  swelled  and  tender  parts  beneath.  More  fully  to 
accomplish  this  last  purpose,  the  shoe  should  be  removed,  the  sole  pared  as 
thin  as  possible,  and  the  crust  and  particularly  the  quarters  well  rasped. 
All  this  must  be  done  gently,  and  with  a  great  deal  of  patience,  for  the  poor 
animal  can  scarcely  bear  his  foot  to  be  meddled  with.  There  is  doubt  as  to 
the  propriety  of  administering  physic.  The  horse  may  find  it  difficult  or 
impossible  to  rise,  in  which  case  much  inconvenience  will  ensue  from  the 
operation  of  physic:  or  there  may  be  danger,  from  the  intense  character 
which  fever  in  the  feet  often  assumes,  of  producing  a  change  of  inflamma- 
tion to  the  bowels  or  lungs,  in  which  the  irritation  of  physic  would  probably 
be  fatal.  Sedative  and  cooling  medicines  should  be  diligently  administered, 
consisting  of  digitalis,  nitre,  and  emetic  tartar,  in  the  proportions  already 
recommended. 

If  no  amendment  be  observed,  three  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken 
from  each  foot  on  the  following  day,  and,  in  extreme  cases,  a  third  bleeding 
of  two  quarts  may  be  justifiable,  and,  instead  of  the  poultice,  cloths  kept 
wet  with  water  in  which  nitre  has  been  dissolved  immedialely  before,  and 
in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  of  nitre  to  a  pound  of  water,  may  be  wrapped 
round  the  feet.  About  the  third  day,  a  blister  may  be  tried,  taking  in  the 
whole  of  the  pastern  and  the  coronet ;  but  a  cradle  must  previously  be  put 
on  the  neck  of  the  horse,  and  the  feet  must  be  covered  after  the  blister,  or 
they  will  probably  be  sadly  blemished.  The  horse  should  be  kept  on  mash- 
diet,  unless  green  meat  can  be  procured  for  him;  and  even  that  should  not 
be  given  too  liberally,  nor  should  he,  in  the  slightest  degree,  be  coaxed  to 
eat.  When  he  appears  to  be  recovering,  his  getting  on  his  feet  should  not  be 
hurried.  It  should  be  left  perfectly  to  his  own  discretion;  nor  should  even 
walking  exercise  be  permitted  until  he  stands  firm  on  his  feet;  when,  if  the 
season  will  permit,  two  months'  run  at  grass  will  be  very  serviceable. 

It  is  not,  however,  always,  or  often,  that  inflammation  of  the  feet  is  thus 
easily  subdued;  and,  if  it  be  subdued,  it  sometimes  leaves  after  it  some 
fearful  consequences.  The  loss  of  the  hoof  is  not  an  unfrequent  one.  About 
six  or  seven  days  from  the  first  attack,  a  slight  separation  will  begin  to 
appear  between  the  coronet  and  the  hoof.  This  should  be  carefully 
remarked,  for  the  separated  horn  will  never  again  unite  with  the  parts 
beneath,  but  the  disunion  will  extend,  and  the  hoof  will  be  lost.  It  is  true 
that  a  new  hoof  will  be  formed,  but  it  will  be  smaller  in  size  and  weaker 
than  the  first,  and  will  rarely  stand  hard  work.  When  this  separation  is 
observed,  it  will  be  a  matter  of  calculation  with  the  proprietor  of  the  horse 
whether  he  will  suffer  the  medical  treatment  to  proceed. 

PUMICED  FEET 

The  sensible  and  horny  little  plates  which  were  elongated  and  partially 
separated  during  the  intensity  of  the  inflammation  will  not  always  perfectly 
unite  again,  or  will  have  lost  much  of  their  elasticity,  and  the  coffin-bone, 
no  longer  fully  supported  by  them,  presses  upon  the  sole,  and  the  sole 
becomes  flattened,  or  even  convex,  or  projecting,  by  this  unnatural  weight, 
and  the  horse  acquires  a  Pumiced  Foot.  This  will  also  happen  when  the 
animal  is  used  too  soon  after  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  feet,  anu 
before  the  little  plates  have  regained  sufficient  strength  to  support  the 
weight  of  the  horse,  or  to  contract  again  by  their  elastic  power  when  they 


292  THE  HORSE 

have  yielded  to  the  weight.  When  the  coffin-bone  is  thus  thrown  on  the 
sole,  and  renders  it  pumiced,  the  crust  at  the  front  of  the  hoof  will  '^fallin,'* 
leaving  a  kind  of  hollow  about  the  middle  of  it. 

Pumiced  feet,  especially  in  hprses  with  large,  wide  feet,  are  produced  tiol 
unfrequenlly  without  this  acute  inflammation.  Undue  work,  and  especially 
much  battering  of  the  feet  on  the  pavement,  will  extend  and  sprain  these 
little  plates  so  much,  that  they  will  not  have  the  power  to  contract,  and  thus 
the  coflin-bone  will  be  thrown  backward  on  the  sole.  A  very  important 
law  of  nature  will  unfortunately  soon  be  active  here:  when  pressure  is 
applied  to  any  part,  the  absorbents  become  busy  in  removing  that  part;  so, 
when  the  coffin-bone  begins  to  press  upon  the  sole,  the  sole  becomes  thin 
from  the  increased  wear  and  tear  to  which  it  is  subjected  from  contact 
with  the  ground,  and  also  because  these  absorbents  are  rapidly  taking  it 
away. 

This  is  one  of  the  diseases  of  the  feet  for  which  there  is  no  cure.  iNo 
skill  is  competent  to  effect  a  re-union  between  the  separated  fleshy  and 
horny  leaves,  or  to  restore  to  them  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  which  they 
have  been  deprived,  or  to  take  up  that  hard  horny  substance  which  very 
speedily  fills  the  space  between  the  crust  and  the  receding  coffin-bone. 
Some  etforts  have  been  made  to  palliate  the  disease,  but  they  have  been 
only  to  a  very  slight  degree  successful.  If  horses  on  the  first  appearance 
of  flat  foot,  were  turned  out  in  a  dry  place,  or  put  into  a  box  for  two  or 
three  months,  sufficient  stress  would  not  be  thrown  on  the  leaves  to  increase 
the  evil,  and  time  might  be  given  for  the  growth  of  horn  enough  in  the  sole 
to  support  the  coffin-bone;  yet  we  much  doubt  whether  these  horses  would 
ever  be  useful  even  for  ordinary  purposes.  The  slowest  work  required  of 
them  would  drive  the  coffin-bone  on  the  sole,  and  gradually  the  projection 
would  reappear,  for  no  power  and  no  length  of  time  can  again  unite  the 
separated  leaves  of  the  coffin-bone  and  the  hoof.  All  that  can  be  done  in 
the  way  of  palliation  is  by  shoeing.  Nothing  must  press  on  the  projecting 
and  pumiced  part.  If  the  projection  be  not  great,  a  thick  bar  shoe  is  the 
best  thing  that  can  be  applied,  but  should  the  sole  have  much  descended,  a 
shoe  with  a  very  wide  web,  bevelled  off  so  as  not  to  press  on  the  part,  may 
be  used.  These  means  of  relief,  however,  are  only  temporary,  the  disease 
will  proceed;  and,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  the  horse  will  bo  useless. 

CHRONIC    FOUNDER 

This  is  a  name  conveniently  contrived  to  express  those  alterations  of  ttie 
foot,  and  the  gradual  lameness  which  either  shoeing  or  mismanagement 
occasions.  It  is  often  a  mere  cloak  for  our  ignorance  of  these  subjects. 
The  diseases  of  the  foot  and  their  remedies  are  very  imperfectly  understood 
even  by  the  most  skilful  practitioners. 

We  may,  perhaps,  most  conveniently  divide  the  slow  and  fatal  progress 
from  soundness  to  incurable  lameness  into  two  classes — that  which  is  accom- 
panied by  contraction,  and  that  which  exhibits  little  or  no  alteration  hi  the 
external  appearance  of  the  foot 

CONTRACTION. 

Our  cut,  page  283,  will  give  us  a  fair  idea  of  the  young  healthy  foot, 
approaching  nearly  to  a  circle,  and  of  which  the  quarters  form  the  widest 
part,  and  the  inner  quarter  (this  is  the  near  foot)  rather  wider  Mian  the 
outer.  This  sliape  is  not  long  preserved  in  many  horses,  but  the  foot 
increases  in  length,  and  narrows  in  the  quarters,  and  particularly  at  the 


CONTRACTION,  293 

heel,  and  the  frog  is  diminished  in  width,  and  the  sole  beconies  more  con- 
cave,  and  the  heels  higher,  and  lameness,  or  at  least  a  shortened  and  feelipg 
action,  ensues. 

Here  we  must  premise  that  there  is  a  great  deal  more  horror  of  con- 
t'-acled  heels  than  there  is  any  occasion  for.  Many  persons  reject  a  horse, 
at  once  if  the  quarters  are  loiring  in;  but  the  fact  is,  that  although  this  la 
an  unnatural  form  of  the  hoof,  it  is  slow  of  growth,  and  nature  kindly 
makes  that  provision  for  the  slowly  altered  form  of  the  hoof,  which  she 
does  in  similar  cases;  she  accommodates  the  parts  to  the  change  of  form. 
As  the  hoof  draws  in,  the  parts  beneath,  and  particularly  the  coffin-bone 
and  the  heels  of  the  coffin-bone,  diminish  ;  or,  after  all,  as  it  is  more  a  cliange 
of  form  tiian  of  capacity,  as  the  foot  lengthens  in  proportion  as  it  narrows, 
so  the  coffin-bone  lengthens,  and  is  as  perfectly  adjusted  as  before  to  the 
box  in  which  it  is  placed  ;  and  its  little  leaves  are  in  as  intimate  and  perfect 
union  with  those  of  the  crust  as  before  the  hoof  had  begun  to  change.  On 
this  account  it  is  that  many  horses  with  very  contracted  feet  are  perfectly 
sound,  and  no  horse  should  be  rejected  merely  because  he  has  contracted 
feet.  He  should  undoubtedly  be  examined  more  carefully,  and  with  con- 
siderable suspicion;  but  if  he  has  good  action,  and  is  otherwise  unexcep- 
tionable, there  is  no  reason  that  the  purchase  should  be  set  aside.  For  our 
own  parts,  we  had  rather  have  a  horse  with  contracted  feet,  if  he  went 
sound,  than  another  with  open,  but  weak  heels.  We  should  expect  from 
him  much  more  work,  and  we  should  not  be  disappointed. 

We  must  also  protest  against  the  opinion  that  contraction  is  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  shoeing.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  inflexible 
iron  ring  being  nailed  to  the  foot  prevents,  to  a  very  considerable  degree, 
the  descent  of  the  sole  and  the  expansion  of  the  heels  below  ;  and  it  is 
likewise  probable,  that  when  the  expansion  of  the  heels  is  prevented  they 
will  often  begin  to  contract.  But  here,  again,  nature,  cut  ofl'  from  one 
resource,  finds  others.  If  one  of  the  jugular  veins  be  lost,  the  blood  finds 
its  way  by  other  channels,  and  the  horse  does  not  appear  to  suffer  in  the 
slightest  degree:  and  so  if  the  expansion  of  the  heels  below  is  diminished, 
that  of  the  cartilages  above  is  made  more  use  of.  If  the  coffin-bone  has  not 
so  much  descent  downward,  it  probably  acquires  one  backward,  and  the 
functions  of  the  foot  are  usefully  if  not  perfectly  performed.  The  plain  proof 
of  this  is,  that  although  there  are  many  horses  that  are  injured  or  ruined  by 
bad  shoeing,  there  are  others,  and  they  ai-e  a  numerous  class,  who  suffer 
not  at  all  from  good  shoeing,  and  scarcely  even  from  bad.  Except  it  be 
from  accident,  how  seldom  is  the  farmer's  horse  lame?  and  it  might  even  be 
further  asked,  how  seldom  is  his  foot  much  contracted  ?  Some  gentlemen 
who  are  careful  of  their  horses  have  driven  them  twenty  years,  and  princi- 
pally over  the  rough  pavement  of  towns,  without  a  day's  lameness.  Shoeing 
may  be  a  necessary  evil,  but  it  is  not  the  evil  which  some  speculative  per- 
sons have  supposed  it  to  be  :  and  the  undoubted  fact  is,  that  when  the 
horse  is  put  to  real  hard  work,  and  when  the  injury  produced  by  shoeing, 
in  destroying  the  expansibility  of  the  foot,  would  most  of  all  show  itself,  the 
foot  lasts  a  great  deal  longer  than  the  leg ;  nay,  horsemen  will  tell  us  that 
one  pair  of  good  feet  is  worth  two  pair  of  legs. 

Having  thus  premised  that  contraction  is  not  necessarily  accompanied  by 
lameness,  and  that  shoeing,  with  all  its  evils,  does  not  necessarily  injure 
the  foot,  we  proceed  to  consider  those  cases  of  contraction,  too  numerous, 
which  are  the  consequence  of  our  stable  management,  and  which  do 
cripple  and  ruin  the  horse.  We  are  not  aware  of  any  thing  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  feet  which  would  enable  us  to  decide  when  contraction  is  or 


294  THE  HORSE. 

is  not  destructive  to  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  ;  his  inanncr  of  f^oing 
and  his  capability  for  work,  must  be  our  guides.  Lameness  usually 
accompanies  the  beginning  of  contraction  ;  it  is  tiie  invariable  atlendan 
on  rapid  contraction,  but  it  does  not  always  e.xist  when  tlie  loiriug  in  is  slow 
or  of  long  standing. 

A  very  excellent  writer,  particularly  when  treating  of  llie  foot  of  llie 
horse,  Mr.  Blaine,  has  given  us  a  long  and  correct  list  of  the  causes  of 
injurious  contraction,  and  most  of  them  are,  fortunately,  under  llie  control  of 
the  owner  of  the  animal.  He  ii'aces  at  the  head  of  them,  neglect  of  paring. 
The  hoof  is  continually  growing,  the  crust  is  lengthening,  and  tiie  sole  is 
thickening.  This  is  a  provision  for  the  wear  and  tear  of  tiie  loot  in  an 
unshod  state :  but  when  the  foot  is  protected  by  a  slioe,  and  none  of  llie 
horn  can  be  worn  away  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  ground,  the  growth 
of  horn  continues ;  the  hoof  gets  high,  and  the  sole  gets  thick  ;  and  in 
consequence  of  this,  the  descent  of  the  sole  and  the  expansion  of  the  heels 
are  prevented,  and  contraction  is  the  result.  The  smith  might  lessen,  if 
not  prevent  the  evil,  by  carefully  thinning  the  sole  and  lowering  the  heels 
at  each  shoeing ;  but  the  first  of  these  is  a  matter  of  considerable  labour, 
and  the  second  could  not  be  done  effectually  without  being  accompanied 
by  the  first,  and  therefore  they  are  both  neglected.  Tiie  prejudice  of 
many  owners  of  horses  assists  in  increasing  the  evil.  They  imagine  that 
a  great  deal  of  mischief  is  done  by  cutting  away  the  foot.  Mischief  may  i)e 
the  result  of  injudicious  cutting,  when  the  bars  are  destroyed  and  the  frog 
is  elevated  from  the  ground  ;  but  more  evil  results  from  the  unyielding 
thickness  of  horn  impairing  the  elastic  and  expansive  principle  of  the  foot. 
If  gentlemen  would  stand  by,  and  see  that  the  sole  is  properly  thinned,  and 
the  heels  lowered,  and  occasionally,  perhaps,  give  the  workman  a  trifling 
gratuity  for  his  increased  labour,  they  would  be  repaid  in  the  comfort  and 
usefulness  of  the  horse. 

Ill-judged  economy  is  another  source  of  this  disease.  If  the  shoes  of 
one  veterinary  surgeon  will,  with  ordinary  work,  last  a  little  more  than 
three  weeks,  while  another  contrives  to  make  his  last  six,  he  is  supposed 
to  be  the  better  workman  and  the  more  honest  man,  and  gets  tiie  greater 
part  of  the  custom  ;  and  his  shoe  is  suffered  to  remain  on  duiing  the 
whole  time,  to  the  manifest  injury  of  the  feet,  and  that  injury  materially 
increased,  by  the  greater  thickness  and  weight  of  these  shoes,  and  tiie 
tightness  with  which  they  are  fastened  on,  the  nails  being  necessarily 
placed  nearer  to  the  quarters,  and  possibly  an  additional  nail  or 'two  used 
in  the  fastening,  and  these  applied  at  the  quarters.  There  is  no  rule  which 
admits  of  so  little  exception — that  once  in  about  every  three  weeks  the 
growth  of  horn  which  the  natural  wear  of  the  foot  cannot  get  rid  of,  should 
be  pared  away — the  toe  should  be  shortened — the  sole  should  be  thinned, 
and  the  heels  lowered.  Every  one  who  has  carefully  observed  the  shape 
of  the  horse's  foot,  must  have  seen,  that  in  proportion  to  its  height  or 
neglectrtd  growth,  it  contracts  and  closes  upon  the  foot  round  the  coronet. 
A  low. heeled  horse  may  have  other  serious  defects,  of  which  it  will  be  our 
duty  to  speak,  but  he  has  seldom  a  contracted  foot. 

Another  source  of  contraction  is  the  want  of  natural  moisture.  The 
unshod  colt  has  seldom  contracted  feet,  nor  does  the  horse  at  grass  acquire 
ihem,  because  the  lioof  is  kept  cool  and  damp  by  occasional  rain  and  by 
the  regular  dew.  It  is  thus  rendered  supple,  and  its  elasticity  is  preserved, 
and  the  expansive  power  of  the  foot  is  uninjured.  The  hoof  of  ihe  slabled 
horse  sometimes  has  not  one  drop  of  moisture  on  it  for  several  days.  The 
effect  of  this   in  causing  the  horn  to  shrink,  is  sufficiently  evident.     Hence 


CONTRACTION.  295 

(he  propriety  of  sloppin«!f  the  feet.  The  intelligent  and  careful  groom  will 
not  omit  it  a  single  niglit.  Cow-dung,  witii  a  small  portion  of  clay  to  give 
it  consistence,  is  a  common  and  very  good  stopj)ing:  a  better  one  is  a  piece 
of  think  felt,  cut  to  tiic  shape  of  the  sole,  and  soaked  in  water;  this  may  bo 
procured,  ready  prepared  fi.)r  use,  at  any  saddler's.  The  common  stopping 
of  tar  and  grease  is  |x^culiarly  objectionable,  closing  the  pores  of  the 
feet,  and  ullimately  increasing  tiie  dryness  and  brittleness  which  it  was 
designed  to  remedy. 

Tlic  usual  management  of  the  farmer's  horse,  wliicii  is  often  turned  out 
after  his  daily  task  is  exacted,  or  at  least  whose  work  returns  with  tlie  day, 
and  is  generally  performed  wiiere  the  feel  are  exposed  to  moisture,  is  an 
excellent  ])rcvenlive  against  contraction. 

Some  intelligent  persons  have  complained  much  of  the  influence  of 
liitcr.  If  the  horse  stand  many  hours  in  the  day  with  his  foot  embedded  in 
straw,  it  is  supposed  tiiat  the  hoof  must  be  unnaturally  heated;  and  it  is 
said  that  the  horn  will  curl  and  contract  under  the  influence  of  iieat.  It  is 
seldom,  however,  that  the  foot  is  so  surrounded  by  tiie  litter,  that  its  heat 
will  be  sufliciently  increased  to  produce  this  effect  on  the  thick  horn.  The 
heels,  sometimes  embedded  in  straw,  and  then  receiving  the  current  of  cold 
air,  which  blows  in  from  the  door,  may  suffer,  and  grease  may  result,  but 
the  foot  is  not  sufficiently  long  or  deeply  covered  by  the  litter  to  produce  a 
temperature  high  enough  to  warp  the  hoof.  We  confess,  therefore,  that  we 
are  not  the  disciples  of  those  who  would,  during  the  day,  remove  all  litter 
from  under  the  horse;  we  do  not  like  the  naked  and  uncomfortable 
appearance  of  the  stable;  and  vve  cannot  forget  the  difference  in  our  own 
feelings,  whether  we  stand  for  an  hour  or  two  on  the  hard  stones,  or  a  soft 
carpet,  and  especially  whether  we  beat  our  feet  upon  the  one  or  the  other. 
We  are  disposed  to  say  that  humanity  and  a  proper  care  of  the  foot  of  the 
horse  should  induce  us  to  keep  some  litter  under  him  during  the  day ; 
but  his  feet  need  not  sink  so  deeply  in  it  that  their  temperature  should  be 
much  affected. 

Thrushes  are  much  oftener  the  consequence  than  the  cause  of  con- 
traction.  The  horny  frog,  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  contracted  quar- 
ters,  is  diminished  in  size,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  fleshy  frog  becomes 
imprisoned,  irritated,  and  inflamed,  and  pus  or  matter  is  discharged  at 
the  cleft;  yet  there  are  many  heels  in  the  last  stage  of  contraction,  which 
are  not  thrushy.  On  the  other  hand,  thrush  never  long  existed,  accom- 
panied by  much  discharge,  without  producing  a  disposition  to  contraction; 
therefore,  thrush  may  be  considered  as  both  the  cause  and  consequence  of 
contraction. 

The  removal  of  the  bars  takes  away  a  main  impediment  to  contraction. 
Their  use  in  assisting  the  expansion  of  the  foot  has  been  already  stated,  and 
should  a  disposition  to  contraction  be  produced  by  any  other  cause,  the 
cutting  away  of  the  bars  would  hasten  and  aggravate  the  evil;  but  the  losf 
of  the  bar  would  not  of  itself  produce  contraction. 

The  contraction,  however,  which  is  connected  with  permanent  lameness, 
although  increased  by  the  circumstances  which  we  have  mentioned,  usually 
derives  its  origin  from  a  diflerent  source,  and  from  one  whicn  acts  violently 
and  suddenly.  Inflammation  of  the  little  plates  covering  the  coffin-bone 
's  the  most  usual  cause;  and  a  degree  of  inflammation  not  sufficiently 
intense  to  be  characterized  as  acute  founder,  but  quickly  leading  to  sad 
results,  may  and  does  spring  from  causes  almost  unsuspected.  There  is 
one  fact  to  which  we  have  alluded,  and  that  cannot  be  doubted,  that  con- 
iraction  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the  agricultural  horse,  but  frequently  occurs 


2J|fi  THE  HORSE. 

in  'Ve  stable  of  ihe  gentleman  and  the  coach  proprietor;  it  is  rare,  where 
ihe  horse  is  seemingly  neglected  and  badly  shod;  and  frequent,  where 
every  care  is  taken  of  the  animal,  and  the  shoes  are  unexceptionable,  and 
skilfully  ap|)lied.  Sometlung  may  depend  upon  the  breed.  Blood- 
horses  are  pariicularly  liable  to  contraction  ;  not  only  is  tiie  foot  naturally 
small,  but  it  is  disposed  to  become  narrower  at  tlie  heels.  The  broad,  flat 
foot  of  the  cart-horse  is  subject  to  diseases  enough,  but  contraction  is 
seldom  one  of  the  number.  In  horses  of  equal  blood,  not  a  little  seema 
to  depend  upon  the  colour,  and  the  dark  chestnut  is  proverbially  prone  to 
contraction. 

There  is,  however,  something  in  the  management  or  use  of  the  horse, 
llial  lies  at  the  root  of  the  evil,  and  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  or  to 
understand.  The  over-feeding  of  many  horses  disposes  them  to  inllauima- 
tion,  and  with  this  disposition  they  are  suffered  to  stand  inactive  in  the  stable 
for  one,  or  two,  or  tliree  days:  the  exquisitely  sensible  little  plates  are 
scarcely  elongated  ;  they  are  becoming  unused  to  exertion  ;  they  are  dimin- 
ishing from  lack  of  use.  The  horse  is  then  taken  from  the  stable,  and, 
without  j)reparation,  is  galloped  over  the  stones,  or  is  ridden  far  and  fast 
on  the  road  or  in  tlie  field,  is  it  to  be  wondered  at,  if  the  sudden  concus- 
sion of  tlie  wiiole  toot  and  the  violent  elongation  ol"  the  little  plates  should 
produce  sufficient  pain  and  inflammation  to  interfere  with  the  function,  and 
alter  the  structure  of  various  parts  of  the  foot?  From  the  alteration  of 
structure  or  partial  separation  between  the  external  and  internal  portions  of 
the  foot,  the  expansion  of  the  quarters  becomes  limited,  or  ceases,  and,  in 
consequence  of  this,  the  crust  becomes  contracted,  and  falls  in. 

Whatever  be  tiie  cause  of  that  rapid  contraction  or  narrowing  of  the 
heels  which  is  accompanied  by  severe  lameness,  the  symptoms  may  be 
easily  distinguished.  While  standing  in  the  stable,  the  horse  will  point 
with,  or  place  forward,  the  contracted  foot,  or,  if  both  feet  be  affected,  he 
will  alternately  place  one  before  the  other:  when  he  is  taken  out  of  the 
stable,  he  will  not,  perhaps,  exhibit  the  decided  lameness  which  characterizes 
sprain  of  the  flexor  tendon,  or  some  diseases  of  the  foot ;  but  his  step  will 
be  peculiarly  short  and  quick,  and  the  feet  will  be  placed  gently  and  ten- 
derly on  the  ground,  and  scarcely  lifted  from  it  in  the  walk  or  the  trot.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the  slightest  irregularity  of  surface  would  tiirow  the 
animal  down,  and  so  it  threatens  to  do,  for  he  is  constantly  tripping  and 
stumbling.  If  the  fore-feet  are  carefully  observed,  one  or  both  of  them  will 
be  narrowed  across  the  quarters  and  towards  the  heels.  In  a  few  cases, 
the  whole  of  the  foot  appears  to  be  contracted  and  shrunk;  but  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  while  the  heels  are  narrower,  the  foot  is  longer.  The 
contraction  appears  sometimes  in  both  heels  ;  at  other  times  in  the  inner  heel 
oidy,  or,  if  both  be  aflected,  the  inner  one  is  wired  in  the  most;  either  gen. 
erally  from  the  coronet  to  the  base  of  the  foot,  or,  in  some  instances,  only 
or  principally  at  the  coronet ;  oftener  near  the  base  of  the  foot ;  but  in  most 
cases  the  hollow  is  greatest  about  mid-way  between  the  coronet  and  the 
bottom  of  the  foot.  This  irregularity  of  contraction,  and  uncertainty  as  to 
the  place  of  it,  prove  that  it  is  some  internal  disorganization,  the  seat  of 
which  varies  with  the  portion  of  the  attachment  between  the  hoof  and  the 
foot  which  was  principally  strained  or  injured.  In  every  recent  case  the 
contracted  part  will  be  hotter  than  the  rest  of  the  foot,  and  the  sole  will,  in 
most  cases,  be  unnaturally  concave,  and  that  sometimes  to  a  great  degree. 

Of  the  treatment  of  contraction,  attended  with  lameness,  we  have  very 
little  to  say  that  will  be  satisfactory  ;  numberless  have  been  the  mechanical 
contrivances  to  oppose  the  progress  of  contraction,  or  to  force  back  the 


CONTRACTION.  ti^l 

foot  to  its  original  shape,  and  many  of  them  have  enjoyed  considerable,  but 
short-lived  reputation.  A  clip  was  placed  at  the  inside  of  each  heel  of  the 
shoes,  which,  resting  on  the  bars,  was  intended  to  atibrd  an  insurmountable 
obstacle  to  tlie  further  wiring  in  of  the  foot,  while  the  heels  of  the  shoe 
were  bevelled  outward  to  give  the  foot  a  tendency  to  expand.  Tiie  foot, 
however,  continued  to  wire  in,  until  the  clip  was  embedded  in  the  horn,  and 
worse  lameness  was  produced. 

A  shoe,  jointed  at  the  toe,  and  with  a  screw  adapted  to  the  heels,  was 
contrived,  by  which,  when  softened  by  poulticing  or  immersion  in  warm 
water,  the  quarters  were  to  be  irresistibly  widened.  They  were  widened 
by  the  daily  and  cautious  use  of  the  screw  until  the  foot  seemed  to  assume 
its  natural  lorm,  and  the  inventor  began  to  exult  in  having  discoveied  a 
cure  for  contraction  ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  common  shoe  again  applied,  and 
the  horse  returned  to  his  work,  than  the  heels  began  again  to  narrow,  and 
the  foot  became  as  contracted  as  ever.  Common  sense  would  have  foretold 
that  such  must  have  been  the  result  of  this  expansive  process;  for  the  heel 
could  have  been  only  thus  forced  asunder,  at  the  expense  of  partial  or 
total  separation  from  the  interior  portions  of  the  foot  with  which  they  were 
in  contact. 

Tiie  contracted  heel  can  rarely  or  never  permanently  expand,  for  this 
plain  reason,  that  although  we  have  power  over  the  crust,  we  cannot  make 
the  lengthened  and  narrowed  coffin-bone  resume  its  natural  shape,  or  restore 
the  portion  of  the  frog  which  has  been  absorbed. 

If  the  action  of  the  horse  be  not  materially  impaired,  it  is  better  to  let 
the  contraction  alone,  be  it  as  great  as  it  will.  If  the  contraction  has 
evidently  produced  considerable  lameness,  then  the  owner  of  the  horse 
will  calculate  between  his  value,  if  cured,  the  expense  of  the  cure,  and  the 
probability  of  failure. 

The  medical  treatment  can  only  be  undertaken  by  a  skilful  veterinarian, 
and  it  will  principally  consist  in  getting  rid  of  any  inflammation  that  may 
then  exist,  by  local  bleeding  and  physic ;  next,  paring  the  sole  to  the  utmost 
extent  that  it  will  bear;  rasping  the  quarters  as  deeply  as  may  be,  so  that 
they  shall  not  be  too  much  weakened,  or  the  coronary  ring  (see  b,  p.  281) 
injured  ;  then  rasping  deeply  likewise  at  the  toe,  and  perhaps  scoring  at  the 
toe.  The  horse  is  afterwards  made  to  stand  during  the  day  in  wet  clay, 
placed  in  one  of  the  stalls  of  his  stable,  and  he  is  moved  at  night  into 
another  stall,  and  his  feet  bound  up  thickly  in  wet  cloths;  or  he  is  turned 
out  into  wet  pasturage,  with  tips,  or,  if  possible,  without  them,  and  his  feet 
are  frequently  pared  out,  and  the  quarters  lightly  rasped.  In  five  or  six 
months  the  horn  will  have  grown  fairly  down,  when  he  may  be  taken  up,, 
and  shod  with  shoes,  unattached  by  nails  on  the  inner  side  of  the  foot,  audi 
put  to  gentle  work.  The  foot  will  be  found  very  considerably  enlarged,. 
and  the  owner  will,  perhaps,  think  that  the  cure  is  accomplished;  and  the 
horse  may,  possibly,  for  a  time  stand  very  gentle  work,  and  the  inner  side 
of  the  .foot  being  left  at  liberty,  its  natural  expansive  process  may  be 
resumed.  The  internal  part  of  the  foot,  however,  has  not  healthily  filled  up 
with  the  expansion  of  the  crust.  If  that  expansion  has  been  effected  fo- 
ward  on  the  (juarters,  the  crust  will  no  longer  be  in  contact  with  the 
lengthened  and  narrowed  heels  of  the  coffin-bone;  there  will  not  be  the 
natural  adhesion  and  strength,  and  a  very  slight  cause,  or  even  the  very- 
habit  of  contraction,  will,  in  spite  of  all  our  care  and  the  freedom  of  the 
inner  quarter,  in  very  many  instances,  cause  the  foot  to  wire  in  again  us 
badly  as  before. 

U 


298  THE  HORSE. 

THE  NAVICULAR-JOINT  DISEASE. 

Many  horses  with  well-formed  and  open  feet  become  sadly  and  perma- 
nently lame;  and  veterinary  surgeons  have  been  much  puzzled  to  hnd  out 
why.  The  farrier  has  liad  his  convenient  explanation  "the  slioulder;"  but 
the  scientific  practitioner  has  not  been  able  to  discover  an  ostensible  cause 
of  lameness  in  the  wiiole  limb.  There  is  no  one  accustomed  to  iiorses  who 
does  not  recollect  many  an  instance  of  this.  Mr.  James  Turner  has,  of 
late  years,  thrown  very  considerable  light  on  the  seat  and  cause  of  thisdis. 
ease,  although,  as  in  contracted  feet,  the  most  skilful  surgeon  will  rarely 
effect  a  cure. 

By  reference  to  our  cut,  (e,  page  249,)  it  will  be  seen  that,  behind  and 
beneath  the  lower  pastern-bone,  and  behind  and  above  the  heel  of  tiie  coffin- 
bone,  is  a  small  bone,  called  the  navicular  or  shuttle-bone.  It  is  so  placed 
as  to  strengthen  the  union  between  the  lower  pastern  and  the  coffin-bone, 
and  to  enable  the  flexor-tendon,  which  passes  over  it,  in  order  to  be  inserted 
into  the  bottom  of  the  coffin-bone,  to  act  with  more  advantage;  it  forms  a 
kind  of  joint  with  that  tendon.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  weight  thrown  on 
ihe  navicular-bone,  and  from  the  navicular-bone  on  the  tendon;  and  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  motion  or  play  between  them  in  the  bending  and  exten- 
sion of  the  pasterns.  Now,  it  is  very  easy  to  conceive  that,  from  sudden 
concussion,  or  from  rapid  and  overstrained  motion,  and  that  perhaps  after  the 
animal  has  been  some  time  at  rest,  and  the  parts  have  not  adapted  them- 
selves for  motion,  that  there  may  be  too  much  play  between  the  bone  and 
the  tendon ;  that  the  delicate  membrane  which  covers  the  bone,  or  the  car- 
tilage of  the  bone,  may  be  bruised,  and  inflamed,  and  destroyed;  and  that 
all  the  painful  effects  of  an  inflamed  and  opened  joint  may  ensue,  and  the 
horse  may  be  dreadfully  lame.  Numerous  dissections  have  shown  that  this 
joint,  formed  by  the  tendon  and  the  bone,  has  been  the  frequent,  and,  we 
believe  it  to  be,  the  almost  invariable  seat  of  these  obscure  lamenesses. 
The  membrane  covering  the  cartilage  of  the  bone  has  been  found  in  an 
ulcerated  state;  the  cartilage  itself  has  been  ulcerated  and  eaten  away; 
and  the  bone  has  become  carious  or  decayed,  and  bony  adiiesions  have  often 
taken  place  between  the  navicular  and  the  pastern  and  the  coffin-bones,  and 
this  part  of  the  foot  has  become  completely  disorganized  and  useless. 
This  joint  is  probably  the  seat  of  lameness,  not  only  in  flat  and  perfect  feet, 
but  in  those  which  become  lame  after  contraction ;  for  in  proportion  as  the 
inner  frog  is  compressed  by  the  contraction  of  the  heels,  and  the  frog  is 
absorbed  by  that  pressure,  and  the  sole  is  become  concave,  and  the  horny- 
frog,  and  the  coffin-bone  too,  thereby  elevated  (see  cut,  page  269),  will 
there  be  less  room  for  the  action  of  this  joint,  and  more  danger  of  the  ten-, 
don  and  the  delicate  membrane  of  the  navicular-bone  being  crushed  between 
that  bone  and  the  horny  frog. 

Stable  management  has  little  to  do  with  the  production  of  this  disease, 
any  further  than  if  a  horse  stands  idle  in  the  stable  several  days,  and  the 
structure  of  the  foot,  and  all  the  apparatus  connected  with  motion,  become 
unused  to  exertion,  and  indisposed  for  it,  and  he  be  then  suddenly  and 
violently  exercised,  this  membrane  is  very  liable  to  be  bruised  and  injured. 
Irregular  and  undue  exercifje  are  the  causes  in  all  feet;  but  the  contracted 
foot,  from  its  alteration  of  form,  is  most  in  danger. 

The  cure  is  extremely  uncertain.  The  first  object  is  to  abate  tlie  inflam- 
mation in  this  very  susceptible  membrane.  Local  bleeding,  poulticing, 
and  physic  will  be  our  principal  resources.  If  there  be  contraction,  this 
ninsl,  if  possible,  be  removed  by  the  means  already  pointed  out.  If  there 
be  n:)t  contraction,  it  will   be  prudent  to  remove  all  surrounding  pressure 


SAND-CRACK.  299 

by  paring  llio  sole  and  rasping  the  quarters,  and  using  liie  shoe  witltout 
nails  on  Uie  inner  quarter.  This  is  a  case,  however,  vvhicli  must  be  turned 
over  to  tiie  veterinary  surgeon,  for  he  alone,  from  his  knowledge  of  tiie 
anatomy  of  the  foot,  and  the  precise  seat  of  the  disease,  is  competent  to 
treat  it.  If  attacked  on  its  earliest  appearance,  and  before  ulceration  of 
the  membrane  of  the  joint  has  taken  place,  it  may  be  radically  cured,  but 
ulceration  of  the  membrane  will  be  with  difficulty  healed,  and  caries  of  the 
bone  will  for  ever  remain.  Blistering  tiie  coronet  will  often  assist  in  pro- 
moiing  a  cure  by  diverting  the  inflammation  to  another  pait,  and  it  will 
matermlly  quicken  the  growth  of  the  horn  ;  and  a  seton  passed  through  the 
frog  by  a  skilful  operator,  and  approaching  as  nearly  as  possible  to  tlie  seat 
of  disease,  has  been  serviceable. 

In  cases  of  old  contraction,  attended  by  a  short  and  fee/ing  step,  neiiroL- 
omy,  or  the  cutting  out  of  a  portion  of  the  nerve,  (for  an  explanation  of 
the  nature  and  effects  of  which,  see  page  110,)  may  be  resorted  to  with 
decided  advantage.  Not  only  will  the  lameness  be  removed,  but,  by  the 
foot  being  againbrouglit  fully  and  firmly  upon  the  ground,  the  inner  side 
of  the  shoe  being  unfettered  by  nails,  a  portion  of  the  contraction  may  be 
removed  by  the  sole  being  allowed  to  descend  and  the  foot  to  expand  at  each 
contact  with  the  ground. 

Even  when  the  navicular  joint  is  particularly  suspected,  if  there  be  no 
apparent  inflammation,  (and  that  would  be  readily  detected  by  the  heat  of 
he  foot,)  neurotomy  may  be  practised,  with  the  hope  of  alleviating  tiie  suf- 
ferings of  the  animal,  and  tiius  removing  a  portion  of  the  lameness;  but  if 
the  lameness  be  extreme,  either  with  or  without  contraction,  and  especially 
if  there  be  heat  about  the  foot,  the  operation  is  dangerous.  There  is,  pro- 
bably, ulceration  of  the  membrane — possibly,  decay  of  the  bone  ;  and  tlie 
additional  friction  to  which  the  parts  would  be  subjected,  by  the  freer  action 
of  the  horse,  the  sense  of  pain  being  removed,  would  cause  that  ulceration 
or  decay  to  proceed  more  rapidly,  until  the  foot  would  be  completely  disor- 
ganized, or  the  tendon  would  be  gradually  worn  through  by  rubbing  against 
the  roughened  surface  of  the  bone. 

SAND-CRACK. 

This,  as  its  name  imports,  is  a  crack  or  division  of  the  hoof  from  above 
downward,  and  into  which  sand  and  dirt  are  too  apt  to  insinuate  themselves; 
or,  as  some  say,  because  it  most  frequently  occurs  in  sandy  districts,  the 
heat  of  the  sand,  applied  to  the  feet,  giving  them  a  dispoaition  to  crack. 
They  occur  both  in  the  fore  and  the  hind  feet.  In  the  foro  feet  they  are 
usually  found  in  the  inner  quarter  (see  ^,  p.  254,)  but  ociyS tonally  in  the 
outer  quarter,  because  at  the  quarter  is  the  principal  strca-^o/  effort  towards 
expansion  in  the  foot,  and  the  inner  quarter  is  weaker  than  the  outer.  In 
the  hind  feet  the  crack  is  almost  invariably  found  in  the  front,  because  in 
the  digging  of  the  toe  into  the  ground  in  the  act  of  drawing,  the  principal 
stress  is  in  front. 

This  is  a  most  serious  defect.  It  indicates  a  brittleness  of  the  crust, 
sometimes  natural,  but  oftener  the  consequence  of  mismanagement  or 
disease,  which,  in  spite  of  every  means  adopted,  will  probably  be  the  source 
of  future  annoyance.  On  a  hoof  that  has  once  been  thus  divided  no 
dependence  can  be  placed,  unless,  by  great  care,  the  natural  suppleness  of 
♦he  horn  has  been  restored  and  is  retained. 

Sand-crack  may  happen  in  an  instant  from  a  false  step  or  over-exertion  ; 
and  therefore  a  horse,  although  he  may  spring  a  sanj-crarj;  within  an  houl 
nfter  tlie  purchase,  cannot  be  returned  on  that  account. 


800  THE  HORSE. 

It  IS  always  necessary  to  examine  the  inner  quarter  of  ths  foot  at  the 
time  of  purchase,  for  it  has  more  tiian  once  occurred  that,  hy  low  dealers, 
and  particularly  at  fairs,  a  sand-crack  has  been  neatly  covered  witii  pitch, 
and  then  the  wliole  of  tlie  hoof  having  been  oiled,  tiie  injury  was  so  adroitly 
concealed  tiiat  an  incautious  person  might  be  easily  deceived. 

Tiie  crack  sometimes  does  not  penetrate  through  the  horn:  it  then 
causes  no  lameness;  nevertheless,  it  must  not  be  neglected.  It  shows  tliat 
brittleness  which  should  make  the  purchaser  pause ;  and,  if  proper  iieana 
are  not  taken,  it  will  generally  soon  reach  to  the  quick.  It  should  be  pared 
or  rasped  fairly  out;  and  if  the  paring  or  rasping  has  been  deep,  the  foot 
should  be  strengthened  by  a  coating  of  pitch,  with  coarse  tape  bound  over 
it,  and  covered  by  another  coating  of  pitch,  and  which  may  be  moulded 
and  polished  so  as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  natural  horn. 
Every  crack  should  be  pared  or  rasped  to.  ascertain  its  depth.  If  it 
penetrates  through  the  crust,  and  no  lameness  exists,  and  is  situated  low 
d.'.'n  on  the  foot,  a  firing-iron,  red  hot,  should  be  run  pretty  deeply  above 
and  below  il  to  prevent  its  lengthening;  the  edges  should  be  a  little  thinned 
to  remove  any  painful  or  injurious  pressure;  and  it  should  be  bound  up  ii) 
the  manner  directed,  taking  care  that  the  shoe  does  not  press  upon  the  crust 
immediately  under  the  crack. 

If  the  ci'ack  has  penetrated  through  the  crust,  and  lameness  has  ensued, 
the  case  is  more  serious.  It  must  be  carefully  examined  to  ascertain  that 
no  dirt  or  sand  has  got  into  it ;  the  edges  must  be  considerably  thinned  ; 
and  if  any  fungus  is  beginning  to  sprout  through  the  crack,  and  is  impris- 
oned  and  pinched  there,  it  must  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  the 
butyr  (chloride)  of  antimony.  This  is  far  preferable  to  the  cautery,  because 
the  edges  of  the  horn  will  not  be  thickened  or  roughened,  and  thus  become 
a  source  of  after  irritation.  The  iron  must  then  be  run  deeply  above  and 
below  the  crack,  as  in  the  other  case ;  a  pledget  of  dry  tow  must  be  placed 
in  the  crack,  with  another  over  it,  and  the  whole  bound  down  as  tigiitly  as 
possible.  On  the  third  day  the  part  should  be  examined,  and  the  caustic 
again  applied  if  necessary  ;  but  if  the  crack  be  dry,  and  defended  by  a  hard 
horny  crust,  the  sooner  the  pitch  plaster  is  put  on,  the  better.  The  most 
serious  case  is  when,  i'vom  tread  or  neglect,  the  coronet  is  divided.  The 
growth  of  horn  proceeds  from  the  coronary  ligament,  and  unless  this  is 
perfect,  the  horn  will  grow  down  divided.  The  method  to  be  here  adopted 
is  to  run  the  back  of  the  firing-iron  over  the  coronet  at  the  division.  Some 
inflammaton  will  ensue,  and  when  the  scab  produced  by  the  cautery  peels 
.off,  as  it  will  in  a  few  days,  the  division  will  be  obliterated,  and  sound  and 
united  horn  will  grow  down.  In  this  case,  as  in  almost  every  case  of  sand- 
crack,  the  horse  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  It  is  not  in  the  power 
ol  the  surgeon  to  etiect  a  perfect  cure  if  the  owner  will  continue  to  use  the 
animal.  When  the  horn  is  divided  at  the  coronet,  it  will  take  five  or  six 
months  for  it  to  grow  fiiirly  dowr:,  and  not  before  it  is  grown  fairly  down 
should  the  horse  be  used  even  for  ordinc^ry  work  :  but  wnen  the  horn  is 
grown  an  inch  from  the  coronet,  the  horse  may  be  turned  out,  the  loot  being 
well  defended  by  the  pitch  plaster,  and  that  renewed  as  often  as  it  becomes 
loose,  a  bar-shoe  being  worn,  chambered  so  as  not  to  press  upon  the  hoof 
immediately  under  the  crack,  and  that  shoe  being  taken  off,  the  sole  pared 
out,  and  any  bulbous  projection  of  the  new  horn  being  removed  once  in 
every  three  weeks. 

To  remedy  the  undue  brittleness  of  the  hoof,  we  know  of  no  better  appli- 
cation than  that  recommended  in  page  182,  the  sole  being  covered  at  the 
name  time  with,  common  cow-dung  or  felt  stopping. 


FALSE  QUARTER.  30] 


TKEAD,  OPx  OVERREACH. 

Under  this  term  a  re  comprised  bruises  and  wounds  of  the  coronet,  pro- 
duced usually  in  the  hind-teet,  by  the  awkward  habit  of  setting  one  foot 
upon  another,  and  in  the  fore-foot  by  the  hinder  one  over-reachivg  it,  and 
wounding  the  other  near  the  heel.  When  properly  treated,  a  tread  is 
seldom  productive  of  much  injury.  If  the  dirt  be  well  washed  out  of  it, 
and  a  pledget  of  tow  dipped  in  Friar's  balsam  be  bound  over  the  wound,  it 
will,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  speedily  heal.  Should  the  bruise  be  extensive 
or  the  wound  deep,  a  poultice  may  be  applied  for  one  or  two  days,  and  then 
the  Friar's  balsam,  or  digestive  ointment.  Sometimes  a  soft  tumour  will 
form  on  the  part,  which  will  be  quickly  brought  to  suppuration  by  a  poultice, 
and  when  the  matter  has  run  out,  the  ulcer  will  heal  by  the  application  of 
the  Friar's  balsam,  or  a  weak  solution  of  blue  vitriol. 

A  tread  or  wound  of  the  coronet,  should  never  be  neglected,  lest  gravel 
should  insinuate  itself  into  the  wound,  and  form  deep  ulcerations,  called 
sinuses  or  j^'pes,  and  which  constitute  qu'dlor;  and  more  particularly  the 
caustic,  too  frequently  used  by  farriers,  should  be  carefully  avoided,  not 
only  lest  quittor  should  be  formed,  but  lest  the  coronary  ligament  should  be 
so  injured  as  to  be  afterwards  incapable  of  throwing  out  perfect  horn. 
This  defect  is  called 

FALSE  QUARTER. 

In  the  coronary  ligament  by  which  the  horn  of  the  crust  is  secreted,  if 
either  divided  by  the  original  cut  or  bruise,  or  eaten  through  by  the  caustic 
there  will  be  a  division  in  the  horn  as  it  grows  down,  either  in  the  form  of 
a  permanent  sand-crack,  or  one  portion  of  the  horn  overlapping  the  other. 
This  is  not  only  a  very  serious  defect,  and  a  frequent  cause  of  lameness, 
but  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  remedy.  The  coronary  ligament  must  be 
restored  to  its  perfect  state,  or  at  least  to  the  discharge  of  its  perfect  function. 
Much  danger  would  attend  the  application  of  the  caustic  in  order  to  effect 
this.  A  blister  is  rarely  sufficiently  active,  and  the  application,  not  too 
severely,  of  a  heated  flat  or  rounded  iron  to  the  coronet  at  the  injured  part, 
affords  the  best  chance  of  success ;  the  edges  of  the  horn  on  eitlier  side  of 
the  crack  being  thinned,  the  hoof  supported,  and  the  separated  parts  held 
together  by  a  firm  encasement  of  pitch,  as  described  when  speaking  of  the 
treatment  of  sand-crack.  The  coronet  must  be  examined  at  least  once  in 
every  fortnight,  in  order  to  ascertain  wliether  the  desired  union  has  there 
taken  place;  and,  as  a  palliative,  during  the  treatment  of  the  case,  or  if 
the  treatment  should  be  unsuccessful,  a  bar-shoe  may  be  used,  and  care 
taken  that  there  be  no  bearing  at  or  immediately  under  the  separation  of 
the  horn.  This  will  be  best  effected,  if  the  crust  be  thick  and  the  quarters 
strong,  by  paring  off  a  little  of  the  bottom  of  the  crust  at  the  part,  so  that 
it  sliall  not  touch  the  shoe  ;  but  if  the  foot  be  weak,  an  indentation,  or 
hollow,  should  be  made  in  the  shoe.  Strain  or  concussion  on  the  immediate 
part  will  thus  be  avoided,  and  in  sudden  or  violent  exertion  the  crack  will 
not  be  so  likely  to  extend  upward  again  to  the  coronet,  when  whole  and 
sound  horn  has  begun  to  be  formed  there. 

In  some  cases,  false  quarter  assumes  a  less  injurious  character.  The 
horn  grows  down  whole,  but  the  ligament  is  unable  to  secrete  that  which  is 
oerfectly  healthy,  and  thci'eforc  there  is  a  narrow  slip  of  horn  of  a  different 
and  lighter  colour.  This  is  sometimes  tiie  best  result  that  can  be  procured 
when  the  surgeon  has  I)cen  able  to  obliterate  the  absolute  crack  or  separation, 
h  is,  however,  to  be  regarded  as  a  defect,  not  sufficient  to  condemn   the 


gOa  THE  HORSE. 

horse,  but  indicating  that  he  has  had  sand-crack,  and  that  a  dispositi.iu  to 
sand-crack  may  possibly  remain.  There  will  also,  in  the  generality  of 
cases,  be  some  degree  of  tenderness  in  that  quarter,  which  may  produce 
slight  lanieness  when  unusual  e.xertion  is  reauired  from  the  horse,  or  tho 
shoe  is  suffered  long  to  press  on  the  part. 

QUITTOR. 

This  has  been  described  as  being  the  result  of  neglected  or  bad  tread  or 
ovei reach;  but  it  may  be  the  consequence  of  any  wound  in  the  fool,  and 
in  any  part  of  the  foot.  In  the  natural  process  of  ulceration,  matter  is 
thrown  out  from  the  wound.  This  precedes  the  actual  healing  of  the  part. 
The  matter  which  is  thrown  out  in  wounds  of  the  foot  is  usually  pent  up 
there,  and,  increasing  in  quantity,  and  thus  urging  its  way  in  every  direction, 
it  forces  the  fleshy  little  plates  of  the  coffin-bone  from  the  horny  ones  of 
the  crust,  or  the  horny  sole  from  the  fleshy  sole,  or  even  eats  deeply  into 
the  internal  parts  of  the  foot.  These  pipes  or  sinuses  run  in  every  direction, 
and  constitute  the  essence  of  quiltor. 

If  it  arise  from  a  wound  in  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  the  matter,  which  is 
rapidly  formed,  is  pent  up  there,  the  nail  of  the  shoe  or  the  stub  remains 
in  the  wound,  or  the  small  aperture  which  was  made  is  immediately  closed 
again.  This  matter,  however,  continues  to  be  thrown  out,  and  it  separates 
the  horny  sole  from  the  fleshy  one  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  at  length 
forces  its  way  upward,  and  ajjpears  at  the  coronet,  and  usually  at  the 
quarter,  and  there  slowly  oozes  out ;  but  the  aperture  and  the  quantity 
discharged  are  so  small,  that  the  inexperienced  person  would  form  no  idea 
of  the  extent  of  the  mischief  within,  and  the  difficulty  of  repairing  it.  The 
opening  may  scarcely  admit  a  probe  into  it,  yet  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  quarter  and  the  sole  the  horn  may  have  separated  from  the  foot,  and  the 
matter  may  have  penetrated  under  the  cartilages  and  ligaments,  and  into 
the  coffin-joint ;  and  not  only  so,  but  two  mischievous  results  have  been 
produced:  the  pressure  of  the  matter  wherever  it  has  gone  has  formed 
ulcerations  that  are  indisposed  to  heal,  and  that  require  the  application  of 
strong  and  painful  stimulants  to  induce  them  to  heal ;  and,  worse  than  this, 
the  horn,  once  separated  from  the  sensible  parts  beneath,  will  never  again 
unite  with  them. 

It  will  be  sufficiently  plain  that  the  aid  of  a  skilful  practitioner  is  hero 
requisite,  and  also  the  full  exercise  of  the  patience  of  the  proprietor  of  the 
horse.  It  may  be  necessary  to  remove  much  of  the  horny  sole,  which  will 
be  speedily  reproduced  when  the  fleshy  surface  beneath  can  be  brought  to 
a  healthy  conditon  ;  but  if  much  of  the  horn  at  the  quarters  must  be  taken 
away,  five  or  six  months  may  probably  elapse  before  it  will  be  sufficiently 
grown  down  again  to  render  the  horse  useful. 

Measures  of  considerable  severity  are  indisi)ensable.  The  application  of 
some  caustic  will  alone  produce  a  healthy  action  on  the  ulcerated  surfaces; 
but  on  the  ground  of  interest  and  of  humanity  we  protest  against  that 
brutal  practice,  or  at  least  the  extent  to  which  it  is  carried,  of  coring  out, 
or  deeply  destroying  the  healthy  as  well  as  the  diseased  parts,  and  parts 
which  no  process  will  again  restore,  which  is  pursued  by  many  ignorant 
smiths.  The  unhealthy  surface  must  be  removed,  but  the  cartilages  and 
ligaments,  and  even  portions  of  the  bone,  need  not  be  sacrificed. 

The  experienced  veterinary  surgeon  will  alone  be  able  to  counsel  the  pro 
prietor  of  the  horse,  when,  in  cases  of  confirmed  quittor,  there  is  reasonable 
hope  of  permanent  cure.  A  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  foot  is 
necessary  to  enable  him  to  decide  what  parts,  indispensable  to  the  actioa  of 


PRICK     N  THE  SOLE  OR  CRUST.  303 

ihc  animal,  may  have  been  irreparably  injured  or  destroyed,  or  to  save 
these  parts  from  the  destructive  etiect  of  torturing  caustics.  When  anj- 
portioii  of  the  bone  can  be  felt  by  the  probe,  the  chances  of  success  are 
diminished,  and  the  owner  and  operator  should  pause.  When  the  joints 
are  exposed,  the  case  is  hopeless;  yet,  in  a  great  many  instances,  the  bones 
and  tne  joints  are  exposed  by  the  remedy  and  not  by  the  disease.  One  hint 
may  not  be  necessary  to  the  practitioner,  but  it  may  guide  the  determina- 
tion and  hopes  of  the  owner:  if,  when  a  probe  is  introduced  into  the  fistu- 
lous orifice  on  the  coronet,  the  direction  of  the  sinuses  or  pipes  is  backward, 
there  is  much  probability  that  a  perfect  cure  may  be  effected;  but  if  the 
direction  of  the  sinuses  be  forward,  the  cure  is  at  best  doubtful.  In  ihe 
first  instance,  tliere  is  neither  bone  nor  joint  to  be  injured  ;  in  the  other,  the 
more  important  parts  of  the  foot  are  in  danger,  and  the  principal  action  and 
concussion  are  found. 

Neglected  bruises  of  the  sole  sometimes  lay  the  foundation  for  quittor. 
When  the  foot  is  flat,  it  is  very  liable  to  be  bruised,  if  the  horse  is  ridden 
fast  over  a  rough  and  stony  road;  or  a  small  stone,  insinuating  itself 
between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  or  clipped  and  confined  by  the  curvature  of 
the  shoe,  will  frequently  lame  the  horse.  The  heat  and  tenderness  of  the 
part,  the  occasional  redness  of  the  horn,  and  the  absence  of  puncture,  will 
clearly  mark  the  bruise.  The  sole  must  then  be  tliinned,  and  particularly 
over  the  bruised  part,  and,  in  neglected  cases,  it  must  be  pared  even  to  the 
quick,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  inflammation  has  run  on  to  sup- 
puration. Bleeding  at  tiie  toe  will  be  clearly  indicated,  poultices,  and  such 
other  means  as  have  either  been  described  under  "  InHammatioa  of  the 
Feet,"  or  will  be  pointed  out  under  the  next  head.  The  principal  causes  of 
bruises  of  the  foot  are  leaving  the  sole  too  much  exposed  by  means  of  a 
narrow-webbed  shoe,  or  the  smith  paring  out  the  sole  too  closely,  or  the 
pressure  of  the  shoe  on  the  sole,  or  the  introduction  of  gravel  or  stones 
between  the  shoe  and  the  sole. 

PRICK  OR  WOUND   IN  THE  SOLE  OR  CRUST. 

This  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  quittor.  It  is  evident  that  the  sole  ii 
very  liable  to  be  wounded  by  nails,  pieces  of  glass,  or  even  sharp  flints, 
but  much  more  frequently  the  fleshy  little  plates  are  wounded  by  the  nail 
in  shoeing;  or,  if  the  nail  does  not  penetrate  through  the  internal  surfaca 
of  the  crust,  it  is  driven  so  close  to  it  that  it  presses  upon  the  fleshy  parts 
beneath,  and  causes  irritation  and  inflammation,  and  at  length  ulceration. 
When  a  horse  becomes  suddenly  lame,  after  the  legs  have  been  carefully 
examined,  and  no  cause  of  lameness  appears  in  them,  the  shoe  should 
be  taken  off.  In  many  cases  the  offending  substance  will  be  immediately 
detected,  or  the  additional  heat  felt  in  some  part  of  the  foot  will  point  out 
the  seat  of  injury;  or,  if  the  crust  be  rapped  with  the  hammer  all  round, 
the  flinching  of  the  horse  will  discover  it ;  or  pressure  with  the  pincers  will 
render  it  evident. 

When  the  shoe  is  removed  for  this  examination,  the  smith  should  nevei 
be  permitted  to  wrench  it  off,  but  each  nail  should  be  drawn  separately, 
and  examined  as  it  is  drawn,  when  some  moisture  appeai'ing  upon  it  will 
not  unfrequently  reveal  the  spot  at  which  the  matter  has  been  thrown  out. 
In  the  fore-feet  the  injury  will  generally  be  found  on  the  inner  quarter,  and 
on  the  hind-feet  near  the  toe,  these  being  the  thinnest  parts  of  tie  fore 
and  hmd-feet. 

Sudden  lameness  occurring  within  two  or  three  days  after  the  horse  has 
been  shod  will  lead  us  to  suspect  that  the  smith  has  been  in  fault;  yet  no 


301  THE   HORSE. 

one  who  consi'iers  the  thinness  of  the  crust,  and  the  difficulty  of  shoeing 
many  feet,  will  blame  him  for  sometimes  pricking  the  horse.  His  fault  will 
consist  in  concealing  or  denying  that  of  which  he  will  most  always  be 
aware  at  the  time  of  shoeing,  from  the  flinching  of  the  horse,  or  the  dead 
sound,  or  the  peculiar  resistance  that  may  be  noticed  in  the  driving  of  the 
nail.  We  would  plead  the  cause  of  the  honest  portion  of  a  humble  class 
of  men,  who  discharge  this  mechanical  part  of  their  business  with  a  skill 
and  good  fortune  scarcely  credible;  but  we  resign  those  to  the  reproaches 
and  the  punishment  of  the  owner  of  the  horse,  who  too  often  and  with  bad 
policy  deny  that  which  accident  or,  possibly,  momentary  carelessness,  might 
have  occasioned,  and  the  neglect  of  which  is  fraught  with  danger,  although 
the  mischief  resulting  from  it  might  at  the  time  be  easily  remedied. 

When  the  seat  of  mischief  is  ascertained,  the  sole  siiould  be  thinned 
round  it,  and,  especially  at  the  nail-hole,  or  the  puncture,  it  should  be  pared 
to  the  quick.  The  escape  of  some  matter  will  now  probably  tell  the  nature 
of  the  injury,  and  remove  its  consequences.  If  it  be  puncture  of  the  sole 
by  some  nail,  or  any  similar  body,  picked  up  on  the  road,  all  that  will  be 
necessary  is  a  little  to  enlarge  the  opening,  and  then  to  place  on  it  a  pledget 
of  tow  dipped  in  Friar's  balsam,  and  over  that  a  litlle  common  stopping; 
or,  if  there  be  much  heat  and  lameness,  a  poultice  should  be  applied. 

The  part  of  the  sole  wounded,  and  the  depth  of  the  wound  will  be  taken 
into  consideration.  It  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  the  cut  in  page  249, 
that  a  deep  puncture  towards  the  back  part  of  the  sole,  and  penetrating  even 
into  the  sensible  frog,  may  not  be  productive  of  serious  consequences. 
There  is  no  great  motion  in  the  part,  and  there  are  no  tendons  or  bones  in 
danger.  A  puncture  near  the  toe  may  not  be  followed  by  much  injury. 
There  is  little  motion  in  that  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  internal  sole,  covering 
the  coffin-bone,  will  soon  heal;  but  a  puncture  about  the  centre  of  the  sole 
may  wound  the  flexor  tendon  where  it  is  inserted  into  the  coffin-bone,  or 
may  even  penetrate  the  joint  which  unites  the  navicular-bone  with  the 
coffin-bone,  or  pierce  through  the  tendon  into  the  joint  which  it  forms  with 
the  navicular-bone,  and  a  degree  of  inflammation  may  ensue,  which,  if 
neglected,  may  be  fatal.  Many  horses  have  been  lost  by  the  smallest  punc- 
ture of  the  sole  in  these  dangerous  points.  All  the  anatomical  skill  of  the 
veterinarian  should  be  called  into  requisition,  when  he  is  examining  the 
most  trifling  wound  of  the  foot. 

If  the  foot  has  been  wounded  by  the  wrong  direction  of  a  nail  in  shoeing, 
and  the  sole  be  well  pared  out  over  the  part  on  the  first  appearance  of 
lameness,  little  more  will  be  necessary  to  be  done.  The  opening  must  be 
somewhat  enlarged,  the  Friar's  balsam  applied,  and  the  shoe  tacked  on, 
with  or  without  a  poultice,  according  to  the  degree  of  lameness  or  heat, 
and  on  the  following  day,  all  will  often  be  well.  It  may,  however,  be 
prudent  to  keep  the  foot  stopped  for  a  few  days.  If  the  accident  has  been 
neglected,  and  matter  begins  to  be  formed,  and  to  be  pent  up  and  to 
press  on  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  the  horse  evidently  sufTers  extreme 
pain,  and  is  sometimes  scarcely  able  to  put  his  foot  to  the  ground,  andT 
much  matter  is  poured  out  when  the  opening  is  enlarged,  further  precau- 
tions must  be  adopted.  The  fact  must  be  recollected  that  the  living  and 
dead  horn  will  never  unite,  and  every  portion  of  the  horny  sole  that  has 
separated  from  the  fleshy  sole  above  must  be  removed.  TJie  separation 
must  he  followed  as  far  as  it  reaches.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  treat- 
ment depends  on  this.  No  small  strip  or  edge  of  separated  horn  must 
be  suflf-red  to  press  upon  any  part  of  the  wound.  The  exposed  fleshy  sole 
must  then  be  touched,  but  not  too  severely,  with  the  butyr  (chloride)  of 
i"\timony,  some    soft    and    dry  tow   placed    over   the    part,  and   the    Icxi' 


CORNS.  305 

stopped  and  a  poultice  placed  over  all,  if  the  inflammation  seems  to  require 
it.  On  the  foUowino;  day  a  thin  pellicle  of  horn  will  frequently  be  found 
over  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  wound.  This  should  be,  yet  very  lightly, 
touched  again  with  tlie  caustic;  but  if  there  be  an  appearance  of  fungus 
sprouting  from  the' exposed  surface,  the  application  of  the  butyr  umsl  be 
more  severe,  and  the  tow  again  placed  over  it,  so  as  to  alFord  considerable, 
yet  uniform  pressure.  Many  days  do  not  often  elapse  before  the  new 
horn  covers  the  whole  of  the  wound.  In  these  extensive  openings,  the 
Friar's  balsam  will  not  often  be  successful,  but  the  cure  must  be  etfected 
by  the  judicious,  and  never  too  severe  use  of  the  caustic.  Bleeding  at  the 
toe,  and  piiysic,  will  be  resorted  to  as  useful  auxiliaries  when  much 
inflammation  arises. 

In  searching  the  foot,  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  prick,  there  is  often 
something  very  censurable  in  the  carelessness  with  which  the  horn  is  cut 
away  between  the  bottom  of  the  crust  and  the  sole,  so  as  to  leave  little  or 
no  hold  for  the  nails,  while  some  months  must  elapse  before  the  horn  will 
grow  down  sufficiently  far  to  afford  the  foot  its  natural  ease,  or  for  the  shoe 
to  be  securely  fastened. 

When  a  free  opening  has  been  made  below,  and  matter  has  not  broken 
out  at  the  coronet,  it  will  rarely  be  necessary  to  remove  any  portion  of  the 
horn  at  the  quarters,  although  we  may  be  able  to  ascertain  by  the  use  of 
the  probe  that  the  separation  of  the  crust  extends  for  a  considerable  space 
above  the  sole. 

CORNS. 

In  the  angle  between  the  bars  c,  p.  283,  and  the  quarters,  the  horn  ot 
the  sole  has  sometimes  a  red  appearance,  and  is  more  spongy  and  softer 
than  at  any  other  part.  The  horse  flinches  when  this  portion  of  the  horn 
is  pressed  upon,  and  there  is  occasional  or  permanent  lameness.  This 
disease  of  the  foot  is  termed  corns  :  bearing  this  resemblance  to  the  corn 
of  the  human  being,  that  it  is  produced  by  pressure,  and  is  a  cause  of 
lameness,  but  diflcring  from  it  in  that  the  horn,  answering  to  the  skin  of  the 
human  foot,  is  thin  and  weak,  instead  of  being  thickened  and  hardened. 
When  it  is  neglected,  so  much  inflammation  is  produced  in  that  part  of  the 
sensible-sole,  that  suppuration  follows,  and  to  that  quittor,  and  the  matter 
either  undermines  the  horny-sole,  or  is  discharged  at  the  coronet. 

The  cause  is  pressure  on  the  sole  at  that  part,  by  the  irritation  of  which 
a  small  quantity  of  blood  is  extravasated.  The  horn  is  secreted  in  a  less 
quantity,  and  of  a  more  spongy  nature,  and  this  extravasated  blood  becomes 
inclosed  in  it. 

This  pressure  is  produced  in  various  ways.  When  the  foot  becomes 
contracted,  the  part  of  the  sole  inclosed  between  the  external  crust  which 
is  wiring  in,  and  the  bars  which  are  opposing  that  contraction  (see  cut,  p. 
283),  is  squeezed  as  it  were  in  a  vice,  and  becomes  inflamed ;  hence  it  is 
rare  to  see  a  contracted  foot  without  corns.  When  the  shoe  is  suffered  to 
remain  on  too  long,  it  becomes  embedded  in  the  heel  of  the  foot:  the  exter- 
nal crust  grows  down  on  the  outside  of  it,  and  the  bearing  is  thrown  on  this 
angular  portion  of  the  sole.  No  part  of  the  sole  can  bear  continued 
pressure,  and  inflammation  and  corns  are  the  result.  From  the  length  of 
wear,  the  shoe  sometimes  becomes  loosened  at  the  heels,  and  graverinsin- 
uates  itself  bet'veen  the  shoe  and  the  crust,  and  accumulates  in  this  angle, 
and  even  eats  into  it  and  wounds  it.  The  bars  are  too  frequently  cul 
away,  and  then  the  heel  of  the  shoe  must  be  bevelled  inward,  in  order  to 
answer  to  this  absurd  and  injurious  shaping  of  the  foot;  and  by  this  slant- 
uig  direction  of  the  heel  of  the  shoe  inward,  a-^  unnatural  disposition  lo 


30«  THE  HORSE. 

contraction  is  given,  and  toe  sole  must  suffer  in  two  ways,  in  being  p  e:sed 
upon  by  the  siioe,'and  being  squeezed  between  the  outer  crust  and  the 
external  portion  of  the  bar.  The  shoe  is  often  made  unnecessarily  narrow 
at  the  heels,  by  wliich  this  angle,  seemingly  less  disposed  to  bear  pressure 
than  any  other  part  of  the  foot,  is  exposed  to  accidental  bruises.  If,  in  the 
paring  out  of  the  foot,  the  smith  should  leave  the  bars  prominent,  he  too 
frequently  neglects  to  pare  away  the  horn  in  the  angle  between  the  bars 
and  the  external  crust ;  or,  if  he  cuts  away  the  bars,  he  scarcely  touches 
the  horn  at  this  point ;  and  thus,  before  the  horse  has  been  shod  a  fortnight,  the 
shoe  rests  on  this  angle,  and  produces  corns.  The  use  of  a  shoe  for  the 
fore-feet,  thickened  at  the  heels,  is,  and  especially  in  weak  feet,  a  source 
of  corns,  from  the  undue  bearing  there  is  on  the  heels,  and  the  concussion 
to  which  they  are  subject. 

The  unshod  colt  rarely  has  corns.  The  heels  have  their  natural  power 
of  expansion,  and  the  sensible-sole  at  this  part  can  scarcely  be  imprisoned, 
while  the  projection  of  the  heel  of  the  crust  and  the  bar  is  a  sufficient 
defence  from  external  injury.  Corns  seem  to  be,  to  a  certain  degree,  the 
almost  inevitable  consequence  of  shoeing,  which,  by  limiting,  or  in  a  man- 
ner  destroying,  the  expansibility  of  the  foot,  must,  when  the  sole  attempts 
to  descend,  or  the  coffin-bone  has  a  backward  and  downward  direction 
(see  cut,  p.  249),  imprison  and  injure  this  portion  of  the  sole;  and  this  evil 
consequence  is  increased  when  the  shoe  is  badly  formed,  or  kept  on  toe 
long,  or  when  the  paring  is  omitted  or  injudiciously  extended  to  the  bars. 
By  this  unnatural  pressure  of  the  sole,  blood  is  thrown  out,  and  enters  into 
the  pores  of  the  soft  and  diseased  horn  which  is  then  secreted :  therefore, 
we  judge  of  the  existence  and  extent  of  the  corn  by  the  colour  and  soft- 
ness of  the  horn  at  this  place. 

The  cure  is  difficult;  for  as  all  shoeing  has  some  tendency  to  produce 
pressure  here,  it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  the  habit  of  throwing  out  this  dis- 
eased  horn  when  it  is  once  contracted. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  well  to  pare  out  the  angle  between  the  crust 
and  the  bars.  Two  objects  are  answered  by  this  :  the  extent  of  the  disease 
will  be  ascertaine-d,  and  one  cause  of  it  removed.  A  very  small  drawing, 
knife  must  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  corn  must  be  pared  out  to  the 
very  bottom,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the  sole.  It  will  then  be  discovered 
whether  there  be  any  effusion  of  blood  or  matter  underneath.  If  this 
be  suspected,  an  opening  must  be  made  through  the  horn,  the  matter 
evacuated,  the  separated  horn  taken  away,  the  course  and  extent  of  the 
sinuses  explored,  and  the  treatment  recommended  for  quittor  adopted. 
Should  there  be  no  collection  of  fluid,  the  butyr  of  antimony  should  be 
applied  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  corn,  after  the  horn  has  been  thinned 
as  closely  as  possible.  The  object  of  this  is  to  stimulate  the  sole  to  throw 
out  more  healthy  horn.  In  bad  cases,  a  bar-shoe  may  be  put  on,  so 
chambered,  that  tiiero  shall  be  no  pressure  on  the  diseased  part.  This  may 
be  worn  for  one  or  two  shoeings,  but  not  constantly,  for  there  are  few  frogs 
that  would  bear  the  constant  pressure  of  the  bar-shoe;  and  the  want  of  the 
pressure  on  the  heel,  generally  occasioned  by  their  use,  would  produce  a 
softened  and  bulbous  state  of  the  heels,  which  would  of  itself  be  an  inevi- 
table source  of  lameness. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  the  corn  is  either  confined  to  the  inner 
quarter  of  the  foot  or  crust.  That  this  should  be  the  case  may  be  easily 
imagined,  from  what  we  have  said  of  contraction  being  most  frequent  in 
the  inner  quarter.  The  shoe,  unfettered  on  the  inner  side,  may,  in  corn  on 
that  side,  be  applied  with  great  benefit,  if  the  country  be  not  too  heavy,  or 
the  pace  required  from  the  horse  too  great. 


THRUSH.  3 

Next  is  to  be  considered  the  cause  of  the  corn,  whi(!h  a  careful  cxanii- 
nation  of  the  foot  and  the  shoe  will  easily  discover.  The  cause  ijeing 
ascertained,  the  eflect  may,  to  a  great  extent,  be  afterwards  removed. 
Turning  out  to  grass,  after  the  horn  is  a  little  grown,  first  with  a  bar-shoe, 
and  afterwards  with  the  shoe  fettered  on  one  side,  or  with  tips,  will  often  be 
serviceable.  A  horse  that  has  once  had  corns  to  any  considerable  extent 
should  at  every  shoeing,  have  the  seat  of  the  corn  well  pared  out,  and  the 
butyr  of  antimony  applied.  The  seated  shoe  (hereafter  to  be  described) 
should  be  used,  with  a  web  sufficiently  thick  to  cover  the  place  of  the  corn, 
and  extending  as  far  back  as  it  can  be  conveniently  made  to  do  without 
injury  to  the  frog. 

Low  weak  heels  should  be  rarely  touched  with  the  knife,  or  any  thing 
more  be  done  to  them  than  lightly  to  rasp  them,  to  give  them  a  level  sur- 
face.  The  inner  heel  should  be  particularly  spared.  Corns  are  seldom 
found  in  the  hind-feet,  because  the  heels  are  stronger  and  the  feet  are  not 
exposed  to  so  much  concussion ;  and  when  they  are  found  there,  they  are 
rarely  or  never  productive  of  lameness. 

THRUSH 

Is  a  discharge  of  offensive  matter  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  is  inflam. 
mation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  sensible  frog,  and  during  which  pus  ia 
secreted  together  with,  or  instead  of  horn.  When  the  frog  is  in  its  sound 
state,  the  cleft  sinks  but  a  little  way  into  it;  but  when  it  becomes  contracted 
or  otherwise  diseased,  the  cleft  extends  in  length,  and  penetrates  even  to 
the  sensible  horn  within,  and  through  this  unnaturally  deepened  fissure  the 
thrushy  discharge  proceeds.  It  is  caused  by  any  thing  that  interferes  with 
the  healthy  structure  and  action  of  the  frog.  We  find  it  in  the  hinder  feet 
oftener  and  worse  than  in  the  fore,  because  in  our  stable  management  the 
hinder  feet  are  too  much  exposed  to  the  pernicious  effect  of  the  dung  and 
the  urine,  moistening  or,  as  it  were,  macerating,  and  at  the  same  time  irri- 
tating them.  The  distance  of  the  hinder  feet  from  the  centre  of  the 
circulation,  would,  as  in  the  case  of  grease,  more  expose  them  to  accumu- 
lations of  fluid  and  discharges  of  this  kind.  In  the  fore-feet  thrushes  are 
usually  connected  with  contraction.  We  have  stated  that  they  are  both  the 
cause  and  the  effect  of  contraction.  The  pressure  on  the  frog  from  the 
wiring  in  of  the  heels  will  produce  pain  and  inflammation,  and  the  inflam- 
mation, by  the  increased  heat  and  suspended  function  of  the  part,  will  dis- 
pose  to  contraction.  Horses  of  all  ages,  and  in  almost  all  situations,  are 
subject  to  thrush.     The  unshod  colt  is  frequently  thus  diseased. 

Thrushes  are  not  always  accompanied  by  lameness.  In  a  great  many 
cases  the  appearance  of  the  foot  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  altered,  and  the 
disease  can  only  be  detected  by  close  examination,  or  the  peculiar  smell  of 
the  discharge.  The  frog  may  not  appear  to  be  rendered  in  the  slightest 
degree  tender  by  it,  and  therefore  the  horse  may  not  be  considered  by 
many  as  unsound.  Every  disease,  however,  should  be  considered  as  legal 
unsoundness,  and  especially  a  disease  which,  although  not  attended  with 
present  detriment,  must  not  be  neglected,  for  it  would  eventually  injure  and 
lame  the  horse.  All  other  things  being  right,  a  horse  should  not  be  rejected 
because  he  has  a  slight  thrush,  for  if  the  shape  of  the  hoof  be  not  altered, 
experience  tells  us  tliat  the  thrush  is  easily  removed;  yet  if  the  thrush  be 
not  soon  removed,  it  will  alter  the  shape  of  the  foot  and  the  action  of  the 
horse,  and  become  manifest  unsoundness.  The  progress  of  a  neglected 
thrush,  although  sometimes  slow,  is  sure.  The  frog  begins  to  contract  in 
size,  it  becomes  rough,   ragged,   brittle,  tender.     The  dischargj  is  moro 


308  THE  HORSE. 

copious  and  more  oilensive;  the  horn  gradually  disappears;  a  ma-^s  of 
hardened  nnicus  usurps  its  place;  tliis  easily  peels  oil",  and  the  sensible  frog 
remains  exposed  ;  the  horse  cannot  bear  it  to  be  touched  ;  fungous  granula- 
tions spring  from  it;  l.hey  spread  around;  the  sole  becomes  undei  run,  and 
canker  steals  over  the  greater  part  ol'  liie  foot. 

There  are  lew  errors  more  common  or  more  dangerous,  than  that  the 
existence  of  thrush  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  or  even,  as  some 
suppose,  a  benefit  to  the  horse — a  discharge  for  superabundant  humours^ 
and  that  it  should  not  be  dried  up  too  quickly,  and  in  some  cases  not  dried 
up  at  all.  If  a  young  colt,  i'at  and  full  of  blood,  has  a  bad  thrush,  witli 
much  discharge,  it  may  be  prudent  to  accompany  the  attempt  at  cure  by 
a  dose  of  physic  or  a  course  of  diuretics;  a  lew  diureiics  may  not  be 
injurious  when  we  are  endeavouring  to  dry  up  thrush  in  older  horses:  but 
disease  can  scarcely  be  attacked  too  soon  or  subdued  too  rapidly,  and 
especially  a  disease  which  steals  on  so  insidiously,  and  has  such  fatal  con- 
sequences in  its  train.  If  the  heels  once  begin  to  contract  through  the 
baneful  etiect  of  thrush,  it  will  always  with  difriculty,  or  frequently  not 
at  all,  be  afterwards  removed. 

There  are  many  recipes  to  stop  a  running  thrush.  Almost  every  appli- 
cation of  an  astringent,  but  not  of  too  caustic  a  nature,  will  have  the  etiect. 
The  common  Egyptiacum  (vinegar  boiled  with  hcney  and  verdigris)  is 
a  very  good  liniment;  but  the  most  etlectual  and  the  safest,  drying  up  the 
discharge  speedily,  but  not  suddenly,  is  a  paste  composed  of  two  ounces  of 
blue  and  one  of  white  vitriol,  powdered  as  finely  as  possible,  and  rubbed 
down  with  one  pound  of  tar  and  two  of  lard.  A  pledget  of  tow  covered 
with  it  should  be  introduced  as  deeply  as  possible,  yet  without  ibrce,  into 
the  cleft  of  the  frog  every  night,  and  removed  every  morning  before  the 
horse  goes  to  work.  Attention  should  at  the  same  time,  as  in  other  diseases 
of  the  foot,  be  paid  to  the  apparent  cause  of  the  complaint,  and  that  cause 
should  be  carefully  obviated  or  removed.  Before  tlie  application  of  the 
paste,  the  frog  should  be  examined,  and  every  loose  part  of  the  horn  or 
hardened  discharge  removed;  and  if  much  of  the  frog  be  then  exposed,  a 
larger  and  wider  piece  of  tow  covered  with  the  paste  may  be  placed  over  it, 
in  addition  to  the  pledget  introduced  into  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  preserve  the  frog  moist  while  the  cure  is  in  progiess,  and  this 
may  be  done  by  filling  the  feet  with  tow  covered  by  common  stoppmg,  or 
using  the  felt  pad,  likewise  covered  with  it.  Turning  out  would  be  preju- 
dicial rather  than  of  benetit  to  thrushy  feet,  except  the  dressing  be 
continued,  and  the  feet  defended  from  moisture. 

CANKER. 

Is  a  separation  of  the  horn  from  the  sensible  part  of  the  foot,  and  the 
sprouting  of  fungous  matter  instead  of  it,  and  occupying  a  portion  of,  or 
even  the  whole  of  the  sole  and  frog.  It  is  the  occasional  consequence  of 
bruise,  puncture,  corn,  quiltor,  and  thrush,  and  is  extremely  difficult  to 
cure.  It  is  more  frequently  the  consequence  of  neglected  thrush  than  of 
any  other  disease  of  the  foot.  It  is  oftenest  found  in,  and  is  almost  peculiar 
to  the  heavy  breed  of  cart-horse,  resulting  partly  from  constitutional  pre- 
disposition. Horses  with  white  legs  and  thick  skins,  and  much  hair  upon 
their  legs,  the  very  character  of  many  of  our  dray-horses,  are  subject 
to  canker,  especially  if  they  have  had  an  attack  of  grease,  or  tlieir  heels 
are  habitually  thick  and  greasy.  The  disposition  to  canker  is  certainly 
hereditary.  The  dray-horse  likewise  has  this  disadvantage,  that  in  order 
to  give  him  foot-hold,  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  heels  of  the  hinder  feel  s& 


CANKER  301) 

nigh,  that  all  pressure  on  the  frog  is  taken  away,  its  functions  are  destroyed, 
and  it  is  rendered  liable  to  disease.  Cunker,  however,  arises  more  from  the 
peculiar  injury  to  which  the  feet  of  these  horses  are  subject  from  the 
enormous  shoes  with  which  they  are  covered,  the  bulk  of  the  nails  with 
which  these  shoes  are  necessarily  fastened  to  the  foot,  and  the  strain  of  the 
ibot,  in  the  violent  although  short  exertion  in  moving  heavy  weights;  but 
most  of  all  from  the  neglect  of  the  feet,  and  the  filthiness  of  the  stables  in 
these  establishments.  Although  canker  is  a  disease  most  difficult  to  remove, 
it  is  easily  prevented.  Attention  to  the  punctures  to  which  these  heavy 
horses,  with  their  clubbed  feet  and  brittle  hoofs,  are  more  than  any  others 
subject  in  shoeing,  and  to  the  bruises  and  treads  on  the  coronet,  to  which 
witii  their  awkwardness  and  weight  they  are  so  liable,  and  the  greasy  heels 
which  a  very  slight  degree  of  negligence  will  produce  in  them,  and  to  the 
stopping  of  the  thrushes,  which  are  so  apt  in  them  to  run  on  to  the  separation 
of  tiie  horn  from  the  sensible-frog,  will  most  materially  lessen  tlie  number 
of  cankered  feet.  Where  this  disease  often  occurs,  the  owner  of  the  team 
may  be  well  assured  that  there  is  gross  mismanagement,  either  in  himself, 
or  his  horsekeeper,  or  smith,  or  surgeon,  and  it  will  rarely  be  a  difficult 
matter  to  detect  the  precise  nature  of  that  mismanagement. 

The  cure  of  canker  is  the  business  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  a  most 
harassing  and  tedious  business  it  is.  The  principles  on  which  he  proceeds 
are,  first  of  all,  to  remove  the  extraneous  fungous  growth,  and  here  proba- 
bly  he  will  call  in  the  aid  both  of  the  knife  and  the  caustic,  or  the  cauter)  ; 
he  will  cut  away  every  portion  of  horn  which  is  in  the  slightest  degree 
separated  from  the  sensilile  parts  beneath.^  He  will  next  endeavour  to  dis- 
courage the  growth  of  fresh  fungus,  and  to  bring  the  foot  into  that  state  in 
which  it  will  again  secrete  healthy  horn:  here  he  will  remember  that  he 
has  to  do  with  the  surface  of  the  foot;  that  this  is  a  disease  of  the  surface 
only,  and  that  there  will  be  no  necessity  for  those  deeply-corroding  and  tor. 
turing  caustics  which  eat  to  the  very  bone.  A  slight  and  daily  application 
of  the  chloride  of  antimony,  and  that  not  where  the  new  horn  is  Ibrming, 
but  only  on  the  surface  which  continues  to  be  diseased,  and  accompanied 
by  as  firm  but  equal  pressure  as  can  be  made;  and  careful  avoidance  of 
the  slightest  degree  of  moisture;  the  horse  being  exercised  or  worked  in 
the  mill,  or  wherever  the  foot  will  not  be  exposed  to  wet,  and  that  exercise 
adopted  as  early  as  possible,  and  even  from  the  beginning,  if  the  disease  is 
confined  to  the  sole  and  frog,  these  means  will  succeed,  if  the  disease  is 
capable  of  cure.  Humanity,  perhaps,  will  dictate,  that,  considering  the 
long  process  of  cure  in  a  cankered  foot,  and  the  daily  torture  of  the 
caustic,  and  the  sutVering  which  would  otherwise  result  from  so  large  or 
exposed  a  surface,  the  nerves  of  the  leg  should  be  divided,  to  take  away  the 
sense  of  pain ;  but  then  especial  care  must  be  taken  that  the  horse  is  placed 
in  such  a  situation,  and  exposed  to  such  work,  that,  being  insensible  to  pain, 
he  may  not  injuriously  batter  and  bruise  diseased  parts. 

Medicine  is  not  of  much  avail  in  the  cure  of  canker.  It  is  a  mere  local 
disease;  or  the  only  cause  of  fear  is,  that  so  great  a  determination  of  blood 
to  the  extremities  having  existed  during  the  long  progress  of  the  cure,  it 
may  in  some  degree  continue,  and  produce  injury  in  another  form.  Grease 
has  occasionally  followed  canker.  They  have,  although  rarely,  been 
known  to  alternate.  When  one  has  become  better,  the  other  has  appeared, 
and  that  for  a  considerable  period.  It  may,  therefore,  be  prudent,  when  the 
cure  of  a  cankered  foot  is  nearly  effected,  to  subject  the  horse  to  a  course 
of  alteratives  or  diuretics. 


810  THE  HORSE. 


OSSIFICATION  OF  THE  CARTILAGES 

We  have  spoken  (page  288)  of  the  side  cartilages  of  the  foot,  occupying 
(see  cut,  page  254)  a  considerable  portion  of  the  external  side  and  back 
part  of  the  foot.  They  are  designed  to  preserve  the  expansion  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  foot,  and  to  preserve  il,  when  that  of  the  lower  part  is  limited  or 
destroyed  by  shoeing.  These  cartilages  are  subject  to  inflammation,  and 
the  result  of  that  inflammation  is,  that  the  cartilages  are  absorbed,  and  bone 
is  substituted  in  their  stead.  This  ossification  of  the  cartilages  frequently 
accompanies  ringbone,  but  it  may  exist  without  any  affection  of  the  pastern- 
joint.  It  is  oftenest  found  in  horses  of  heavy  draught.  It  arises  not  so 
much  from  concussion,  as  from  a  species  of  sprain,  for  the  pace  of  the 
horse  is  slow.  The  cause,  indeed,  is  not  well  understood,  but  of  the 
effect  we  have  too  numerous  instances.  Very  few  heavy  draught- horses 
arrive  at  old  age  without  this  change  of  structure. 

In  the  healthy  state  of  the  foot,  these  cartilages  will  readily  yield  to  the 
pressure  of  the  fingers  on  the  coronet  over  the  quarters,  but,  by  degrees, 
the  resistance  becomes  greater,  and  at  length  bone  is  formed,  and  the  parts 
yield  no  more.  No  evident  inflammation  of  the  foot,  or  great,  or  perhaps 
even  perceptible  lameness  accompanies  this  change:  a  mere  slight  degree 
of  stiffness  may  have  been  observed,  which,  in  a  horse  of  more  rapid  pace, 
would  have  been  lameness.  Even  when  the  change  is  completed,  there  is 
not  in  many  cases  any  thing  more  than  a  slight  increase  of  stiflness,  little  or 
not  at  all  interfering  with  the  usefulness  of  the  horse.  When  this  altered 
structure  appears  in  the  lighter  horse,  the  lameness  is  more  decided,  and 
means  should  be  taken  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  change :  these  are 
blisters  or  firing;  but,  after  these  parts  have  become  bony,  no  operation  will 
restore  the  cartilage. 

Connected  with  ringbone,  the  lameness  may  be  very  great.  This  has 
been  spoken  of  in  page  254. 

WEAKNESS  OF  THE  FOOT. 

This  is  more  accurately  a  bad  formation,  than  a  disease;  often,  indeea, 
the  result  of  disease,  but  in  many  instances  the  natural  construction  of  the 
foot.  The  term  weak-foot  is  familiar  to  every  horseman,  and  the  conse- 
quence is  severely  felt  by  all  who  liave  to  do  with  horses.  In  the  slanting 
of  the  crust  from  the  coronet  to  the  toe,  a  less  angle  is  almost  invariably 
formed,  amounting,  probably,  to  not  more  than  forty,  instead  of  forty-five, 
degrees;  and  after  the  horse  has  been  worked  for  one  or  two  years,  the  line 
is  not  straight,  but  a  little  indented  or  hollow,  midway  between  the  coronet 
and  the  toe.  We  have  described  this  as  the  accompaniment  of  pumiced 
feet,  but  it  is  often  seen  in  weak  feet,  which,  although  they  might  become 
pumiced  by  severity  of  work,  do  not  otherwise  have  the  sole  convex.  Thf> 
crust  is  not  only  less  oblique  than  it  ought  to  be,  but  it  has  not  the  smooth, 
even  appearance  of  the  good  foot.  The  surface  is  sometimes  irregularly 
roughened,  but  it  is  muchoftener  roughened  in  circles  or  rings.  The  form 
of  the  crust  likewise  presents  too  much  the  appearance  of  a  cone;  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot  is  unnaturally  wide  in  proportion  to  the  coronet ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  foot  is  generally,  but  not  always,  larger  than  it  should  be. 

When  the  foot  is  lifted,  it  will  often  present  a  round  and  circular 
appearance,  with  a  fullness  of  frog,  that  would  mislead  the  inexperienced, 
and  indeed  be  considered  as  almost  the  perfection  of  structure;  but,  being 
examined  luore  closely,  many  glaring  defects  will  be  seen.  The  sole  is 
flat,  and  the  smith  finds  that  it  will   bear  little  or  no  paring       The  i)ars  are 


THE  CONCAVE-SEATED  SHOE.  3|  I 

small  in  size.  They  are  not  cut  away  by  the  smith,  but  they  can  be 
scarcely  said  to  have  any  existence ;  the  heels  are  low,  so  low  that  the 
very  coronet  seems  almost  to  touch  the  ground  ;  and  tlie  crust,  if  examined, 
seems  scarcely  thick  enough  to  hold  the  nails.  Horses  with  these  feet  can 
never  stand  much  work.  They  will  be  subject  to  corns,  to  bruises  of  the 
sole,  to  convexity  of  the  sole,  to  punctures  in  nailing,  to  breaking  away  of 
the  crust,  to  inflammation  of  the  foot,  and  to  sprain  and  injury  of  the  pas- 
tern, and  the  fetlock,  and  the  flexor  tendons.  These  feet  admit  of  little 
improvement.  Shoeing  as  seldom  as  may  be,  and  with  a  light,  yet  wide 
concave  web  ;  little  or  no  paring  at  the  time  of  shoeing,  with  as  little  violent 
work  as  possible,  and  especially  on  rough  roads,  may  protract  for  a  long 
period  the  evil  day,  but  he  who  buys  a  horse  with  these  feet  wijl  sooner  or 
later  have  cause  to  repent  his  bargain. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

ON  SHOEING. 


The  period  when  ihe  shoe  began  to  be  nailed  to  the  foot  of  the  horse  is 
uncertain.      William  the  Norman  introduced  it  into  our  country. 

We  have  seen,  in  the  progress  of  our  inquiry,  that  while  it  aflfords  to  the 
foot  of  the  horse  that  defence  which  seems  now  to  be  necessary  against  the 
destructive  effects  of  our  artificial  and  flinty  roads,  it  has  entailed  on  tiie 
animal  some  evils.  It  has  limited  or  destroyed  the  beautil"ul  expansibility 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  foot ;  it  has  led  to  contraction,  although  that 
contraction  has  not  always  been  accompanied  by  lameness ;  in  the  most 
careful  fixing  of  the  best  shoe,  and  in  the  careless  manufacture  and  setting 
on  of  the  bad  one,  much  injury  has  often  been  done  to  the  horse  ;  yet,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  to  nothing  like  the  extent  which  some  have  fancied 
or  teared. 

THE  CONCAVE-SEATED  SHOE. 

The  proper  form  and  construction  of  the  shoe  is  a  subject  deserving  of 
very  serious  inquiry,  for  it  is  most  important  to  ascertain  the  kind  of  shoe 
that  will  do  the  least  mischief  to  the  feet.  We  subjoin  a  cut  of  that  which 
we  strongly  recommend  for  general  purposes.  It  is  in  use  in  many  of  our 
best  forges,  and  is  gradually  superseding  the  flat  and  the  simple  concave 
shoe.     The  following  cut  exhibits  the  near  fore  shoe. 

It  presents  a  perfectly  flat  surface  to  the  ground,  to  give  as  many  points 
of  bearing  as  possible,  except  that,  round  the  outer  edge,  there  is  a  groove 
ov  fuller,  in  which  the  nail-holes  are  punched,  so  that,  sinking  into  the 
fuller,  tlieir  heads  project  but  a  little  vvay,  and  are  soon  worn  down  level 
with  the  shoe.  The  ground  surface  of  the  common  shoe  used  in  the  country 
is  somewhat  convex,  and  the  inward  rim  of  the  shoe  comes  first  on  the 
ground;  the  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  weight,  instead  of  being  borne 
fairly  on  the  crust,  is  supported  by  the  nails  and  the  clenches,  which  must 
be  injuria  us  to  the  crust,  and  often  chip  and  tear  it. 

The  wob  of  the  shoe  is  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  from  the  toe  to 
the  heel;  and  it  is  sufficiently  wide  to  guard  tae  sole  from  bruises,  suid 


'Jill 


THE  HORSE. 


at  fl'ide  at  the  heel  as  the  frog  will  permit,  in  order  to  cover  the  seal  o. 
ctjfn,  and  enable  the  horse  to  stand  at  his  natural  ease. 

On  the  foot  side  it  is  seated.  The  outer  part  of  it  is  accurately  Hat,  and 
of  the  width  of  the  crust,  and  designed  to  support  the  crust,  and  tiie  crust 
otly ;  for  it  has  already  been  proved  that  by  the  crust  alone,  or  rather  by 
the  union  between  the  numerous  little  plates  proceeding  from  the  crust 
and  the  covering  of  the  coffin-bone,  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  sup- 
ported.  Towards  the  heel  this  flattened  part  is  wider,  and  occupies  the 
wnole  breadth  of  the  web,  to  support  (see  page  283)  the  heel  of  the  crust 
and  its  reflected  part,  the  bar:  thus,  while  "it  defends  the  horn  included 
within  this  angle  from  injury,  it  gives  that  equal  pressure  upon  the  bar  and 
the  crust,  which  is  the  best  preventive  against  corn,  and  a  powerful  obstacle 
to  contraction. 

It  is  fastened  to  the  foot  by  nine  nails,  five  on  the  outside,  and  four  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  shoe;  those  on  the  outside  extending  a  little  farther 
down  towards  the  heel,  because  the  outside  heel  is  thicker  and  stronger, 
and  there  is  more  nail-hold  ;  the  last  nail  on  the  inner  quarter  being  farther 
from  the  heel  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  that  quarter.  For  feet  not  too 
large,  and  where  moderate  work  only  is  required  from  the  horse,  four  nails 
on  the  outside,  and  three  on  the  inside,  will  be  sufficient;  and  the  last  nail 
being  far  from  the  heels,  will  allow  more  expansion  there. 

The  inside  part  of  the  web  is  bevelled  off,  or  rendered  concave,  that  it 
may  not  press  upon  the  sole.  Notwithstanding  our  iron  fetter,  the  sole 
does,  although  to  a  very  inconsiderable  extent,  descend  when  the  foot  of 
the  horse  is  put  on  the  ground.  It  is  unable  to  bear  constant  or  even 
occasional  pressure,  and  if  it  came  in  contact  with  the  shoe,  the  sensible 
sole,  between  the  horny  sole  and  the  coffin-bone,  would  be  bruised,  and 
lameness  would  ensue.  Many  of  our  horses,  from  too  early  and  undue 
work,  have  the  natural  concave  sole  flattened,  and  the  disposition  to  descend 
and  the  degree  of  descent  are  thereby  increased.  The  concave  shoe  pre- 
vents, even  in  this  case,  the  possibility  of  injury,  because  the  sole  can  never 
descend  in  the  degree  in  which  the  shoe  is  bevelled.  A  shoe  bevelled  still 
iurlher  is  necessary  to  protect  the  projecting  or  pumiced  foot. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  FOOT.  31  y 

While  the  horse  is  travelling,  dirt  and  gravel  are  too  apt  to  insinuate 
themselves  between  the  web  of  tlie  shoe  and  the  sole.  If  tiie  shoe  were 
flat,  they  would  be  easily  retained  there,  and  would  bruise  the  sole  and  be 
productive  of  injury  ;  but  when  the  shoe  is  thus  bevelled  off,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  for  them  to  remain.  They  must  be  shaken  out  every  time  the  foot 
comes  in  contact  with  the  ground. 

The  web  of  the  shoe  is  likewise  of  that  thickness,  that  when  the  foot  is 
properly  pared,  the  prominent  part  of  the  frog  shall  lie  just  within  and  above 
its  ground  surface,  so  that  in  the  descent  of  the  sole  the  frog  shall  come 
sutliciently  on  the  ground,  to  enable  it  to  act  as  a  wedge,  and  to  expand  the 
quarters,  while  it  is  defended  from  the  wear  and  injury  it  would  receive  if 
it  came  on  the  ground  with  the  first  and  full  shock  of  the  weight. 

The  nail-holes  are,  on  the  ground  side,  placed  as  near  the  outer  edge  of 
the  shoe  as  they  can  safely  be,  and  brought  out  near  the  inner  edge*  of  the 
seating.  The  nails  thus  take  a  direction  inward,  resembling  the  direction 
of  the  crust  itself,  and  take  firmer  hold  ;  while  the  strain  upon  them  in  the 
common  shoe  is  altogether  prevented  ;  and  the  weight  of  the  horse  being 
thrown  on  a  flat  surface,  contraction  is  not  so  likely  to  be  produced. 

The  smith  sometimes  objects  to  the  use  of  this  shoe,  on  account  of  its 
not  being  so  easily  formed  as  one  composed  of  a  bar  of  iron,  either  flat  or 
a  little  bevelled.  It  likewise  occupies  more  time  in  the  forming  ;  but  these 
objections  would  vanish,  when  the  owner  of  the  horse  declared  that  he 
would  have  him  shod  elsewhere  ;  or  when  he  consented,  as  in  justice  he 
should,  to  pay  somewhat  more  for  a  shoe  that  required  better  workman 
ship  and  longer  time  in  the  construction. 

THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  FOOT. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  horse  is  sent  to  the  forge  to  be  shod.  If  the 
master  would  occasionally  accompany  him  there,  he  would  find  it  much  to 
his  advantage.  The  old  shoe  must  be  first  taken  off.  We  have  something 
to  observe  even  on  this.  It  was  retained  on  the  foot  by  the  ends  of  the 
nails  being  twisted  off,  turned  down,  and  clenched.  These  clenches 
should  be  first  raised,  which  the  smith  seldom  takes  the  trouble  thoroughly 
to  do  ;  but  after  going  carelessly  round  the  crust,  and  raising  one  or  two 
of  the  clenciies,  he  takes  hold  first  of  one  heel  of  the  shoe,  and  then  of  the 
other,  and  by  a  violent  wrench  separates  them  from  the  foot,  and  by  a 
tiiird  wrench,  applied  to  the  middle  of  the  shoe,  he  tears  it  off.  By  this 
means  he  must  enlarge  every  nail-hole;  and  weaken  the  future  hold,  and' 
sometimes  tear  off  portions  of  the  crust,  and  otherwise  injure  the  foot. 
The  horse  generally  shows  by  his  flinching  tha!.  he  suffers  by  the  violence 
with  wiiich  this  preliminary  operation  is  performed.  The  clenches  should 
always  be  raised  or  filed  off;  and  where  the  foot  is  tender,  or  the  horse  is 
to  be  examined  for  lameness,  each  nail  should  be  partly  punched  out. 
Many  a  stub  is  left  in  the  crust,  the  source  of  future  annoyance,  when  this 
unnecessary  violence  is  used. 

The  shoe  having  been  removed,  the  smith  proceeds  to  rasp  the  edges  of 
llie  crust.  Let  not  the  stander-by  object  to  the  apparent  violence  which 
he  uses,  or  fear  that  the  foot  will  suffer.  It  is  the  only  means  he  has,  with 
safety  to  liis  instruments,  to  detect  whether  any  stubs  remain  in  the  nail- 
lioles  ;  and  it  is  tiie  most  convenient  method  of  removing  that  portion  of 
the  crust  into  wiiich  dirt  and  gravel  have  insinuated  themselves. 

Next  comes  the  important  process  of  paring  out,  with  regard  to  which 
it  IS  almost  impossible  to  lay  down  any  specific  rules.  This,  however, 
we  can  say  with  confidence,  that  more  injury  has  been  done  by  the  neglect 
X 


314 


THE  HORSE. 


of  paring,  than  by  carrying  it  to  too  great  an  extent.  The  act  of  paring 
is  a  work  of  much  more  labour  than  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  often 
imagines ;  the  smith,  except  he  be  overloolvcd,  will  give  himself  as  little 
trouble  about  it  as  he  can  ;  and  that  which,  in  the  unshod  foot,  would  be 
worn  away  by  contact  with  the  ground,  is  suffered  to  accumulate  month 
after  month,  until  the  elasticity  of  the  sole  is  destroyed,  and  it  can  no 
longer  descend,  and  the  functions  of  the  foot  are  impeded,  and  foundation 
is  laid  for  corn,  and  contraction,  and  navicular  disease,  and  inflammation. 
That  portion  of  horn  should  be  left  on  the  sole,  which  will  defend  the 
internal  parts  from  being  bruised,  and  yet  suffer  the  external  sole  lo 
descend.  How  is  this  to  be  measured?  The  strong  pressure  of  th" 
thumb  of  the  smith  will  be  the  best  guide.  The  buttress,  that  most 
destructive  of  all  instruments,  being  banished  from  the  respectable  forge, 
the  smiih  sets  to  work  with  his  drawing-knife,  and  he  removes  the  growth 
of  horn,  until  the  sole  vvill  yield,  although  in  the  slightest  possible  degree, 
to  the  very  strong  pressure  of  his  thumb.  The  proper  thickness  of  horn 
will  then  remain. 

If  the  foot  has  been  previously  neglected,  and  the  horn  is  become  very 
hard,  the  owner  must  not  object  if  the  smith  resorts  to  some  means  to 
soften  it  a  little ;  and  if  he  takes  one  of  his  flat  irons,  and  having  heated  it, 
draws  it  over  the  sole,  and  keeps  it  a  little  while  in  contact  with  it.  When 
the  sole  is  thick,  this  rude  and  apparently  barbarous  method  can  do  no 
harm,  but  it  should  never  be  permitted  with  the  sole  that  is  regularly 
pared  out. 

The  quantity  of  horn  to  be  removed  in  order  to  leave  the  proper  degree 
of  thickness  will  vary  with  different  feet.  From  the  strong  foot  a  great  deal 
must  be  taken.  From  the  concave  foot  the  horn  may  be  removed  until 
the  sole  will  yield  to  a  moderate  pressure.  From  the  flat  foot  little  need  be 
pared;   while  the  pumiced  foot  will  spare  nothing  but  the  ragged  parts. 

The  paring  being  nearly  completed,  the  knife  and  the  rasp  of  the  smith 
must  be  a  little  watched,  or  he  will  reduce  the  crust  to  a  level  with  the 
sole,  and  thus  endanger  the  bruising  of  the  sole  by  its  pressure  on  the  edge 
of  the  seating.  The  crust  should  be  reduced  to  a  perfect  level,  all  round, 
but  left  a  little  higher  tiian  tbe  sole. 

The  heels  will  require  very  considerable  attention.  From  the  stress 
which  is  thrown  on  the  inner  heel,  and  from  the  weakness  of  the  quarter 
there,  it  usually  wears  considerably  faster  than  the  outer  one  ;  and,  if  an 
equal  portion  of  horn  were  pared  from  it,  it  would  be  left  lower  tiian  the 
outer  heel.  The  smith  should,  therefore,  accommodate  his  paring  to  the 
comparative  wear  of  the  heels,  and  be  very  careful  to  leave  them  as 
precisely  level  as  possible. 

If  the  reader  will  recollect  what  we  have  said  of  the  intention  and  action 
of  the  bars,  he  will  readily  perceive  that  the  smith  should  be  checked 
in  his  almost  universal  fondness  for  opening  the  heels,  or,  more  truly, 
removing  that  which  is  the  main  impediment  to  contraction.  That  portion 
ot  the  heels  between  the  inflection  of  the  bar  and  the  frog  should  scarcely 
be  touched;  at  least,  nothing  but  the  ragged  and  detached  parts  should  be 
cut  away.  The  foot  may  not  look  so  pretty,  but  it  will  last  longer  without 
contraction. 

The  bar  likewise  should  be  left  fully  prominent,  not  only  at  its  flrst 
inflection,  but  as  it  runs  down  the  side  of  the  frog.  The  heel  of  our  shoe  is 
designed  to  rest  partly  on  the  heel  of  the  foot,  and  partly  on  the  bar,  for 
reasons  that  have  been  already  stated.  If  the  bar  is  weak,  tiie  growth  of 
it  should  be  encouraged,  and  it  should  be  scarcely  touched  at  the  shoeing 
until  it  has  attained  a  level  with  the  crust.     We  recall  to  the  recollection  of 


THE  PUTTIAG  ON  OF  THE  SHOE.  3^5 

Hir  readers,  the  observation  wliicli  we  have  made  in  page  283,  that  the 
ileslruction  of  the  bars  not  only  leads  to  contraction  by  removing  a  power. 
ful  impediment  to  it,  but  by  adding  a  still  more  powerful  cause  ill  the 
Wanting  direction  which  is  given  to  the  bearing  at  tiie  heels,  when  the  bar 
does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  weight. 

It  will  also  be  apparent  that  the  horn  between  the  crust  and  the  bar  should 
be  carefully  pared  out.  Every  horseman  has  observed  the  relief  which  is 
^•iven  to  the  animal  lame  with  corns  when  this  angle  is  well  thinned;  a 
.elief,  however,  which  is  but  temporary,  for  when  the  horn  grows  again, 
jmd  the  shoe  presses  upon  it,  the  torture  of  the  animal  is  renewed,  w^th  the 
greater  probability  of  permanent  ill  consecjuences. 

The  degree  of  paring  to  which  the  frog  must  be  subjected  will  depend 
on  its  prominence,  and  on  the  shape  of  the  foot.  The  principle  has  already 
been  stated,  that  it  must  be  left  so  far  projecting  and  prominent,  that  it  shall 
be  just  within  and  above  the  lower  surface  of  the  shoe,  it  will  then  descend 
with  the  sole,  t>ufficiently  to  discharge  the  functions  which  we  have  attrib- 
uted to  it.  If  it  be  lower,  it  will  be  bruised  and  injured  ;  if  it  be  higher, 
it  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  do  its 
duty.  The  ragged  parts  must  be  removed,  and  especially  those  occasioned 
by  thrush,  but  the  degree  of  paring  must  depend  entirely  ou  this  princi- 
ple, and  be  governed  by  the  circumstances  enumerated. 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  office  of  the  smith  requires  some  skill  and 
judgment  in  order  to  be  properly  discharged  ;  and  the  horse  proprietor 
will  find  it  his  interest  occasionally  to  visit  the  forge  and  complain  of  the 
careless,  or  idle,  or  obstinate,  and  reward,  by  some  trifling  gratuity,  the 
expert  and  diligent.  He  should  likewise  remember  that  a  great  deal  more 
depends  on  the  paring  out  of  the  foot  than  on  the  construction  of  the  shoe  ; 
that  few  shoes  except  they  press  upon  the  sole,  or  are  made  outrageously 
bad,  will  lame  the  horse ;  but  that  he  may  be  very  easily  lamed  from  ig- 
norant and  improper  paring  out  of  the  foot. 

THE  PUTTING  ON  OF  THE  SHOE. 

The  foot  being  thus  prepared,  the  smith  looks  about  for  a  shoe.  He 
should  select  one  that  as  nearly  as  possible  fits  the  foot,  or  may  be  altered 
to  the  foot.  He  will  sometimes  care  little  about  this,  for  he  can  easily  alter 
the  foot  to  the  shoe.  The  toe-knife  is  a  very  convenient  instrument  for 
him,  and  plenty  of  horn  can  be  struck  off  with  it,  or  i-emoved  by  the  rasp, 
to  make  the  foot  as  small  as  the  shoe;  while  he  cares  little,  although  by 
this  destructive  method  the  crust  is  materially  thinned  where  it  should 
receive  the  nail,  and  the  danger  of  puncture  is  increased,  and  also  the 
danger  of  pressure  upon  the  sole,  and  a  foot  so  artificially  diminished  in 
size  will  soon  grow  over  the  shoe,  to  the  hazard  of  considerable  or  perma- 
nent  lameness. 

While  choosing  the  shoe,  we  must  once  more  refer  to  the  shape  of  our 
pattern  shoe;  the  web  is  of  equal  thickness  from  toe  to  heel.  A  shoe 
thinner  at  the  heel  than  at  the  toe,  by  letting  down  the  heel  too  low,  is  apt  to 
produce  sprain  of  the  fiexor  tendon,  and  a  shoe  thicker  at  the  heel  than  at 
the  toe  is  fit  only  to  elevate  the  frog,  to  the  desl  ^uction  of  its  function,  and 
lo  its  own  certain  disease,  and  also  to  press  upon,  and  to  uatter,  and  to  bruise 
that  part  of  the  foot  which  is  soonest  and  most  destructively  injured. 


316  THE  HORSE. 


CALKINS. 


It  is  expedient  not  only  that  the  foot  and  ground  surface  of  tlie  slioe 
should  be  most  accurately  level,  but  that  the  crust  should  bi;  exactly 
smoothed  and  fitted  to  the  shoe.  Much  skill  and  time  are  necessary  to  do 
tliis  perfectly  with  the  drawing- knife.  The  smith  has  ax'opted  a  method  of 
more  quickly  and  more  accurately  adapting  the  shoe  to  the  foot.  He  pares 
the  crust  as  level  as  he  can,  and  then  he  takes  the  shoe,  at  a  heat  some- 
thing below  a  red  heat,  and  applies  it  to  the  foot,  and  detects  any  little 
elevations  by  the  deeper  colour  of  the  burned  horn.  This  practice  has  beer 
much  inveighed  against;  but  it  is  the  abuse  and  not  the  use  of  the  thing 
which  is  to  be  condemned.  If  the  shoe  be  not  too  liot,  nor  held  too  long  on 
the  foot,  an  accuracy  of  adjustment  is  thus  obtained,  which  the  knife  would 
be  long  in  producing,  or  would  not  produce  at  all.  If,  however,  the  shoe 
is  made  to  burn  its  way  to  its  seat  with  little  or  no  previous  preparation  of 
the  foot,  the  heat  must  be  injurious  both  to  the  sensible  and  insensible  parts 
of  the  foot. 

The  heels  of  the  shoe  should  be  examined  as  to  their  proper  width. 
Whatever  be  the  custom  of  shoeing  the  horses  of  dealers,  and  the  too  prev- 
alent practice,  in  the  metropolis,  of  giving  the  foot  an  open  appearance, 
although  the  back  part  of  it  is  ti)ereby  exposed  to  injury,  nothing  is  more 
certain  than  that,  in  tlie  horse  for  work,  the  heels,  and  particularly  the  seat 
of  corn,  can  scarcely  be  too  well  covered.  Part  of  the  shoe  projecting 
outward  can  be  of  no  possible  good,  but  rather  an  occasional  source  of 
miscliief,  and  especially  in  a  heavy  country.  A  shoe,  the  web  of  which 
projects  inward  as  far  as  it  can,  without  touching  the  frog,  affords  protec- 
tion to  the  angle  between  the  bars  and  the  crust. 

Of  the  manner  of  attaching  the  shoe  to  the  foot  the  owner  can  scarcely 
be  a  competent  judge;  he  can  only  take  care  that  the  shoe  itself  shall  not 
be  heavier  than  the  work  requires;  that  for  work  a  little  hard,  the  shoe 
shall  still  be  light,  with  a  bit  of  steel  welded  into  the  toe;  that  the  nails 
shall  be  as  small,  and  as  few,  and  as  far  from  the  heels,  as  may  be  con- 
sistent witii  the  security  of  the  shoe ;  and  that,  for  light  work  at  least,  the 
shoe  shall  not  be  driven  on  so  closely  and  firmly  as  is  often  done,  nor  the 
points  of  the  nails  be  brought  out  so  high  up  as  is  generally  practised. 

There  are  few  cases  in  which  the  use  of  calkins  (a  turning  up  and 
elevation  of  the  heel)  can  be  admissable  in  the  fore-feet,  except  in  frosty 
weather,  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  feet.  If,  however,  calkins  are  used, 
let  them  be  placed  on  both  feet.  If  the  outer  heel  only  be  raised  with  the 
calkin,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  weight  cannot  be  thrown  evenly  on  the 
foot,  and  undue  straining  and  injury  of  some  part  of  the  foot  or  of  the  leg 
must  be  the  necessary  consequences.  Few  things  deserve  more  the  atten- 
tion of  the  horseman  than  this  most  absurd  and  injurious  of  all  the  practices 
of  the  forge.  One  quarter  of  an  hour's  walking,  with  one  side  of  the 
shoe  or  boot  raised  considerably  above  the  other,  will  painfully  convince  us 
of  what  the  horse  must  suffer  from  this  too  common  method  of  shoeing. 
We  cannot  excuse  it  even  in  the  hunting  shoe.  If  the  horse  be  ridden  fiir 
to  cover,  or  galloped  over  much  hard  and  flinty  ground,  he  will  inevitably 
.suffer  from  this  unequal  distribution  of  the  weight.  If  the  calkin  be  put 
on  the  outer  heel  to  prevent  the  horse  from  slipping,  either  the  horn  of  that 
heel  should  be  lowered  to  a  corresponding  degree,  or  the  other  heel  of  the 
shoe  siiould  be  raised  to  the  same  level  by  a  gradual  thickening.  Of  the 
use  of  ca'kins  in  the  hinder  foot,  we  shall  presently  speak 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHOES.  317 

CLIPS. 

These  are  portions  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  shoe,  hammered  out,  ami 
turned  up  so  as  to  embrace  the  lower  part  of  the  crust,  and  wliich  is  usually 
pared  out  a  little  to  receive  the  clip.  They  are  very  useful,  as  more  securely 
attaching  the  shoe  to  the  foot,  and  relieving  the  crust  from  that  stress  upon 
the  nails  which  would  otherwise  be  injurious.  A  clip  at  the  toe  is  almost 
necessary  in  every  drau^iiht-horse,  and  absolutely  so  in  the  horse  of  heavy 
draught,  to  prevent  the  shoe  from  being  loosened  or  torn  oil  by  the  stress 
which  is  thrown  upon  the  toe  in  the  act  of  drawing.  A  clip  on  the  outside 
of  each  shoe  at  the  beginning  of  the  quarters  will  give  security  to  it. 
Clips  are  likewise  necessary  on  the  shoes  of  a-ll  heavy  horses,  and  of  all 
others  that  are  disposed  to  stamp,  or  violently  paw  with  their  feet,  and  thus 
incur  the  danger  of  displacing  the  shoe;  but  they  are  evils,  in  that  they 
press  upon  the  crust  as  it  grows  down,  and  should  only  be  used  when  cir- 
cumstances absolutely  require  them. 

THE    HINDER   SHOE, 

In  forming  the  hinder  shoes,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  hind  limbs 
are  the  principal  instruments  in  progression,  and  that  in  every  act  of  pro- 
gression,  except  the  walk,  the  toe  is  the  point  on  which  the  whole  frame  of 
the  animal  turns,  and  from  which  it  is  propelled.  This  part,  then,  should 
be  strengthened  as  much  as  possible;  and,  therefore,  the  hinder  shoes  are 
made  broader  at  the  toe  than  the  fore  ones,  and  the  toe  of  the  foot,  which  is 
iiaturally  broader  than  that  of  the  fore-foot,  is  still  further  widened  by 
rasping.  Another  good  etTect  is  produced  by  this,  that  the  hinder  foot  being 
shortened,  there  is  less  danger  of  over-reaching  or  forging,  and  especially  if 
the  shoe  be  wider  on  the  foot  surface  than  on  the  ground  one;  and  thus  the 
shoe  is  made  to  slope  inward,  and  is  a  little  within  the  toe  of  the  crust. 

The  shape  of  the  hinder  foot  is  somewhat  ditferent  from  that  of  the  forcr 
foot;  it  is  straighter  in  the  quarters,  and  the  shoe  must  have  the  same 
shape.  For  carriage  and  draught-horses  generally,  calkins  may  be  put  on 
tiie  heels,  because  the  animal  v/ill  thus  be  enabled  to  dig  his  toe  more  firmly 
into  the  ground,  and  urge  himself  forward,  and  throw  his  weight  into  the 
collar  with  greater  advantage.  But  the  calkins  must  no  be  too  high,  and 
they  must  be  of  an  equal  height  on  each  heel ;  otherwise,  as  has  been 
stated  with  regard  to  the  fore-feet,  the  weight  will  not  be  fairly  distributed 
over  the  foot,  and  some  part  of  the  foot  or  of  the  leg  will  materially  suffer. 
The  nails  in  the  hinder  shoe  may  be  placed  nearer  to  the  heel  than  in  the 
fore  shoe,  because,  from  the  comparative  little  weight  and  concussion 
thrown  on  the  hinder  feet,  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of  contraction. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SHOES. 

The  shoe  will  vary  in  substance  and  weight  with  the  kind  of  foot,  and 
the  nature  of  the  work.  A  weak  foot  should  never  wear  a  heavy  shoe,  nor 
any  foot  a  shoe  that  will  last  longer  than  a  month.  Here,  perhaps,  we  may 
be  permitted  to  caution  the  horse-proprietor  against  having  his  cattle  shod 
coo  much  by  contract,  unless  he  binds  down  his  farrier  or  surgeon  to  remove 
the  shoes  once  at  least  in  every  month ;  for  if  the  contractor,  by  a  heavy 
shoe,  and  a  little  steel,  can  cause  five  or  six  weeks  to  intervene  between 
th'  shoeings,  he  will  do  so,  although  the  feet  of  the  horse  must  necessarily 
suffer       The  shoe  should  never  be  heavier  than  the  work  requires.     An 


a,sj  THE  HOilSE. 

ounce  or  two  in  the  weight  of  the  shoe  will  sadly  tell  before  the  end  of  a 
hard  day's  work.  This  is  acknowledged  in  the  hunter's  shoe,  which  is 
narrower  and  lighter  than  that  of  the  hackney  with  even  smaller  feet  than 
the  hunter;  and  it  is  more  decidedly  acknowledged  in  the  racer,  who  wears 
a  shoe  only  sufficiently  thick  to  prevent  it  from  bending  when  used. 

THE  HUNTING  SHOE. 

The  hunter's  shoe  is  different  from  that  of  the  hackney  in  shape  as  well 
as  weight.  It  is  not  so  much  bevelled  off  as  the  common  concave  seated 
shoe.  Sufficient  space  alone  is  left  for  the  introduction  of  a  picker  between 
the  shoe  and  the  sole,  otherwise,  in  going  over  heavy  ground,  the  clay  will 
get  in,  and  by  its  tenacity  loosen,  and  even  tear  off  the  shoe.  The  heels 
likewise  are  somewhat  shorter,  that  they  may  not  be  torn  off  by  the  toe  of 
the  hind-feet  when  galloping  fast,  and  the  outer  heel  is  frequently  and 
injudiciously  turned  up  to  prevent  slipping.  The  reader  will  remember 
what  we  have  just  said  of  this.  If  calkins  are  necessary,  let,  at  least,  both 
heels  have  an  equal  bearing. 

THE  BAR- SHOE. 

A  bar-shoe  is  a  very  useful  contrivance.  It  is  the  continuation  of  the 
common  shoe  round  the  heels,  and  by  means  of  it  the  pressure  may  be 
taken  off  some  tender  part  of  the  foot,  and  thrown  on  another  which  is  better 
able  to  bear  it,  or  more  widely  and  equally  diffused  over  the  whole  foot. 
It  is  principally  resorted  to  in  case  of  corn,  the  seat  of  which  it  perfectly 
covers;  in  pumiced  feet,  the  soles  of  which  may  be  thus  elevated  above  the 
ground,  and  secured  from  pressure;  in  sand-crack,  when  the  pressure  may 
be  removed  from  the  fissure,  and  thrown  on  either  side  of  it;  in  thrushes, 
when  the  frog  is  tender,  or  is  become  cankered,  and  requires  to  be 
frequently  dressed,  and  the  dressing  can  by  this  means  alone  be  retained. 
In  these  cases  the  bar-shoe  is  an  excellent  contrivance,  if  worn  only  for 
one  or  two  shoeings,  or  as  long  as  the  disease  requires  it  to  be  worn,  but  i* 
must  be  left  off  as  soon  as  it  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  it  be  used  for  the 
protection  of  a  diseased  foot,  however  it  may  be  chambered  and  laid  off  the 
frog,  it  will  soon  be  flattened  down  upon  it;  or  if  the  pressure  of  it  be  thrown 
on  the  frog,  to  relieve  the  sand-crack  or  the  corn,  that  frog  must  be  very 
strong  and  healthy  which  can  long  bear  the  great  and  continued  pressure. 
More  mischief  is  often  produced  in  the  frog  than  previously  existed  in  the 
part  which  was  relieved.  It  will  be  plain  that  in  the  use  of  the  bar-shoe 
for  corn  or  sand-crack,  the  crust  and  frog  should  be  precisely  on  a  level, 
and  the  bar  should  be  the  widest  part  of  the  shoe,  to  afford  as  extended 
bearing  as  possible  on  the  frog,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  be  injurious. 
Bar-shoes  are  evidently  not  safe  in  frosty  weather;  they  are  never  safe 
when  much  speed  is  required  from  the  horse,  and  they  are  apt  to  be 
wrenched  off  in  a  heavy,  clayey  country. 

TIPS. 

Tips  are  short  shoes,  reaching  only  half  round  the  foot,  and  worn  while 
the  horse  is  at  grass,  to  prevlent  the  crust  being  lorn  by  the  occasional  baro- 
ness of  the  ground,  or  by  the  pawing  of  the  animal;  and  the  quarters  at 
the  same  time  being  free,  the  foot  disposed  to  contract  has  a  chance  of 
expanding  and  regaining  its  natural  shape. 


FELT  OR  LEATHER  SOLES. 


THE  EXPi^NDING  SHOE. 


iUb 


Our  subject  would  not  be  completed  if  we  did  not  describe  the  supposed 
expandinjT  shoe.  It  is  either  seated  or  concave  like  the  common  shoe, 
with  a  joint  at  the  toe,  by  which  the  natural  expansion  of  the  loot  is  said 
lo  be  permitted,  and  the  injurious  consequences  of  shoeing  prevented. 
There  is,  however,  this  radical  defect  in  the  jointed  shoe,  that  the  nails 
occupy  the  same  situation  as  in  the  common  shoe,  and  prevent,  as  do 
the  nails  of  the  common  shoe,  tiie  gradual  expansion  of  the  sides  and 
(juarters,  and  allow  only  of  a  hinge-like  motion  at  the  toe.  This  is  a  most 
imperfect  accommodation  of  the  expansion  of  the  foot  to  the  action  of  ils 
internal  parts,  and  even  this  accommodation  is  afforded  in  the  slightest 
possible  degree,  or  rather  can  scarcely  be  afforded  at  all.  Either  the  nails 
fix  the  sides  and  quarters  as  in  the  common  shoe,  and  then  the  joint  at 
the  toe  is  useless ;  or,  if  that  joint  merely  opens  like  a  hinge,  the  nail- 
holes  m  the  shoe  can  no  longer  correspond  with  those  in  the  quarters, 
whicli  are  unequally  expanding  at  every  point ;  and,  therefore,  there  will 
be  more  stress  on  the  crust  at  these  holes,  which  will  not  only  enlarge 
them,  and  destroy  the  fixed  attachment  of  the  shoe  to  the  hoof,  but  will 
often  tear  away  portions  of  the  crust.  This  has,  in  many  cases,  been 
found  to  be  the  effect  of  the  jointed  shoe  :  the  sides  and  quarters  of  the 
foot  have  been  broken  until  it  has  become  difficult  to  find  nail-hold.  This 
shoe,  to  answer  the  intended  purpose,  should  consist  of  many  joints,  run- 
ning along  the  sides  and  quarters,  which  would  make  it  too  complicated 
and  expensive  and  frail  for  general  use 

While  the  shoe  is  to  be  attached  to  the  foot  by  nails,  we  must  be  content 
with  the  concave  seated  one,  taking  care  to  place  the  nail-holes  as  far  from 
the  heels,  and  particularly  from  the  inner  heel,  as  the  state  of  the  foot  and 
the  nature  of  the  work  will  admit ;  and  where  the  country  is  not  too  heavy 
nor  the  work  too  severe,  even  omitting  the  nails  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
foot.  Shoes  nailed  on  the  outer  side,  and  at  the  toe,  are  more  secure  than 
some  would  imagine,  while  the  inner  quarter  will  be  left  free,  to  prevent 
contraction,  or  to  arrest  its  progress. 

The  attempt,  however,  to  lessen  the  evils  produced  by  shoeing  is  most 
praiseworthy  ;  and  men  like  Mr.  Bracy  Clark  deserve  the  respect  and  the 
thanks  of  the  public,  although  their  labours  may  not  be  crowned  with  suc- 
cess. Every  contrivance  permanently  to  fix  the  shoe  on  the  foot  wHhoul 
the  use  of  nails  has  failed  ;  but  a  make-shift  shoe  has  been  contrived,  and 
is  to  be  procured  at  most  saddlers,  which  is  easily  carried  in  the  pocket, 
and  put  on  in  a  minute  or  two,  if  a  shoe  is  lost  in  hunting  or  on  the  road  ; 
and  which  will  remain  securely  attached  to  the  foot,  and  prevent  injury  to 
it,  during  a  journey  of  thirty  or  forty  miles. 

FELT  OR  LEATHER   SOLES. 

When  the  foot  is  bruised  or  inflamed,  the  concussion  or  shock  produced 
by  the  hard  contact  of  the  elastic  iron  on  the  ground  gives  the  animal  much 
pain,  and  causes  a  short  and  feeling  step,  or  even  lameness,  and  aggravates 
the  injury  or  disease.  A  strip  of  felt  or  leather  is  sometimes  placed  between 
the  seating  of  the  shoe  and  the  crust,  which,  from  its  want  of  elasticity, 
deadens  or  materially  lessens  the  vibration  or  shock,  and  the  horse  treads 
more  freely  and  is  evidently  relieved.  This  is  a  very  good  contrivance 
while  the  inflammation  or  tenderne.ss  of  the  foot  continues,  but  a  very  bad 
practice,  if  constantly  adopted.  The  nails  cannot  be  driven  so  surely  or  so 
securel}'  when  this  substance  is  interposed  between  the  shoe  and  the  foot; 


320 


THE  HORSE. 


the  contraction  or  swelling  of  the  felt  or  leather  from  the  effect  ot  moisture 
or  dryness  Nviil  soon  render  the  altaclnnent  of  the  shoe  less  firm;  there  will 
be  too  much  play  upon  the  nails;  the  nail-iioles  will  enlarge,  and  the  crust 
will  be  broken  away. 

After  wounds  or  extensive  bruises  of  the  sole,  or  where  the  sole  is  thin 
and  flat  and  tender,  it  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  piece  of  leather,  fitted 
to  the  sole,  and  nailed  on  with  the  shoe.  This  may  be  allowed  as  a 
temporary  defence  of  the  foot;  but  there  is  the  same  objection  to  its 
permanent  use  from  the  insecurity  of  fastening,  and  the  strain  on  the 
crust,  and  the  frequent  chipping  of  it:  and  there  are  these  additional 
inconveniences,  that  if  the  hollow  between  tlie  sole  and  the  leather  be  filled 
with  stopping  and  tow,  it  is  exceedingly  difiicult  to  introduce  them  so  evenly 
and  accurately  as  not  to  produce  some  partial  or  injurious  pressure;  tlial 
a  few  days'  work  will  almost  invariably  so  derange  the  padding  as  to  pro- 
duce partial  pressure;  that  the  long  contact  of  the  sole  with  stopping  of 
almost  every  kind  will  produce,  not  a  healthy,  elastic  liorn,  but  horn  of  a 
scaly,  spongy  nature;  and  that,  if  the  hollow  be  not  thus  filled,  gravel  and 
dirt  will  insinuate  themselves,  and  cause  unequal  pressure,  and  eat  into 
tnd  injure  the  foot. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
OPERATIONS. 


These  belong  more  to  the  veterinary  surgeon  than  to  the  proprietor  of  the 
horse,  but  a  short  account  of  the  manner  of  conducting  the  principal  ones 
should  not  be  omitted. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  bind  the  human  patient,  and  in  no  painful 
or  dangerous  operation  should  this  preliminary  be  omitted.  It  is  more 
necessary  to  bind  the  horse,  who  is  not  under  the  control  of  reason,  and 
whose  struggles  may  not  only  be  injurious  to  himself,  but  dangerous  to  the 
operator. 

The /retJ?s  is  a  machine  indispensable  to  every  continental  forge;  even 
rhe  quietest  horses  are  there  put  into  it  to  be  shod.  It  is  found  in  many  of 
our  country  forges,  and  is  occupied  by  horses  that  cannot  otherwise  be  shod 
without  manifest  danger  to  the  smith.  It  seldom,  however,  finds  a  place 
in  our  improved  forges,  although  it  would  be  useful  for  docking,  firing, 
and  many  other  purposes.  The  horse  is  confined  within  enormous  bars  of 
wood,  and  slung  there,  but  many  have  been  destroyed  in  their  determined 
resistance  to  such  restraint. 

The  s'de-Iine  is  a  very  simple  and  useful  method  of  confining  the  horse, 
and  places  him  in  sufficient  subjection  for  the  operations  of  docking, 
nicking,  and  slight  firing.  The  long  line  of  the  hobbles,  or  a  common  cart, 
rope  with  a  noose  at  the  end,  is  fastened  on  the  pastern  of  one  hind-leg. 
The  rope  is  then  brought  over  the  neck  and  round  the  witl)ers,  and  there 
lied  to  the  portion  that  comes  from  the  leg.  The  leg  may  thus  be  drawn 
so  far  forward,  that  while  the  horse  evidently  cannot  kick  with  that  leg,  he 
ii,  disarmed  of  the  other;  for  he  would  not  have  sufficient  support  under 
him  if  he  attempted  to  raise  it.  Neither  can  he  easily  use  his  fore-legs,  or, 
if  he  attempts  to  use  them,  one  of  them  may  be  lifted  up,  when  he  becomes 
'learly  powerless.  If  necessary,  the  aid  ci"  the  twitch  or  the  barnaolss, 
»nay  be  resoitcd  to. 


BLEEDING.  321 

F:)r  every  minor  operation,  and  even  for  many  ihat  are  of  more  impori- 
ance,  tiiis  mode  of  restraint  is  sufficient;  especially  if  the  operator  has 
active  and  determined  assistants  :  and  we  confess  that  we  are  no  frifnds  tc> 
the  casting  of  horses,  if  it  can  possibly  be  prevented.  Whin  both  legs  are 
included  in  the  hobble  or  rope  (as  in  another  way  of  using  tiie  side-line), 
the  horse  may  appear  to  be  more  secure,  but  there  is  greater  danger  ol"  his 
falling  in  his  violent  struggles  during  the  operation. 

For  castrating  and  severe  firing,  the  animal  must  be  thrown.  The  con- 
struction of  the  hobbles  is  well  known  to  every  farrier,  and  almost  to  every 
proprietor  of  horses.  We  will  only  say  that  the  safety  of  the  horse  and  of 
the  operator  will  require  the  use  of  the  improved  hobbles,  by  which  any 
leg  may  be  released  from  confinement,  and  returned  to  it  at  pleasure  ;  and, 
when  the  operation  is  ended,  the  whole  of  the  legs  may  be  set  at  liberty  at 
once  without  danger.  The  method  of  putting  the  legs  as  closely  together 
as  possible  before  tiie  pull,  the  necessity  of  the  assistants  all  pulling  together, 
and  the  power,  which  one  man  standing  at  the  head,  and  firmly  holding 
the  snafile-bridle,  and  another  at  the  haunch,  pushing  the  horse  when  he  is 
beginning  to  fall,  have  in  bringing  him  on  the  proper  side,  and  on  the  verj 
spot  on  which  he  is  intended  to  lie,  need  not  to  be  described.  This,  how. 
ever,  is  a  method  of  securing  the  horse  to  which  we  repeat  that  we  are  not 
partial,  and  to  which  we  should  not  resort,  except  necessity  compelled ;  for 
in  the  act  of  falling,  and  in  the  struggles  after  falling,  many  accidents  have 
oc>.urred  both  to  the  horse  and  the  surgeon. 

Among  the  minor  methods  of  restraint,  but  sufficient  for  many  purposes, 
are  the  twitch  and  the  barnacles.  The  former  consists  of  a  noose  passed 
through  a  hole  at  the  end  of  a  strong  stick,  and  in  which  the  muzzle  is 
inclosed.  The  stick  being  turned,  the  muzzle  is  securely  retained,  while 
the  horse  suffers  great  pain  from  the  pressure — sufficiently  great  to  render 
him  comparatively  inattentive  to  that  which  is  produced  by  the  operation  ; 
at  the  same  time,  he  is  afraid  to  struggle,  for  every  motion  increases  the 
agony  caused  by  the  twitch,  or  the  assistant  has  power  to  increase  it  by 
giving  an  additional  turn  to  the  stick. 

The  barnacles  are  the  handles  of  the  pinchers  placed  over  and  inclosing 
the  muzzle,  and  which,  being  compressed  by  the  assistant,  give  pain  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  twitch.  These  may  appear  to  be  barbarous  modes  of 
enforcing  submission,  but  they  are  absolutely  indispensable.  In  a  hw 
instances,  the  blindfolding  of  the  horse  terrifies  him  into  submission  ;  but 
this  is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  The  twitch  should  be  resorted  to  when 
the  least  resistance  is  offered ;  and  when  that,  as  it  occasionally  does, 
renders  the  horse  more  violent,  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  side-line  or 
the  hobbles. 

In  painful  exami'iation  of  the  fore-leg  or  foot  while  on  the  ground,  the 
other  foot  should  be  held  up  by  an  assistant;  or,  if  his  aid  be  required  in 
an  operation,  the  knee  may  be  fully  bent,  and  the  pastern  tied  up  lo  the  arm. 
When  the  hind-leg  is  to  be  examined  in  the  same  way,  the  fore-leg  on  that 
side  should  be  held  or  fastened  up. 

BLEEDING. 

The  operation  of  Bleeding  has  been  already  described  (p.  179),  but  we 
rt'ould  remind  our  readers  of  the  necessity,  in  every  case  of  acute  inflam- 
mation, of  making  a  large  orifice,  and  abstracting  the  blood  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  for  the  constitution  will  thus  be  the  more  speedily  and  beneficially 
affected  ;  and  also,  of  the  propriety  of  never  determining  to  take  a  precise 
quantity  of  blood,  but  of  keeping  the  finger  on  the  artery  until  the  pulse 


322  THE  HORSE. 

begins  tc  ch?n;5e;  until  the  strong  pulse  of  fever  becon.es  softer,  or 
the  animal  is  faint,  or  the  oppressed  pulse  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is 
rounder  and  fuller. 

In  cases  of  inflammation,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  practitioner, 
')leeding  is  tlie  sheet-anchor  of  the  veterinarian  ;  yet  few  things  are  more 
to  be  reprobated  tiian  tiie  indiscriminate  bleeding  of  the  groom  or  the 
farrier. 

The  change  which  takes  place  in  the  blood  after  it  is  drawn  from  the 
vein  is  very  diligently  noticed  by  many  practitioners,  and  is  certainly  de- 
serving of  some  attention.  The  blood  coagulates  soon  after  it  is  taken  from 
the  vein.  The  coagulable  part  is  composed  of  two  substances,  tiiat  which 
gives  colour  to  tlie  blood,  and  that  in  which  the  red  particles  float.  These 
by  degrees  separate  from  each  other,  and  the  red  particles  sink  to  tlie  bottom. 
If  the  coagulation  takes  place  slowly,  the  red  particles  have  more  time  to 
sink  through  the  fluid,  and  there  appears  on  the  top  a  thick,  yellowish, 
adhesive  coat,  called  the  huffy  coat.  It  is  supposed  that  the  slowness  of 
coagulation,  and  the  thickness  of  huffy  coat,  are  indicative  of  inflammation, 
and  of  the  degree  of  inflammation. 

In  a  healthy  state  of  the  system,  the  coagulation  is  more  rapid,  the 
red  particles  have  not  time  to  fall  through,  and  the  huffy  coat  is  thin. 
These  appearances  are  worth  observing;  but  n  uch  more  dependence  is 
to  be  placed  on  the  pulse,  the  change  of  the  pulse,  and  the  symptoms 
generally.  When  the  horse  is  exhausted,  and  the  system  nearly  broken 
up,  the  blood  will  sometimes  not  coagulate  at  all,  but  be  of  one  unitorm 
black  colour  and  loose  texture.  When  the  blood  runs  down  the  side  of 
the  vessel  ii.  »vhich  it  is  received,  the  coagulation  will  be  very  imperfect. 
When  it  is  drawn  in  a  full  stream,  it  coagulates  slowly;  when  more  slowly, 
or  from  a  smaller  orifice,  the  coagulation  is  more  rapid  ;  therefore,  all  these 
extraneous  circumstances  affecting  so  much  the  coagulation  and  consequent 
appearance  of  the  blood,  the  pulse,  and  the  general  symptoms,  should  be 
the  chief  objects  of  regard. 

BLISTERING. 

Of  Blisters  we  have  also  spoken  when  treating  of  the  various  diseases 
to  which  they  are  applicable.  The  principle  on  which  they  act  is,  that  no 
two  intense  inflammations  can  exist  in  neighbouring  parts,  or  perhaps  in 
the  system,  at  the  same  time.  Hence  we  apply  some  stimulating  acrimo- 
nious substance  to  the  skin,  to  excite  external  inflammation,  and  to  lessen 
or  draw  away  inflammation  in  some  deeper-seated,  and  generally  not  far- 
distant  part.  Thus  we  blister  the  sides  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs; 
the  belly,  in  that  of  the  bowels  ;  the  legs,  in  that  of  the  cellular  substance 
surrounding  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons,  or  the  sheaths  themselves,  and  the 
coronet  or  the  heel  in  inflammation  of  the  navicular-joint. 

Blisters  have  likewise  the  property  of  increasing  the  activity  of  the 
neighbouring  vessels:  thus  we  blister  to  bring  the  tumour  of  strangles 
more  speedily  tb  a  head  ;  we  blister  to  rouse  the  absorbents  to  more 
energetic  action,  and  take  away  tumours,  and  callous  and  even  bony 
substances. 

The  judgment  of  the  practitioner  will  decide  when  the  desired  effect  will 
be  best  [)roduced  by  a  sudden  and  violent  action,  or  by  the  continuance  of 
one  of  a  milder  nature.  Inflammation  should  be  met  by  active  blisters; 
old  enlargements  and  swellings  will  be  most  certainly  removed  by  milder 
stimulants — by  the  process  which  farriers  call  sweal/ng  doxcn. 

There  is  no  better  blister  ointment  or  active  blister  than  the  Spanish 
fly,   mixed   with   the    proportions   of  lard    and    resin    already  mentioned, 


BLISTERING.  31:3 

0.  186,  The  best  liquid  or  sweating  blister  is  an  infusion  of  the  fly  in 
mrpentine,  and  that  lowered  with  neat's-foot  oil  according  to  the  degree  o. 
activity  required. 

In  preparing  the  horse  for  blistering,  the  hair  should  be  clipped  or  shaved 
as  closely  as  possible,  and  the  ointment  thoroughly  rubbed  in.  Much  faul. 
js  often  found  with  the  ointment,  if  the  blister  does  not  rise,  when  the  real 
blame  should  be  attributed  to  the  idleness  of  the  operator. 

The  head  of  the  horse  must  be  tied  up  for  the  first  two  days;  except  that 
when  the  sides  are  blistered,  the  body-clothes  may  be  so  contrived  as  to 
prevent  the  horse  from  nibbling  and  blemishing  the  part,  or  blistering  his 
muzzle.  At  the  expiration  of  twenty-four  hours,  a  little  olive  or  neat's-foot 
oil  may  be  applied  over  the  blister,  which  will  considerably  lessen  the  pain 
and  supple  the  part,  and  prevent  cracks  in  the  skin  that  may  be  difficult 
to  heal.  The  oil  should  be  applied  morning  and  night,  until  the  scabs 
peel  otf.  When  they  begin  to  loosen,  a  lather  of  soap  and  water  applied 
with  a  sponge  may  hasten  their  removal,  but  no  violence  must  be  used. 

Every  particle  of  litter  should  be  carefully  removed  from  the  stall  ;  for 
the  sharp  ends  of  the  straw,  coming  in  contact  with  a  part  rendered  so 
tender  and  irritable  by  the  blister,  will  cause  very  great  annoyance  to  the 
animal.  After  the  second  day,  the  horse  may  be  suffered  to  lie  dov/n  ;  but 
still,  the  possibility  of  blemishing  himself  should  be  prevented  by  a  cradle 
or  wooden  necklace,  consisting  of  round  strips  of  wood  strung  together, 
reaching  from  the  lower  jaw  to  the  chest,  and  preventing  the  horse  from 
sufficiently  turning  or  bending  his  head  to  get  at  the  blistered  part. 

A  blister  thus  treated  will  rarely  produce  the  slightest  blemish.  When 
the  scabs  are  all  removed,  the  blister  may  be  repeated,  if  the  case  should 
appear  to  require  it,  or  the  iiorse  may  be  turned  out. 

In  inflammations  which  threaten  life,  a  blister  can  scarcely  be  too  --Native 
or  too  extensive.  In  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  it  should  reach  over  the 
whole  of  the  sides,  and  a  greater  part  of  the  brisket;  for  should  a  portion 
of  tlie  fly  be  absorbed,  and  produce  slrtmgury,  (inflammation,  or  spasmodic 
affection  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,)  even  this  new  irritation  may  assist  in 
subduing  the  first  and  more  dangerous  one;  but  in  blistering  for  injuries  or 
diseases  of  the  legs  or  feet,  some  caution  is  necessary.  When  speaking  of 
the  treatment  of  sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  p.  247,  we  stated,  that  "a 
blister  never  should  be  used  while  any  heat  or  tenderness  remains  about 
the  part;"  for  we  should  then  add  to  the  superficial  inflammation,  instead  of 
abating  the  deeper-seated  one;  and  enlargements  of  the  limb  and  ulcera- 
tions might  follow,  which  would  render  the  horse  perfectly  unserviceable. 
When  there  is  a  tendency  to  grease,  a  blister  is  a  dangerous  thing,  and  has 
often  aggravated  the  disease.  In  winter,  the  inflammation  of  the  skin 
produced  by  blistering  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  grease;  therefore,  if  it 
should  be  necessary  to  blister  the  horse  during  that  season,  great  care  must 
be  taken  that  he  is  not  exposed  to  cold,  and,  particularly,  that  a  current  of 
cold  air  does  not  come  upon  the  legs. 

The  inhuman  practice  of  blistering  all  round,  and  perhaps  high  on  the 
leg  at  the  same  time,  cannot  be  too  strongly  reprobated.  Many  a  valuable 
horse  has  been  lost  through  the  excessive  general  irritation  which  this  has 
produced,  or  its  violent  effects  on  the  urinary  organs;  and  this  has  been 
particularly  the  case,  when  corrosive  sublimate  has  entered  into  the  com- 
position of  the  blister. 

If  Strangury  should  appear,  the  horse  should  be  plentifully  supplied 
with  linseed  tea,  which  is  thus  best  prepared  :  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  is 
poured  on  half  a  pound  of  linseed;  the  infusion  suffer^  to  stand  still  till 


324  THE  HORSE. 

nearly  cold,  and  the  clean  mucilaginous  fluid  then  poured  off.  Three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  Epsoin  salts  should  also  be  given,  dissolved  in  a 
quart  of  water,  and  after  that,  a  ball  every  six  hours,  composed  of  a  scruple 
of  opium,  and  a  drachm  of  camphor,  with  linseed  meal  and  treacle. 

Half  a  pound  or  a  pound  of  good  nmstard  powder,  made  into  a  paste 
with  boiling  water,  and  applied  hot,  will  often  produce  as  good  a  blister  as 
cantharides,  with  far  more  swelling.  It  is  a  j)referable  one,  where,  as  in 
inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  the  effect  of  cantiiarides  on  the  urinary  organs 
's  feared.  Hartshorn  is  not  so  effectual.  Tincture  of  croton  makes  an 
"UJtive  liquid  blister. 

FIRING. 

Whatever  seeming  cruelty  may  attend  this  operation,  it  is,  in  many  cases, 
<»'idispensable.  Tiie  principle  on  which  we  have  recourse  to  it  is  similar 
to  that  which  justifies  the  use  of  a  blister;  by  producing  superficial  inflam- 
mation we  may  be  enabled  to  remove  a  deeper-seated  one,  or  we  may  excite 
;he  absorbents  to  take  away  any  unnatural  bony  or  other  tumour  :  it  has 
also  this  additional  advantage,  that,  while  it  raises  intenser  external  inflam- 
mation than  we  can  produce  by  other  means,  it  is  the  most  powerful  agent 
that  we  have  -at  our  disposal.  Huuianity,  however,  will  dictate,  that  on 
account  of  inflammation  which  it  excites,  and  the  pain  which  it  inflicts,  it 
Bhould  only  be  had  recourse  to  when  milder  means  have  fixiled,  except  in 
:hose  cases  in  which  experience  has  tauglit  us  that  milder  means  rarely 
prove  successful. 

The  part  which  is  to  be  submitted  to  the  operation  is  shaved,  or  the  hair 
<s  cut  from  it  as  closely  as  possible  with  the  trimming  scissors.  This  is 
necessary  to  bring  the  iron  into  immediate  contact  with  the  skin,  and  like- 
wise to  prevent  the  smoke  that  will  arise  from  the  burned  hair  from  ob- 
scuring the  view  of  the  operator.  The  horse  must  then  be  thrown.  This  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  both  of  the  operator  and  the  animal. 
The  side  line  is  applied  in  a  shorter  time,  and  so  many  hands  are  not 
wanted  to  cast  the  horse;  but  no  persons  can  fire  accurately,  or  with  the 
certainty  of  not  penetrating  the  skin,  except  the  horse  is  effectually  secured 
by  the  hobbles;  and  although  accidents  have  occurred  in  the  act  of  throw- 
ing, yet  many  more  have  resulted  to  the  operator,  the  assistants,  or  the 
horse,  in  a  protracted  operation  like  this,  when  the  side-line  only  has 
been  used. 

The  details  of  the  operation  belong  to  the  veterinary  surgeon.  The 
grand  points  to  be  attended  to  are  to  have  the  edge  of  the  iron  round  and 
smooth;  the  iron  itself  at,  or  rather  below  red  heat;  to  pass  it  more  or  less 
rapidly  over  the  skin,  and  with  slighter  or  greater  pressure,  according  to  the 
degree  of  heat;  to  burn  into  the  skin  until  the  line  produced  by  the  iron 
is  of  a  brown  colour,  rather  light  than  dark,  and  by  all  means  avoid  pcnC' 
traling  the  skin.  Leaving  the  additional  cruelty  of  deep  firing  out  ol'  the 
question,  we  may  depend  on  it  that,  if  the  skin  is  burned  through,  inflam- 
mation, and  ulceration,  and  sloughing  will  ensue,  which  will  be  with  much 
difiiculty  combated  ;  which  will  unavoidably  leave  unnecessary  blemish, 
and  which  have  destroyed  many  valuable  horses.  It  may  happen,  never- 
theless, that  by  a  sudden  plunge  of  the  animal,  the  skin  will  be  unavoida- 
bly  cut  through.  The  act  of  firing  requires  much  skill  and  tact,  and  the 
practitioner  cannot  be  always  on  his  guard  against  the  struggles  of  the 
tortured  beast.  It  will,  also,  and  not  unfrequently  occur,  ihat  the  skin^  pai 
lially  divided,  wi!^  separate  in  two  or  three  days  ai^er  the  operation.     'I'his 


FIRING.  325 

must  not  be  attributed  to  any  neglect  or  unskilfulness  of  the  surgeon,  and 
the  ulceration  thus  produced  will  be  slight,  and  easily  treated,  compared 
with  that  caused  by  the  actual  burning  througii  of  the  skin. 

Some  practitioners  blister  immediately  after  firing.  As  a  general  usagv, 
it  is  highly  to  be  reprobated.  It  is  wanton  and  useless  cruelty  ;  but  it  may 
be  required  in  bony  tumours  of  considerable  extent,  and  long  standing,  and 
interfering  materially  with  the  action  of  ihe  neighbouring  joint.  Spavin, 
accompamed  by  much  lameness,  and  ring-bone  spreading  round  the 
coronet,  and  involving  tiie  side  cartilages,  or  the  pastern-joint,  may  justify 
it.  The  inflammation  is  rendered  more  intense,  and  of  considerably 
longer  duration.  In  old  attections  of  the  round  bone  it  may  be  admitted, 
but  no  excuse  can  be  made  for  it  in  slighter  cases  of  sprain,  or  weakness, 
or  staleness. 

On  the  day  after  the  operation,  it  will  be  prudent  gently  to  rub  some 
neat's-foot  oil  or  lard  over  the  lines.  This  will  soften  the  skin,  and  render 
it  less  likely  to  separate  or  ulcerate;  a  bandage  would  add  to  the  irritation 
of  the  part.  Any  cracks  of  the  skin,  or  ulceration  that  may  ensue,  must 
be  treated  with  the  cala,mine  ointment  already  recommended. 

It  will  be  evident  that  there  is  an  advantage  derived  from  firing  to  which 
a  blister  can  have  no  pretension.  The  skin,  partially  destroyed  by  the 
iron,  is  reinstated  and  healed,  not  merely  by  the  tormation  of  some  new 
matter  filling  up  the  vacuity,  but  by  the  gradual  drawing  together  and 
closing  of  the  separated  edges.  The  skin,  therefore,  is  lessened  in  surface; 
it  is  tightened  over  the  part,  and  it  acts  as  a  salutary  and  permanent 
bandage.  Of  the  effect  of  pressure  in  removing  enlargements  of  every 
kind,  as  well  as  giving  strength  to  the  part  to  wiiich  it  is  applied,  we  have 
repeatedly  spoken;  and  it  is  far  from  being  the  least  valuable  effect  of  the 
operation  of  firing,  that  by  contracting  The  skin,  it  affords  a  salutary, 
equable,  and  permanent  pressure.  It  was  on  this  principle,  but  the  practice 
cannot  be  defended,  that  colts  which  were  not  very  strong  on  the  legs, 
used  to  be  fired  round  the  fetlock,  and  along  the  back  sinews,  or  over  the 
hock,  to  brace  and  strengthen  the  parts.  It  is  on  the  same  principle  that  a 
racer  or  a  hunter,  that  has  become  stale  and  stifi",  is  sometimes  fired  and 
turned  out.  For  whatever  reason  the  horse  is  fired,  he  should,  if  practica- 
ble,  be  turned  out,  or  soiled  in  a  loose  box,  for  tiiree  or  four  months  at  least. 
The  full  efiect  intended  to  result  from  the  external  irritation  is  not  soon 
produced,  and  the  benefit  derived  from  pressure  proceeds  still  more 
slowly.  In  the  thickened  and  tender  state  of  the  skin,  and  the  substance 
beneath,  for  some  weeks  after  firing,  a  return  to  hard  work  would  be  likely 
to  excite  a  new  inflammation,  and  cause  even  worse  mischief  than  that 
which  before  existed. 

Some  weeks  pass  before  the  tumefied  parts  begin  to  lessen,  and  they  only 
who  iiave  had  experience  in  these  cases  would  imagine  how  long,  with  gentle 
voluntary  exercise,  the  process  of  absorption  is  carried  on.  He,  therefore, 
who  would  expect  that  much  good  should  accrue  from  the  operation  of 
firing,  must  be  content  to  give  up  his  horse  for  three  or  four  months;  but 
if  he  will  use  him  sooner,  and  a  worse  lameness  should  follow,  let  him 
blame  his  own  impatience,  and  not  the  inefficiency  of  the  means,  or  want  of 
skill  in  the  surgeon. 

The  firing  in  every  case  should  be  either  in  longitudinal  or  parallel 
lines.  On  the  back  sinews,  the  fetlock,  and  the  coronet,  this  is  peculiarly 
requisite,  for  thus  only  will  t!ie  ^kin  contract  so  as  to  form  the  greaiest  and 
most  equable  pressure. 

The  practitioner  may  pride  himself  in  the  accuracy  of  his  diamonds, 
.o'^enges,  and  feathers,  but  plain  straight  lines,  about  half  an  inch  from  eacf 


32G 


THE  HORSE. 


'•tlier,  will  form  the  most  advantageous  mode  of  firing.  The  destroying  ol 
deeply-seated  inflammation,  by  the  exciting  of  violent  inflammation  on  the 
skin,  is  as  well  obtained;  and  common  sense  will  determine,  that  in  no 
way  can  the  pressure  which  results  from  the  contraction  of  the  skin  be  so 
advantageously  employed,  to  which  we  may  add,  that  it  often  leaves  not  the 
slightest  blemish. 

SETONS 

Are  pieces  of  tape  or  cord,  passed  by  means  of  an  instrument,  resem- 
bling a  large  needle,  either  through  abscesses,  or  the  base  of  ulcers  with 
deep  sinuses,  or  between  the  skin  and  the  muscular,  or  other  substances 
beneath.  They  are  retained  there  by  the  ends  being  tied  together,  or  by 
a  knot  at  each  end.  The  tape  is  moved  in  the  wound  twice  or  thrice  in 
the  day,  and  occasionally  wetted  with  spirit  of  turpentine,  or  some  acrid 
liquid,  in  order  to  increase  the  inflammation  which  it  produces,  or  the  dis- 
charge which  is  intended  to  be  established. 

In  abscesses,  such  as  tumours  in  the  withers  or  the  poll,  and  when  passed 
from  the  summit  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  swelling,  setons  are  highly  use- 
ful, as  discharging  the  fluid,  and  sufiering  any  fresh  quantity  of  it  that  may 
be  secreted  to  flow  out;  and,  by  tlie  degree  of  inflammation  which  they 
excite  on  the  inside  of  the  tumour,  stimulating  it  to  throw  out  healthy 
granulations,  which  gradually  occupy  and  All  the  hollow.  In  deep  fistulous 
wounds  they  are  indispensable;  for  except  some  orifice  be  made  for  the 
matter  to  flow  from  the  bottom  of  the  wound,  it  will  continue  to  eat  deeper 
into  it,  and  the  healing  process  can  never  be  accomplished.  On  these 
accounts,  a  seton  passed  through  the  bottom  of  the  ulcer  in  poll-evil  and 
fistulous  withers  is  of. so  much  benefit. 

Setons  are  sometimes  useful  by  promoting  a  discharge  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  an  inflamed  part,  and  thus  diverting  and  carrying  away  a  portion 
of  the  fluids  which  overload  or  would  otherwise  more  distend  the  vessels 
of  that  part:  thus  a  seton  is  placed  in  the  cheek  with  considerable  advan- 
tage, wjien  the  eyes  are  inflamed;  we  confess,  however,  that  we  far  prefer 
a  rowel  under  the  jaw. 

With  this  view,  and  lo  excite  a  new  and  different  inflammation  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  part  already  inflamed,  and  especially  so  deeply  seated 
and  so  diflicult  to  be  got  at  as  the  navicular-joint,  a  seton  has  occasionally 
been  used  with  manifest  benefit,  but  we  must  peremptorily  object  to  the 
indiscriminate  use  of  the  frog-seton  for  almost  every  disease  of  the  frog 
or  the  foot. 

In  inflammations  of  extensive  organs,  setons  afford  only  feeble  aid. 
Their  action  is  too  circumscribed.  In  inflammation  of  the  chest  or  the 
intestines,  a  rowel  is  preferable  to  a  seton;  and  a  blister  is  far  better  than 
either  of  them. 

On  the  principle  of  exciting  the  absorbents  to  action  for  the  removal  of 
tumours,  as  spavin,  or  splent,  a  blister  is  quicker  in  its  action,  and  far  more 
effectual  than  any  seton ;  and  firing  is  still  more  energetic.  Many  horses 
have  been  blemished  for  life  by  the  seton  being  torn  out,  and  ulcerations, 
difficult  to  heal,  having  been  produced ;  while  week  after  week  has  often 
passed  on,  and  tiie  owner  has  been  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  annual, 
without  the  tumour,  or  the  lameness  which  it  caused,  being  in  the  .'eas« 
degree  diminished. 


NICKING.  327 


DOCKING. 


The  shortening  of  the  tail  of  the  horse  is  an  operation  which  fashion 
Biid  the  convenience  of  the  rider  require  to  be  performed  on  most  of  those 
animals.  The  length  of  the  dock  or  stump,  is  a  matter  of  mere  caprice. 
To  the  close-cropped  tail  of  the  waggon-horse,  however,  we  decidedly 
object,  from  its  perfect  ugliness,  and  because  the  animal  is  deprived  of 
every  defence  against  the  (lies.  The  supposition  that  the  blood  which  should 
have  gone  to  the  nourishment  of  the  tail,  causes  greater  development  and 
strength  in  the  quarters,  is  too  absurd  to  deserve  serious  refutation.  Il  is 
the  rump  of  the  animal  being  wholly  uncovered,  and  not  partly  liidden  by 
the  intervention  of  the  tail,  that  invariably  gives  a  false  appearance  of 
increased  bulk. 

The  operation  is  simple.  That  joint  is  searched  out  which  is  the  nearest 
to  the  desired  length  of  tail.  The  hair  is  then  turned  up,  and  tied  round 
with  tape  for  an  inch  or  two  above  this  joint;  and  tlial  which  lies  immedi- 
ately upon  the  joint  is  cut  off.  The  horse  is  then  fettered  with  the  side- 
line, and  the  veterinary  surgeon  with  his  docking  machine,  or  the  farmer 
with  his  carving  knife  and  mallet,  cuts  through  the  tail  at  one  stroke. 
Considerable  bleeding  now  ensues,  and  frightens  the  timid  or  the  ignorant; 
but  if  the  blood  were  suffered  to  flow  on  until  it  ceases  of  its  own  accord, 
the  colt,  and  especially  if  he  were  very  young,  would  rarely  be  seriously 
injured.  As,  however,  the  bleeding  would  occasionally  continue  for  some 
hours,  and  a  great  quantity  of  blood  would  be  lost,  and  the  animal  would 
be  somewhat  weakened,  it  is  usual  to  stop  the  haemorrhage  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  red-hot  iron  to  the  stump.  A  large  hole  is  made  in  the  centre  of 
the  iron,  that  the  bone  may  not  be  seared,  wliich  would  exfoliate,  if  it  were 
burned  with  any  severity,  or  drop  ofi'  at  the  joint  above,  and  thus  shorten 
the  dock.  Tlie  iron  rests  on  the  muscular  parts  round  the  bone,  and  is 
brought  into  contact  with  the  bleeding  vessels,  and  very  speedily  stops  the 
haemorrhage.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  iron  is  not  too  hot,  and  that  it 
is  not  held  too  long  or  too  forcibly  on  the  part;  for  many  more  horses  would 
be  destroyed  by  severe  application  of  the  cautery,  than  by  the  bleeomg 
being  left  to  its  own  course.  Powdered  resin,  sprinkled  on  the  stump,  or 
indeed  any  other  application,  is  worse  than  useless;  it  causes  unnecessary 
irritation,  and  sometimes  extensive  ulceration;  but  if  the  simple  iron  be 
moderately  applied,  the  horse  may  go  to  work  immediately  after  the  opera- 
tion,  and  no  dressing  will  be  afterwards  required.  If  a  slight  bleeding 
should  occur  after  "the  cautery,  it  is  much  better  to  let  it  alone,  than 
to  run  the  risk  of  inflammation  or  locked-jaw,  by  re-applying  the  iron  with 
greater  severity. 

Some  farmers  dock  their  colts  a  few  days  after  they  are  dropped.  This 
is  a  commendable  custom  on  the  score  of  humanity ;  no  colt  was  ever  lost 
by  it ;  and  we  do  not  believe  that  the  growth  of  the  hair  or  the  beauty  of 
the  tail  is  in  the  least  impaired. 

NICKING. 

This  barbarous  operation  has  been  long  sanctioned  by  fashion,  and  the 
breeder  and  the  dealer  must  have  recourse  to  it,  if  he  would  obtain  a  ready 
•sale  for  his  colts.  It  is  not,  however,  practised  to  the"  extent  that  it  used  to 
be,  nor  attended  by  so  many  circumstances  of  cruelty. 

We  must  here  introduce  a  small  portion  of  our  anatomy,  which  we  had 
reserved  lor  this  place.     We  have  spoken,  p.  165,  of  the  eighteen  dorsa" 


328  THE  HORSE. 

vetebrsB  or  bones  of  the  back  (see  d,  page  163),  and  the  five  lumbar  ver 
tebrae  or  bones  of  the  loins  [f,  p.  163).  The  continuation  of  the  spine 
consists  of  the  sacrum  or  five  bones  (/t,  p.  163),  which,  althougli  separate 
in  the  coit.  are  in  the  full-grown  horse  united  in  one  mass.  The  bones  of 
the  ileum,  the  upper  and  side  portion  of  the  haunch,  articulate  strongly  with 
the  sacrum,  forming  a  bony  union  rather  tlian  a  joint.  The  spinal  marrow, 
and  the  blood-vessels  generally,  here  begin  to  diminish,  and  immerous 
branches  of  nerves  are  given  out,  which,  joined  by  some  from  the  vertebrae 
of  tlie  loins,  form  tiie  nerves  of  the  hind  legs. 

The  bones  of  the  tail  (see  i,  p.  163),  are  a  continuation  of  those  of  the 
sacrum.  They  are  fifteen  in  number,  grad^ially  diminisl)ing  in  size,  and 
losing  altogether  the  character  of  the  spinal  vertebroe.  Prolongations  of 
the  spinal  marrow  run  through  the  whole  of  them,  and  likewise  arterial 
vessels,  being  a  continuation  of  those  which  supj)ly  the  sacrum.  A  great 
deal  of  attention  is  paid  by  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  horse 
to  this  continuation  of  the  sacral  and  tail  bones.  From  the  loins  to  the 
selling  on  of  tiie  tail,  the  line  should  be  nearly  straight,  or  inclining  only  a 
little  way  downward.  There  is  not  a  surer  test  of  the  breed  of  the  horse, 
than  ihis  straight  line  from  the  loins  to  the  tail ;  nor,  as  we  have  shown, 
when  speaking  of  the  muscles  of  the  quarters,  is  there  any  circumstance 
so  much  connected  with  the  mechanical  advantage  with  which  these  mus- 
cles  act. 

The  tail  was  given  to  the  horse  to  perfect  the  beauty  of  his  form;  to 
assist  in  directing  his  course  when  he  has  not  the  guiding  hand  of  man; 
and  more  particularly  to  enable  him  to  defend  himself  from  the  insects 
by  which  in  every  climate  he  is  annoyed. 

There  are  three  sets  of  muscles  belonging  to  the  tail,  one  I'aising  it  (a 
page  260),  another  depressing  it  {h,  page  260),  and  a  third  set  giving  it  a 
side  motion  in  every  direction  when  acting  singly,  or  very  powerfully 
lowering  it  when  acting  together.  It  would  seem  that  the  depressor  and 
lateral  muscles  are  much  more  powerful  than  the  erector  muscles,  and 
that  when  the  horse  is  undisturbed,  the  tail  is  bent  down  close  on  the 
buttocks;  but  when  he  is  excited,  and  particularly  when  he  is  at  speed, 
the  erector  muscles  are  called  into  action,  the  tail  is  elevated,  and  there  is 
given  to  him  an  appearance  of  energy  and  spirit,  which  adds  materially 
to  his  beauty.  To  perpetuate  this  character  of  fire,  the  operation  of 
nicking  was  contrived.  The  depressor  muscles,  and  part  of  the  lateral 
ones  are  cut  through;  and  the  erector  muscles  are  left  without  any  antago- 
nists, and  keep  the  tail  in  a  position  more  or  less  erect,  according  to  the 
whim  of  the  operator,  or  the  depth  to  which  the  incisions  into  the  muscles 
have  been  carried. 

The  operation  is  thus  performed  :  The  side  line  is  put  on  the  horse,  or 
some  deem  it  more  prudent  to  cast  him,  and  that  precaution  we  should  be 
disposed  to  recommend.  The  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail  is  securely  tied 
together  for  the  purpose  of  afterwards  attaching  a  weight  to  it.  The 
operator  then  grasps  the  tail  in  his  hand,  and  lifting  it  up,  feels  for  the 
centre  of  one  of  the  bones  (the  prominences  at  the  extremities  will  guide 
him  to  this),  from  two  to  four  inches  from  the  root  of  the  tail,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  horse.  He  then,  with  a  sharp  knife,  divides  the  muscles 
deep  from  the  edge  of  the  tail  on  one  side  to  the  centre,  and  continuing 
the  incision  across  the  bone  of  the  tail,  he  makes  it  as  deep  on  the 
other  side.  One  continued  incision,  steadily,  yet  rapidly  made,  will 
accomplish  this.  If  it  be  a  blood  horse,  this  will  be  sufficient.  For  a 
hunter,  two  incisions  are  usually  made,  the  second  being  about  two  inches 
below  llie  first,  and  likewise  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  centre  of  one  of 


NICKING.  :ta9 

the  bones;  the  reason  of  which  is,  that  the  incision,  in  order  perfectly  to 
divide  the  muscles  that  bring  down  the  tail,  must  be  so  deep,  as,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  joint,  to  endanger  the  wounding  of  the  ligament  which 
ties  the  bones  together,  or  the  substance  which  is  interposed  between  the 
joints,  and  thus  by  destroying  the  joint  to  render  the  tail  deformed. 

On  the  hackney,  or  cocklaU,  a  third  incision  is  made ;  for  fashion  has 
decided  that  his  tail  shall  be  still  more  elevated  and  curved.  Two  incisions 
only  are  made  in  tiie  tail  of  a  mare,  and  the  second  not  very  deep. 

When  the  second  incision  is  made,  some  fibres  of  the  muscles  between 
the  first  and  second  incisions  will  project  into  the  wounds,  and  vvbich  must 
be  removed  with  a  pair  of  curved  scissors.  The  same  must  be  done  with 
the  projecting  portions  from  between  the  second  and  third  incisions;  and 
the  wounds  should  be  carefully  examined,  to  ascertain  that  the  muscles  have 
been  equally  divided  on  each  side,  otherwise  the  tail  will  be  carried  awry. 
This  being  done,  pledgets  of  tow  must  be  introduced  deeply  into  each  gap, 
and  confined,  but  not  too  tightly,  by  a  bandage.  A  very  profuse  bleeding 
will  alone  justify  any  tightness  of  bandage;  and  the  ill  consequences  which 
have  resulted  from  nicking  are  mainly  attributable  to  the  unnecessary 
force  which  is  used  in  confining  these  pledgets.  Even  if  the  bleeding, 
immediately  after  the  operation,  should  have  been  very  great,  the  roller 
must  be  loosened  in  two  or  three  hours,  otherwise  swelling,  and  infiamma- 
tion,  or  death,  may  possibly  ensue.  Twenty-four  hours  after  the  operation. 
the  bandage  must  be  quite  removed  ;  and  then,  all  that  is  necessary,  so 
far  as  the  healing  of  the  wounds  is  concerned,  is  to  keep  them  clean. 

If,  however,  the  tail  were  suffered  to  hang  down,  the  divided  edges  of  the 
muscles  would  come  again  in  contact  with  each  other,  and  close ;  the  natural 
depression  of  the  tail  would  remain;  and  the  animal  would  have  been  pun- 
ished for  no  purpose.  The  wounds  must  be  kept  open,  and  that  can  only 
be  accomplished  by  forcibly  keeping  the  tail  curved  back,  for  two  or  three 
weeks.  For  this  purpose,  a  cord,  one  or  two  feet  in  length,  is  affixed  to  the 
end  of  the  hair,  which  terminates  in  another  divided  cord,  each  division 
going  over  a  pulley  on  either  side  of  the  back  of  the  stall.  A  weight  is 
hung  at  either  extremity,  sufficient  to  keep  the  incisions  properly  open,  and 
regulated  by  the  degree  in  which  this  is  wished  to  be  accomplished.  The 
aninial  will  thus  be  retained  in  an  uneasy  position,  although,  after  the  first 
two  or  three  days,  probably  not  one  of  acute  pain.  Ii  is  barbarous  to 
increase  this  uneasiness  or  pain  by  affixing  too  great  a  weight  to  the  cords; 
for  it  should  be  remembered,  that  the  proper  elevated  curve  is  given  to  the 
tail,  not  by  the  weight  keeping  it  in  a  certain  position  for  a  considerable  time, 
but  by  tlie  depth  of  the  first  incisions,  and  the  degree  in  which  the  wounds 
are  kept  open.  By  every  ounce  of  weight  beyond  that  which  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  incisions  open,  unnecessary  sutfering  is  inflicted.  Some  prac- 
titioners use  only  one  pulley;  otheis  do  not  use  any,  but  put  on  a  light 
girth,  and  tie  a  cord  from  the  end  of  the  tail  to  the  girth,  bending  it  over 
the  back.  The  double  pulley,  however,  is  the  least  painful  to  the  horse, 
and  more  perfectly  secures  the  proper  elevation  and  straight  direction 
of  the  tail. 

Tne  dock  should  not,  for  the  first  three  or  four  days,  be  brought  higher 
vhan  the  back.  Dangerous  irritation  and  inflammation  would  probably  be 
produced.  It  may,  at^ter  that,  be  gradually  raised  to  an  elevation  of  forty- 
five  degrees.  The  horse  should  be  taken  out  of  the  pulleys,  and  gently 
exercised  once  or  twice  every  day;  but  the  pulleys  cannot  finally  be  dis- 
pensed with,  until  a  fortnight  after  the  wounds  have  healed,  because  the 
of  contraction,  or  the  approach  of  the  divided  parts,  goes  on  for 


:^30  THE  HORSE. 

some  lime  after  the  skin  is  perfect  over  the  incisions;  and  the  tail  would 
thus  sink  .)elovv  the  desired  elevation. 

[C  the  tail  has  not  been  unnecessarily  extended  by  enormous  weights,  no 
bad  consequences  will  usually  follow ;  but  if  considerable  inflanmnation 
should  ensue,  the  tail  must  be  taken  from  the  pulley,  and  diligently  fomented 
with  simple  warm  water,  and  a  dose  of  physic  given.  Locked-jaw  has  in 
some  rare  instances  followed,  under  which  llie  horse  generally  perishes. 
The  best  means  of  cure  in  the  early  state  of  locked-jaw,  is  to  amputate  the 
tail  at  the  joint  above  the  highest  incision,  in  order  to  prevent  the  hair  from 
coming  off,  it  should  be  unplatted  and  combed  out  everv  fourth  or  fifth  day. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

DISAGREEABLE  OR  DANGEROUS  HABITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  horse  has  many  excellent  qualities,  but  he  has  likewise  defects, 
and  these  occasionally  amounting  to  vices.  Some  of  them  may  be  attributed 
to  natural  temper;  for  the  human  being  scarcely  discovers  more  peculiari- 
ties  of  habit  and  disposition,  than  does  the  horse.  The  majority  of  them, 
however,  as  perhaps  in  the  human  being,  are  consequences  of  a  faulty 
education.  Their  early  instructor  has  been  both  ignorant  and  brutai,  and 
hey  have  become  obstinate  and  vicious. 

RESTIFNES& 

At  the  head  of  the  vices  of  the  horse  we  place  restifxess,  the  most 
tYinoying,  and  the  most  dangerous  of  all.  It  is  the  produce  of  bad  temper 
{*iid  worse  education;  and,  like  all  otiier  liabits,  founded  on  nature  and 
stamped  by  education,  it  is  inveterate.  Whether  it  appears  in  the  form  of 
kicking,  or  rearing,  or  plunging,  or  boking,  or  in  any  way  that  threatens 
dangei-  to  the  rider  or  the  horse,  it  rarely  admits  of  cure.  A  determined 
rider  may,  to  a  certain  degree,  subjugate  the  animal;  or  the  horse  may 
have  his  favourites,  or  form  his  attachments,  and  with  some  particular 
person  he  may  be  comparatively  or  perfectly  manageable;  but  others  can- 
not  long  depend  upon  Idm,  and  even  his  master  is  not  always  sure  of  him. 
We  will  speak  of  the  most  likely  means  of  cure,  or  escaping  from  danger, 
as  it  regards  the  principal  forms  under  which  restifness  displays  itself;  but 
we  must  premise,  as  a  rule  that  admits  of  very  few  exceptions,  that  he 
neither  displays  his  wisdom,  nor  consults  his  safety,  who  attempts  to  conquer 
a  restiff  horse. 

An  excellent  veterinary  surgeon,  and  a  man  of  great  experience  in 
horse-D,  Mr.  Castley,  truly  says,  in  the  'The  Veterinarian  :'  "From  whatever 
cause  the  vicious  habits  of  horses  may  originate,  whether  from  some  misman- 
agement, or  from  natural  badness  of  temper,  or,  from  what  is  called  in 
Yorkshire,  a  misletch,  whenever  these  animals  acquire  one  of  tiiem,  and  it 
becomes  in  some  degree  confirmed,  they  very  seldom,  if  ever,  altogether 
forget  it.  Id  reference  to  driving,  it  is  so  true,  that  it  may  be  taken  as  a 
kind  of  aphorism,  that  if  a  horse  kicks  once  in  harness,  no  matter  from 
what  caus.'^,  he  will  be  liable  to  kick  ever  afterwards.  A  good  coachman 
may  drivt   him,  it  is  true,  and   may  make  him   go,  but  he   cannot  make 


RESTIFNESS.  33, 

hini  forget  his  vice ;  and  so  it  is  in  riding.  Yoi  may  conquer  a  restifT 
horse;  you  may  make  him  ride  quiet  for  months  nay,  ahnost  for  years 
together,  but  I  affirm  that,  under  other  circumstances,  and  at  some  future 
opportunity,  he  will  be  sure  to  return  to  his  old  tricks  again." 

Mr.  Castley  gives  two  singular  and  conclusive  instances  of  the  truth  of 
this  doctrine.  "  Wiien  a  very  young  man,"  says  lie,  "I  remember  pur- 
chasing a  horse  at  a  fair  in  the  north  of  England,  that  was  otlered  very 
cheap  on  account  of  his  being  unmanageable.  It  was  said  that  nobody 
could  ride  him.  We  found  that  the  animal  objected  to  have  any  thing 
placed  upon  his  back,  and  that,  when  made  to  move  forward  with  nothing 
more  than  a  saddle  on,  he  instantly  threw  himself  down  on  his  side  with 
great  violence,  and  would  then  endeavour  to  roll  upon  his  back. 

"There  was  at  that  time  in  Yorkshire  a  famous  colt-breaker,  known  by 
tlie  name  of  Jumper,*  who  was  almost  as  celebrated  in  that  country  for 
taming  vicious  horses  into  submission,  as  the  famed  Whisperer  was  in 
Ireland.  We  put  this  animal  into  Jumper's  hands,  who  took  him  away, 
and  in  about  ten  days  brought  him  home  again,  certainly  not  looking 
worse  in  condition,  but  perfectly  subdued,  and  almost  as  obedient  as  a  dog: 
for  he  would  lie  down  at  this  man's  bidding,  and  only  rise  again  at  his 
command,  and  carry  double  or  any  thing.  I  took  to  riding  him  myself, 
and  may  say,  that  1  was  never  better  carried  for  six  or  eight  months, 
during  which  time  he  never  showed  the  least  vice  whatever.  1  then  sold 
him  to  a  Lincolnshire  farmer,  who  said  that  he  would  give  him  a  sum- 
mer's run  at  grass,  and  show  him  a  very  fme  horse  at  the  great  Horn. 
castle  fair. 

"Happening  to  meet  this  gentleman  the  following  year,  I  naturally 
enough  inquired  after  my  old  friend.  'Oh,'  said  he,  'that  was  a  bad 
business :  tlie  horse  turned  out  a  sad  rebel.  The  first  time  we  attempted 
to  mount  him,  after  getting  him  up  from  grass,  he  in  an  instant  threw  the 
man  down  with  the  greatest  violence,  pitching  him  several  yards  over  his 
head  ;  and  after  that  he  threw  every  one  that  attempted  to  get  on  his  back. 
If  he  could  not  throw  his  rider,  he  would  throw  himself  down.  We  could 
do  nothing  with  him,  and  I  was  obliged  at  last  to  sell  him  to  go  in  a  stage- 
3oach.'" 

In  the  next  story.  Jumper's  counterpart  and  superior,  the  Irish  Whis- 
perer, is  brought  on  the  stage,  and,  although  he  performs  wonders,  he 
cannot  radically  cure  a  restifi"  horse.  "At  the  Spring  Meeting  of  1804, 
Mr.   Whalley's  King  Pippin  was  brought  on  the  Curragh  of  Kildare  to 


•  Those  of  our  readers  who  were  connected  with  the  contested  elections  for  York- 
shire, will  recollect  Jumper,  covered  with  orang-e  plush  from  top  to  toe,  and  scam- 
pering' in  every  direction  over  the  country.  Sometimes  he  would  cxchang'c  this  for 
a  hear-skin,  enveloped  in  which,  and  mounted  occasionally  on  a  buffalo,  he  was  a  most 
formidable  object.  He  had  extraordinary  power  over  animals  of  various  species,  for  he 
tamed  to  the  saddle  a  buffalo  for  Mr.  Tempest,  and  a  pair  of  rein-deer  for  harness  for 
Lord  Fitzwilliam.  But  his  charm  consisted  chiefly  in  fearlessness,  and  brute  force, 
accompanied  by  considerable  tact.  He  would  g'enerally  try  rough  measures  first;  af  i 
in  his  perilous  encounters  with  some  of  his  troublesome  scholars,  had  nearly  every  bone 
in  his  body  fractured.  Sullivan's  method  was  altog'ether  different ;  force  was  rarely  re- 
sorted to.  The  enemy  surrendered  to  him  at  discretion,  and  without  a  strug-gle.  Jumper, 
however,  seemed  to  have  some  charm  about  him;  for  when  he  had,  by  dint  of  p'jn'shment, 
striven  in  vain  to  conquer  an  unruly  horse  in  the  market-place  o*"  WaKcfield,  heai'ghted; 
Btood  oil  the  n^ar  side  of  the  horse;  broug-ht  the  animal'b  nead  almost  back  to  his  off 
shoulder  by  forcibly  pulling-  at  the  off  rein,  and  then  sternly  gazed  at  him  over  the  withers 
for  two  or  three  minutes.  The  animal  then  began  to  tremble,  and  broke  out  into  a  profusa 
perspiration.  Jumper  then  loosened  his  hold  of  the  rein,  and  patted  at  d  caressed  ar 
horse,  who  immediately  followed  him  round  the  market-place,  perfectly  ta  ned. 


S82 


THE  HORSE. 


run.  lie  was  a  horse  of  the  most  extraordinary  savage  and  vicious  dis- 
position.  His  particular  propensity  was  that  of  Jlyhig  at  and  worrying 
any  person  who  came  within  his  reach,  and  if  he  had  an  opportunity,  he 
would  get  his  head  round,  seize  his  rider  by  the  leg  with  his  teeth,  and 
drag  him  down  from  his  back.  For  this  reason  he  was  always  ridden  in 
what  is  called  a  sicord;  which  is  nothing  more  than  a  strong  flat  .stick 
having  one  end  attached  to  the  check  of  the  bridle,  and  the  other  to  the 
girth  of  the  saddle,  a  contrivance  to  prevent  a  horse  of  tiiis  kind  from 
getting  at  his  rider. 

"King  Pippin  had  long  been  difficult  to  manage  and  dangerous  to  ga 
near,  but  on  the  occasion  in  question  he  could  not  be  got  out  to  run  at  all. 
Nobody  could  put  the  brid/e  vpon  his  head.  It  being  Easter  Monday, 
and  consequently  a  great  holyday,  there  was  a  large  concourse  of  people 
assembled  at  the  Curragh,  consisting  principally  of  the  neighbouring  peas- 
antry ;  and  one  countryman,  more  fearless  than  the  rest  of  the  lookers-on, 
forgetting,  or  perhaps  never  dreaming,  that  the  better  part  of  courage  is 
discretion,  volunteered  his  services  to  bridle  the  horse.  No  sooner  had  he 
committed  himself  in  this  operation,  than  King  Pippin  seized  him  some- 
where about  the  shoulders  or  chest,  and,  says  Mr.  Watts  (Mr.  Castley's 
informant),  '  I  know  of  nothing  I  can  compare  it  to,  so  much  as  a  dog 
shaking  a  rat.'  Fortunately  for  the  poor  fellow,  his  body  was  very  thickly 
covered  with  clothes,  for  on  such  occasions  an  Irishman  of  this  class  is  fond 
of  displaying  his  wardrobe,  and  if /je  has  three  coats  at  all  in  the  world,  he  is 
sure  to  put  them  all  on. 

"This  circumstance  in  all  probability  saved  the  individual  who  had  so 
gallantly  volunteered  the  forlorn  hope.  His  person  was  so  deeply  envel- 
oped in  extra-teguments,  that  the  horse  never  got  fairly  hold  of  his  skin, 
and  I  understand  that  he  escaped  with  but  little  injury,  beside  the  sadly 
rent  and  totally  ruined  state  of  his  holyday  toggery. 

"  The  Whisperer  was  sent  for,  who,  having  arrived,  was  shut  up  with  the 
horse  all  night,  and  in  the  morning  he  exhibited  this  hitherto  ferocious  animai, 
following  him  about  the  course  like  a  dog;  lying  down  at  his  command; 
suffering  his  mouth  to  be  opened,  and  any  person's  hand  to  be  introduced 
into  it;   in  short,  as  quiet  almost  as  a  sheep. 

"  He  came  out  the  same  meeting,  and  won  a  race,  and  his  docility  con- 
tinued satisfactory  for  a  long  time ;  but  at  the  end  of  about  three  years  his 
vice  returned,  and  then  he  is  said  to  have  killed  a  man,  for  which  he  was 
destroyed." 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting,  in  this  connection,  to  give  some  account  of 
this  tamer  of  quadruped  vice.  However  strange  and  magical  his  power 
may  seem  to  be,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  truth  of  the  account  that  is  given 
of  him.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Townsend,  in  his  Statistical  Survey  of  Cork,  first 
introduced  him  to  the  notice  of  the  public  generally,  although  his  fame  had 
long  spread  over  that  part  of  Ireland.  We,  however,  give  the  following 
extract  from  Croker's  Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of  Ireland,  Part  II., 
p.  200,  for  the  fact  seems  the  work  of  some  elfin  sprite,  rather  than  of  a 
rude  and  ignorant  horse-breaker. 

"  He  was  an  awkward,  ignorant  rustic,  of  the  lowest  class,  of  the  name 
of  Sullivan,  but  better  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Whisperer;  his 
occupation  was  horse-breaking.  The  nickname  he  acquired  from  the 
vulgar  notion  of  his  being  able  to  communicate  to  the  animal  what  he 
wished  by  means  of  a  whisper,  and  the  singularity  of  his  method  seemed 
in  some  degree  to  justify  the  attribute.  In  his  own  neighbourhood,  the 
notoriety  of  the  fact  made  it  seem  less   remarkable,    but  I  doubt   if  any 


RESTIFXESS.  3li'^ 

{nsliince  of  similar  subjugating  talent  is  to  be  f*.  nnd  on  record.  As  far  as 
the  spiiere  of  liis  control  extended,  the  boast  of  veiii,  vidl,  vici,  was  more 
juslly  claimed  by  Sullivan  than  by  Caesar  himself. 

"  How  his  art  was  acquired,  and  in  what  it  consisted,  is  likely  to  be  for 
ever  unknown,  as  he  has  lately  (about  1810)  left  the  world  without 
divulging  it.  His  son,  who  follows  the  same  trade,  possesses  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  art,  having  either  never  learned  the  true  secret,  or  being 
incapable  of  putting  it  into  practice.  The  wonder  of  his  skill  consisted  in 
the  celerity  of  the  operation,  which  was  performed  in  privacy  without  any 
apparent  means  of  coercion.  Every  description  of  horse,  or  even  mule, 
whether  previously  broken,  or  unhandled,  whatever  their  peculiar  habits 
or  vices  might  have  been,  submitted  without  show  of  resistance  to  the 
magical  influence  of  his  art,  and  in  the  short  space  of  half  an  hour  became 
gentle  and  tractable.  This  effect,  though  instantaneously  produced,  was 
generally  durable.  Though  more  submissive  to  him  than  to  others,  they 
seemed  to  have  acquired  a  docility  unknown  before. 

"  When  sent  for  to  tame  a  vicious  beast,  for  which  he  was  either  paid 
according  to  the  distance,  or  generally  two  or  three  guineas,  he  directed 
the  stable,  in  which  he  and  the  object  of  the  e.xperiment  were,  to  be  shut, 
with  orders  not  to  open  the  door  until  a  signal  was  given.  After  a  tete- 
a  tele  of  about  half  an  hour,  during  which  little  or  no  bustle  was  heard, 
the  signal  was  made,  and,  upon  opening  the  door,  the  horse  appeared  lying 
down,  and  the  man  by  his  side,  playing  witii  him  like  a  child  with  a  puppy 
dog.  From  that  time  he  was  found  perfectly  willing  to  submit  to  any  dis- 
cipline ;  however  repugnant  to  his  nature  before."  "I  once,"  continues 
Mr.  Townsend,  "saw  his  skill  tried  on  a  horse,  which  could  never  before  be 
brought  to  stand  for  a  smith  to  shoe  him.  The  day  after  Sullivan's  half- 
hour's  lecture,  I  went,  not  without  some  incredulity,  to  the  smith's  shop, 
with  many  other  curious  spectators,  where  we  were  eye-witnesses  of  the 
complete  success  of  his  art.  This,  too,  had  been  a  troop  horse,  and  it 
was  supposed,  not  without  reason,  that  after  regimental  discipline  had 
failed,  no  other  would  be  found  availing.  I  observed  that  the  animal 
appeared  terrified  whenever  Sullivan  either  spoke  or  looked  at  him  ;  how 
that  extraordinary  ascendancy  could  have  been  obtained,  it  is  difficult  to 
conjecture. 

"  In  common  cases,  this  mysterious  preparation  was  unnecessary.  He 
seemed  to  possess  an  instinctive  power  of  inspiring  awe,  the  result,  per- 
haps, of  natural  intrepidity,  in  which,  I  believe,  a  great  part  of  his  art 
consisted  ;  though  the  circumstance  of  the  tele-a-tele  shows  that,  on  par- 
ticular occasions,  something  more  must  have  been  added  to  it.  A  faculty 
like  this,  would  in  some  hands  have  made  a  fortune,  and  I  understand  that 
great  offers  were  made  to  him,  for  tlie  exercise  of  his  art  abroad.  But 
hunting  was  his  passion.  He  lived  at  home  in  the  style  most  agreeable 
to  his  disposition,  and  nothing  could  induce  him  to  quit  Duiiallow  and  the 
fox  hounds." 

Mr.  Castley  witnessed  the  total  failure  of  the  younger  Sullivan.  He 
says:  "  We  have  in  the  regiment  a  remarkably  nice  horse,  called  Lancer, 
that  has  always  been  very  difficult  to  shoe,  but  seven  or  eigiit  years  ago, 
when  we  first  got  him,  he  was  downright  vicious  in  tliat  respect.  When 
llie  regiment  was  stationed  at  Cork,  the  farrier-major  sought  out  the 
|)resent  Sullivan,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  Wliisperer,  and  brought  him  up 
I')  the  barracks  in  order  to  try  his  liand  upon  Lancer,  and  make  him  mere 
peaceable  to  shoe  ;  but  I  must  say  this  person  did  not  appear  to  possess 
any  particular  controlling  power  over  the  animal,  more  than  any  other 
man.     Lancer  seemed  to  pay  no  attention  whatever  to  his  charms,  and,  a; 


3JJ  I  THE  £10RSE. 

last,  fa  f"'y  beat  him  out  of  the  forge.  Time,  however,  and  a  long  perse- 
veranci'  in  kind  and  gentle  treatment,  have  effected  what  force  could  not. 
The  horse  is  now  pretty  reasonable  to  shoe." 

BACKING  OR  GIBBING. 

One  of  the  first  species  of  rcstifness,  taking  them  in  alphabetical  order,  is 
Backing  or  Gibbing.  These  are  so  closely  allied,  that  we  hardly  know 
how  to  separate  them.  Some  horses  have  the  habit  of  hacking  at  first 
starting,  and  that  more  from  playfulness  than  desire  of  mischief.  A 
moderate  application  of  the  whip  will  usually  be  effectual.  Others,  even 
at  starting,  exhibit  considerable  obstinacy  and  viciousness.  This  is  fre- 
quently the  effect  of  bad  breaking.  Either  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  had 
been  wrung  when  he  was  first  put  to  the  collar,  or  he  had  been  foolishly 
accustomed  to  start  in  the  break  up-hUI,  and,  therefore,  all  his  work  coming 
upon  him  at  once,  when  it  being  much  more  difficult  to  draw  the  break 
up-hill;  than  to  back  and  let  it  run  down-hill,  he  gradually  acquired  this 
dangerous  habit. 

A  hasty  and  passionate  breaker  will  often  make  a  really  good-tempered 
young  horse  an  inveterate  gibber.  Every  young  horse  is  at  first  sliy  of 
the  collar.  If  he  be  too  quickly  forced  to  it,  he  will  probably  take  a  dislike 
to  it,  that  will  occasionally  show  itself  in  the  form  of  gibbing,  as  long  as 
he  lives.  The  judicious  horse-breaker  will  resort  to  no  severity,  even  if 
the  colt  should  go  out  several  times  without  touching  collar.  The  example 
of  his  companion  will  ultimately  induce  him  to  take  to  it  voluntarily 
and  eflfectually. 

A  large  and  heavy  stone  should  be  put  behind  the  wheel  before  starling, 
when  the  horse,  finding  it  more  difficult  to  back  than  to  go  forward,  will 
gradually  forget  this  unpleasant  trick.  It  will  likewise  be  of  advantage, 
as  often  as  it  can  be  managed,  so  to  start  that  the  horse  shall  have  to  back 
up-hill.  The  difficulty  of  accomplishing  this  will  soon  make  him  readily 
go  forward  at  once.  A  little  coaxing,  or  leading,  or  moderate  flagellation, 
will  assist  in  accomplishing  the  cure. 

When,  however,  a  horse,  thinking  that  he  has  had  enough  of  work,  oi 
has  been  improperly  checked  or  corrected,  or  beginning  to  feel  the  painful 
pressure  of  the  collar,  swerves,  and  gibs,  and  backs,  it  is  a  more  serious 
matter.  Persuasion  should  here  first  be  tried;  and,  afterwards,  reason- 
able coercion,  but  no  cruelty :  for  the  brutality  which  is  often  exercised  in 
attempting  to  compel  a  gibbing  horse  to  throw  himself  habitually  into  the 
collar,  never  yet  accomplished  the  purpose.  The  horse  may,  perhaps,  be 
whipped  into  motion,  but  if  he  has  once  begun  to  gib,  he  will  have  recourse 
to  it  again  whenever  any  circumstance  displeases  or  annoys  him  ;  and  the 
habit  will  be  rapidly,  and  so  completely  formed,  that  he  will  become  insen- 
sible to  all  severity. 

It  is  useless  and  most  dangerous  to  contend  with  a  horse  determined  to 
back,  unless  there  is  plenty  of  room,  and,  by  tight  reining,  the  driver  can 
make  him  back  in  the  precise  direction  he  wishes,  and  especially  up-hill. 
Such  a  horse  should  be  immediately  sold,  .or  turned  over  to  some  other 
work.  In  a  stage-coach  as  a  wheeler,  and  particularly  as  the  near-wheeler, 
or,  in  the  middle  of  a  team  at  agricultural  work,  he  may  be  serviceable. 
It  will  be  useless  for  him  to  attempt  to  gib  there,  for  he  will  be  dragged 
along  by  his  companions  whether  he  will  or  no  ;  and,  finding  the  inutility 
of  resistance,  he  will  soon  be  induced  to  work  as  well  as  any  horse  in  the 
team.  This  reformation  will  last  while  he  is  thus  employed,  but,  like  res- 
lifness  generally,  it  will  be  delusive  when  the  horse  returns  to  his   forniei 


BITING.  335 

occupation.  The  disposition  lo  annoy  will  very  soon  follow  the  power  to 
do  it.  Some  instances  of  complete  reformation  have  occurred,  but  they 
have  been  rare. 

^Vhen  a  horse,  not  often  accustomed  to  gib,  betrays  a  reluctance  to  work, 
or  a  determination  not  to  work,  common  sense  and  humanity  will  demand 
that  some  consideration  should  be  taken,  before  measures  of  severity  be 
resorted  to.  The  horse  may  be  taxed  beyond  his  power.  He  soon 
discovers  whether  this  is  the  case,  and  by  refusing  to  proceed,  tells  his 
driver  that  it  is  so;  and  the  utmost  cruelty  will  not  induce  many  horses  to 
make  the  slightest  effort,  when  they  are  conscious  that  their  strength  is 
inadequate  to  the  task.  Sometimes  the  withers  are  wrung,  and  the 
shoulders  sadly  galled;  and  the  pain,  which  is  intense  on  level  ground  and 
with  fair  draught,  becomes  insupportable  when  he  tugs  up  a  steep  acclivity. 
These  things  should  be  examined  into,  and,  if  po3sil)le,  rectified  ;  for,  under 
sucli  circumstances,  cruelty  might  produce  obstinacy  and  vice,  but  noU 
willing  obedience. 

Those  who  are  accustomed  to  horses  know  what  seemingly  trivial  cir- 
cumstances  occasionally  produce  this  vice.  A  horse,  whose  shoulders  are 
raw,  or  that  have  frequently  been  so,  will  not  start  with  a  cold  collar. 
When  the  collar  has  acquired  the  warmth  of  the  parts  on  which  it  presses, 
the  animal  will  go  without  reluctance.  Some  determined  gibbers  have  been 
reformed  by  constantly  wearing  a  false  collar,  or  strip  of  cloth  round  the 
shoulders,  so  that  the  coldness  of  the  usual  collar  should  never  be  felt;  and 
others  have  been  cured  of  gibbing  by  keeping  the  collar  on  night  and  day, 
although  the  animal  is  not  able  to  lie  down  so  completely  at  full  length, 
which  the  tired  horse  is  always  glad  to  do.  When  a  horse  gibs,  not 
at  starting,  but  while  doing  his  work,  it  has  sometimes  been  useful  to  line 
the  collars  with  cloth  instead  of  leather;  the  perspiration  is  readily 
absorbed,  the  substance  which  presses  on  the  shoulders  is  softer,  and  it  may 
be  far  more  accurately  eased  off  at  a  tender  placfe. 

Shoulder-straps  and  collars  are  frequently  lined  with  sheep-skin,  the 
woolly  side  outward,  and  much  ease  has  been  afforded  the  animal  by  this 
contrivance,  especially  where  the  harness  has  been  indifferently  fitted,  or 
become  hardened  for  want  of  greasing. 

BITING. 

This  is  either  the  consequence  of  natural  ferocity,  or  a  habit  acquired 
from  the  foolish  and  teasing  play  of  grooms  and  stable-boys.  When  a 
horse  is  tickled  and  pinched  by  thoughtless  and  mischievous  youths,  he  will 
first  pretend  to  bite  his  tormentors;  by  degrees  he  will  proceed  farther,  and 
actually  bite  them;  and,  very  soon  after  that,  he  will  be  the  first  lo  chal- 
lenge  to  the  combat,  and  without  provocation  seize  some  opportunity  to 
gripe  the  incautious  groom;  and  then,  as  the  love  of  misciiief  is  a  propen- 
sity  too  easily  acquired,  this  war,  half  playful  and  half  in  earnest,  will 
become  habitual  to  him,  and  will  degenerate  into  absolute  viciousness. 
Nothing  can  here  be  done  in  the  way  of  cure;  kindness  would  aggravate 
the  evil,  and  no  degree  of  severity  will  correct  it.  Prevention,  however, 
is  in  the  power  of  every  proprietor  of  horses.  While  he  insists  on  gentle 
and  humane  treatment  of  his  cattle,  he  should  systematically  forbid  this 
hf>rse-play.  It  is  that  which  can  never  be  considered  as  operating  as  a 
reward,  and  thereby  rendering  the  horse  tractable;  nor  does  it  increase  the 
affection  of  the  animal  for  his  groom,  because  he  is  annoyed  and  irritated 
by  being  thus  incessantly  teased. 


33G  THE  HORSE. 


GETTING  THE  CHEEK  OF  THE   BIT  INTO  THE  MOUTH. 

Some  horses  that  are  disposed  to  be  mischievous  try  to  do  this,  and  ar« 
ver)'-  expert  at  it.  They  soon  find  what  advantage  it  gives  them  over  their 
driver,  wiio  by  this  manoeuvre  loses  almost  all  command.  Harsli  treatment 
is  here  completely  out  of  the  question.  All  that  can  be  done  is,  by  some 
mechanical  contrivance,  to  render  the  thing  difficult  or  impossible,  and  this 
may  be  managed  by  fastening  a  round  piece  of  leather  on  the  inside  of  the 
cheek  of  the  bit. 

KICKING. 

This,  as  a  vice,  is  another  consequence  of  the  culpable  habit  of  grooms 
and  stable-boys  of  teasing  the  horse.  That  which  is  at  first  an  indication 
of  annoyance  at  the  pinching  and  tickling  of  the  groom,  and  without  any 
design  to  injure,  gradually  becomes  the  expression  of  anger  and  the  efFort 
at  mischief.  There  is  no  cure  for  this  vice;  and  he  cannot  be  justified  who 
keeps  such  a  kicking  horse  in  his  stable. 

Some  horses  acquire  a  habit  of  kicking  at  the  stall  or  the  bail,  and  par- 
ticularly at  night,  from  mere  irritability  and  tidgettiness.  The  neighbour- 
ing  horses  are  disturbed,  and  the  kicker  gets  swelled  hocks,  or  some  more 
serious  injury.  This  is  also  a  habit  very  difficult  to  correct,  if  suf- 
fered to  become  established.  Mares  are  generally  far  more  subject  to  it 
than  horses. 

Before  the  habit  is  inveterately  established,  a  thorn-bush  or  a  piece  of 
furze  fastened  against  the  partition  or  post  will  sometimes  efTect  a  cure. 
When  the  horse  finds  that  he  is  pretty  severely  pricked,  he  will  not  long 
continue  to  punish  himself.  In  confirmed  cases,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
have  recourse  to  the  log,  but  the  legs  are  often  not  a  Itttle  bruised  by  it. 
A  rather  long  and  heavy  piece  of  wood  attached  to  a  chain  is  buckled  above 
the  hock,  so  as  to  reach  about  half  way  down  the  leg.  When  the  horse 
attempts  to  kick  violently,  his  leg  will  receive  a  severe  blow  from  this,  and 
the  repetition  of  the  blow  will  soon  teach  him  to  be  quiet. 

A  much  more  serious  vice  is  kicking  in  the  harness.  From  the  least 
annoyance  about  the  rump  or  quarters,  some  horses  will  kick  at  the  most 
violent  rate,  and  destroy  the  bottom  of  the  chaise,  and  endanger  the  limbs 
of  the  driver.  Those  that  are  fidgetty  in  the  stable  are  most  apt  to  do  this. 
If  the  reins  should  perchance  get  under  the  tail,  the  violence  of  the  kicker 
will  be  most  outrageous;  and  while  the  animal  presses  down  his  tail  so 
tightly  tiiat  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extricate  the  reins,  he  continues  to 
plunge  until  he  has  demolished  every  thing  behind  him. 

This  is  a  vice  standing  foremost  in  point  of  danger,  and  which  no  treat- 
ment will  often  conquer.  It  will  be  altogether  in  vain  to  try  coercion  here. 
If  the  shafts  are  very  strong  and  without  flaw,  or  if  they  are  plated  with 
iron  underneath,  and  a  stout  kicking-strap  used,  which  will  barely  allow  the 
horse  the  proper  use  of  his  hind  limbs  in  progression,  but  not  permit  him 
to  raise  them  sufficiently  for  the  purpose  of  kicking,  he  may  be  prevented 
from  doing  mischief;  or,  if  he  is  harnessed  to  a  heavy  cart,  and  thus  con. 
fined,  his  efforts  to  lash  out  will  be  restrained:  but  it  is  a  very  unpleasant 
thing  frequently  to  witness  these  attempts,  although  inefTectual,  to  demolish 
the  vehicle;  and  the  shafts  or  the  kicking-straps  may  possibly  break,  and 
extreme  danger  may  ensue.  A  horse  that  has  once  begun  to  kick,  whatever 
may  have  been  the  original  cause  of  it,  can  nevei  be  depended!  on  again  j 
»»ud  he  will  be  very  unwise  who  ventures  behind  him 


RUNNING  AWAY.  US' 


UNSTEADINESS  WHILE  BEING  MOUNTED. 

When  this  merely  amounts  to  eagerness  to  start  (very  unpleasant,  indeed, 
at  times,  for  many  a  rider  has  been  thrown  from  his  seat  before  he  wa3 
fairly  fixed  in  it),  it  may  be  remedied  by  an  active  and  good  horseman. 
We  have  known  many  instances  in  which,  while  the  elderly,  and  inactive, 
and  fearful  man,  has  been  making  more  than  one  ineffectual  attempt  to 
vault  into  the  saddle,  the  horse  has  been  dancing  about  to  his  annoyance 
and  danger;  but  the  animal  has  no  sooner  been  transferred  to  the  manage- 
ment of  a  younger  and  more  agile  rider,  than  he  became  perfectly  subdued. 
Severity  will  here,  more  decidedly  than  in  any  other  case,  do  harm.  The 
rider  should  be  fearless;  he  should  carejessly  and  confidently  approach 
the  horse,  mount  at  the  first  effort,  and  ihen  restrain  him  for  a  while,  pf  ^ 
ting  him,  and  not  suffering  him  to  proceed  until  he  becomes  perfectly 
quiet.  These  horses  should  not  be  too  highly  fed,  and  should  daily  have 
sufficient  exercise. 

When  the  difficulty  of  mounting  arises  not  from  eagerness  to  start,  but 
unwillingness  to  be  ridden,  the  sooner  such  a  horse  is  disposed  of,  the 
better.  He  may  be  conquered  by  a  determined  rider,  but  a  skilful  and 
determined  horseman  alone  will  manage  him ;  and  even  he  will  not  succeed 
without  frequent  and  often  dangerous  contests  that  will  mar  all  the  pleasure 
of  the  ride. 

REARING. 

This  sometimes  results  from  playfulness,  carried  indeed  to  an  unpleasant 
and  dangerous  extent;  but  it  is  oftener  a  vice,  and  is  a  desperate  and  fre- 
quently successful  effort  to  unhorse  the  rider.  The  horse  that,  has  twice 
decidedly  and  dangerously  reared,  should  never  be  trusted  again,  unless, 
indeed,  it  be  the  fault  of  the  rider;  unless  he  has  been  using  a  deep  curb 
and  sharp  bit.  Some  of  the  best  horses  will  contend  against  these,  and  then 
rearing  may  be  immediately  and  permanently  cured  by  using  a  snaffle- 
bridle  alone. 

The  horse-breaker's  remedy,  that  of  pulling  the  horse  backward  on  a  soft 
piece  of  ground,  is  worthy  of  him,  and  would  be  pi-actised  only  by  reckless 
and  brutal  men.  Many  horses  have  been  injured  in  the  spine,  and  others 
have  broken  their  necks,  by  being  thus  suddenly  brought  over;  while  even 
the  horse-breaker,  who  fears  no  danger,  is  not  always  able  to  extricate 
himself  from  the  falling  horse.  If  rearing  proceeds  from  vice,  and  is 
unprovoked  by  the  bruising  and  laceration  of  the  mouth,  it  fully  partakes 
of  the  inveteracy  which  attends  the  other  divisions  of  restiveness. 

RUNNING  AWAY. 

Some  headstrong  horses  will  occasionally  endeavour  to  bolt  with  the  best 
rider.  Others,  with  their  wonted  sagacity,  endeavour  thus  to  dislodge  the 
timid  or  unskilful.  Some  are  hard  to  hold,  or  bolt  only  during  the  excite- 
ment of  the  chace;  others  will  run  away,  prompted  by  a  vicious  propensity 
alone.  There  is  no  cure  here.  That  method  which  affords  any  proba- 
bility of  success,  is  to  ride  such  a  horse  with  a  strong  curb  and  sharp  bit; 
to  have  liim  always  firmly  in  hand  ;  and,  if  he  will  run  away,  and  the  place 
will  admit  of  it,  to  give  him  (sparing  neither  curb,  whip,  nor  spur)  a  great 
deal  more  running  than  he  likes. 


THE  HORSE. 


VICIOUS  TO  CLEAN. 


It  would  scaicely  be  believed  to  what  an  extent  this  exists  in  some  .lo  9es 
that  are  otherwise  perfectly  quiet.  It  is  only  at  great  hazard  that  they  ".ar 
be  cleaned  at  all.  The  origin  of  this  is  probably  some  maltreatmi  nt. 
There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  sensibility  of  the  skin  in  different  horb-;s, 
Some  seem  as  if  they  could  scarcely  be  made  to  feel  the  whip;  others  can- 
not bear  a  fly  to  alight  on  them  without  an  expression  of  annoyance.  In 
young  horses  the  skin  is  peculiarly  delicate.  If  they  have  been  curried 
with  a  broken  comb,  or  hardly  rubbed  with  an  uneven  brush,  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  torture  they  have  felt  makes  thorn  impatient,  and  even  vicious, 
during  every  succeeding  operation  of  the  kind.  Many  grooms,  likewise, 
seem  to  delight  in  producing  these  exhibitions  of  uneasiness  and  vice; 
although,  when  they  are  carried  a  little  too  far,  and  to  the  hazard  of  the 
limbs  of  the  groom,  the  animals  that  have  been  almost  tutored  into  these 
expressions  of  irritation,  are  brutally  kicked  and  punished. 

This,  however,  is  a  vice  which  may  be  conquered.  If  the  animal  be 
dressed  with  a  lighter  hand,  and  wisped  rather  than  brushed,  and  the  places 
where  the  skin  is  most  sensitive  be  avoided  as  much  as  thorough  cleanliness 
will  allow,  the  horse  will  gradually  lose  the  recollection  of  former  ill-treat, 
ment,  and  become  tractable  and  quiet. 

VICIOUS  TO  SHOE. 

The  correction  of  this  is  more  peculiarly  the  business  of  the  smith;  yel 
ihe  master  should  diligently  concern  himself  with  it,  for  it  is  oftener  the 
consequence  of  injudicious  or  bad  usage  than  of  natural  vice.  It  may  be 
expected  that  there  will  be  some  difficulty  in  shoeing  a  young  horse  for  the 
first  few  times.  It  is  an  operation  which  gives  him  a  little  uneasiness. 
The  man  to  whom  he  is  most  accustomed  should  go  with  him  to  the  forge ; 
and  if  another  and  steady  horse  were  shod  before  him,  he  might  be  induced 
more  readily  to  submit.  We  cannot  deny,  that  after  the  habit  of  resisting 
this  necessary  operation  is  formed,  force  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to 
reduce  our  rebellious  servant  to  obedienee  ;  but  we  affirm  that  the  majority 
of  horses  vicious  to  shoe  are  rendered  so  by  harsh  usage,  and  by  the  pain  of 
correction  being  added  to  the  uneasiness  of  shoeing.  It  should  be  a  rule 
in  every  forge  that  no  smith  should  be  permitted  to  strike  a  horse,  much 
less  to  twitch  or  to  gag  him,  without  the  master-farrier's  order;  and  that  a 
young  liorse  should  never  be  twitched  or  struck.  There  are  icsv  horses 
that  may  not  be  gradually  rendered  manageable  for  this  purpose  by  mild- 
ness and  firmness  in  the  operator.  They  will  soon  understand  that  no 
harm  is  meant,  and  they  will  not  depart  from  their  usual  habit  of  obe- 
dience;  but  if  the  remembrance  of  corporal  punishment  is  connected  with 
shoeing,  they  will  jalways  be  fidgety,  if  not  dangerous. 

This  is  a  very  serious  vice,  for  it  not  only  exposes  the  animal  to  occa- 
sional severe  injury  from  his  own  struggles,  but  also  from  the  correction 
of  the  irritated  smith,  whose  limbs,  and  even  whose  life  being  in  jeopardy, 
may  be  forgiven  if  he  is  sometimes  a  little  too  hard-handed.  Such  a  horse 
is  very  liable,  and  without  any  fault  of  the  smith,  to  be  pricked  and  lamed 
in  shoeing;  and  if  the  habit  should  be  confirmed,  and  should  increase,  and 
it  at  length  becomes  necessary  to  cast  him,  or  to  put  him  in  the  trevis,  thj 
owner  may  be  assured  that  man}'-  years  will  not  pass  ere  some  formidable 
and  even  fatal  accident  will  take  place.  If,  therefore,  mild  treatmen\  will 
not  correct  the  vice,  the  horse  cannot  be  too  soon  got  rid  of. 


CRIB-BITING.  331) 

Horses  have  many  unpleasant  hahits  in  the  stable  and  the  road,  Jvhich 
cannot  be  said  to  amount  to  vice,  but  which  materially  lessen  their  value 

SWALLOWING  WITHOUT  GRINDING. 

Some  greedy  horses  swallow  their  corn  without  properly  grinding  it,  and 
the  power  of  digestion  not  being  adequate  to  the  dissolving  of  the  husk,  no 
nutriment  is  extracted,  and  the  oats  are  voided  whole.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  when  horses  of  unequal  appetite  feed  from  the  same  manger. 
The  greedy  one,  in  his  eagerness  to  get  more  than  his  share,  bolts  a  portion 
of  his  corn  vvhole.  If  the  farmer  can,  without  considerable  inconvenience, 
so  manage  it  that  every  horse  shall  have  his  separate  division  of  the  man- 
ger,  the  horse  of  smaller  appetite  and  slower  feed  would  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  grinding  at  his  leisure,  without  the  fear  of  his  share  being  stolen 
from  him  by  his  neighbour. 

Some  horses,  however,  are  naturally  greedy  feeders,  and  will  not,  even 
when  alone,  allow  themselves  tin^e  to  chew  or  grind  their  corn.  In  conse- 
quence  of  this,  they  carry  but  litjLle  fiesh ;  they  are  not  equal  to  severe 
work;  and,  if  their  rack  has  been  supplied  with  hay  when  the  corn  was 
put  into  the  manger,  their  stomachs  will  become  distended  with  half- 
chewed  and  indigestible  food ;  they  will  be  incapable  of  exertion  for  a  long 
time  after  feeding,  and,  occasionally,  dangerous  symptoms  of  staggers  will 
occur.  The  remedy  is,  not  to  let  such  horses  fast  too  long.  The  nose-bag 
should  be  the  companion  of  every  considerable  journey.  The  food  should 
likewise  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot  be  easily  bolted.  Chatf  should 
be  plentifully  mixed  with  the  corn,  and  in  some  cases,  and  especially  in 
horses  of  slow  work,  should,  with  the  corn,  constitute  the  whole  of  the  food. 
Of  this  we  shall  treat  more  largely  under  the  article,  "Feeding." 

In  every  case  of  this  kind  the  teeth  should  be  very  carefully  examined. 
Some  of  them  may  be  unduly  lengthened,  particularly  the  first  of  the 
grinders;  or  they  may  be  ragged  at  the  edges,  and  may  scratch  and  wound 
the  cheek.  In  the  first  case,  the  horse  cannot  properly  masticate  his  food; 
in  the  latter,  he  will  not:  for  these  animals,  as  too  often  happens  in  sore 
throat,  would  rather  starve  than  put  themselves  to  much  pain. 

CRIB-BITING. 

This  is  a  very  unpleasant  habit  and  a  considerable  defect,  although  not 
so  serious  a  one  as  some  have  represented.  The  horse  lays  hold  of  the 
manger  with  his  teeth,  violently  extends  his  neck,  and  then,  after  some  con- 
vulsive  action  of  the  throat,  a  slight  grunting  is  heard,  accompanied  by  an 
apparent  sucking  or  drawing  in  of  air.  Whether,  however,  air  is  actually 
drawn  in,  and  thus  the  horse  becomes  more  subject  to  the  colic  than  one 
without  this  trick,  or  whether  a  portion  of  air  is  expelled,  showing  the  pre- 
vious existence  of  flatulence  and  a  disposition  to  colic,  are  points  that  have 
not  been  settled  among  veterinarians. 

The  horse  is  evidently  making  the  edge  of  the  manger  a  fixed  point,  by 
means  of  which  he  may  overcome  that  obstacle  which  the  formation  of  the 
soft  palate  and  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  (see  page  152)  would  present  to 
either  the  expulsion  or  drawing  in  of  tlie  air,  if  accomplished  through  the 
medium  of  the  mouth.  When  we  consider,  however,  that  any  air  expelled 
fronn  the  stomach  might  easily  find  a  passage  through  the  nostril,  without 
the  action  of  crib-biting;  while  it  would  be  difficult  or  impossible,  without 
some  material  alteration  in  the  natural  form  and  action  of  the  parts 
at   the    back    of  the  mouth,  and,  particularly  the    depression    cf  the    »pi 


3  10  THE  HORSE. 

glottis  or  covering  of  the  wind-pipe,  to  convey  air  to  the  stomach,  we  arc 
inclined  .o  conclude,  that  this  fixed  point  is  used  to  enable  the  animal  to 
accomplish  tiiis  alteration,  and  suck  up  and  convey  a  portion  of  air  into 
the  stomach. 

The  elfcct  of  crib-biting  is  plain  enough.  The  teeth  are  injured  and 
worn  away,  and  that,  in  an  old  horse,  to  a  very  serious  degree ;  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  corn  is  often  lost,  for  the  iiorse  will  frequently  crib  with  his 
mouth  full  of  corn,  the  greater  part  of  vvliich  will  fall  over  tiie  edge  of  the 
manger;  and  much  saliva  flows  out  while  the  manger  is  thus  forcibly  held, 
the  loss  of  which  must  be  of  serious  detriment,  as  impairing  the  digestion. 
The  crib-biting  horse  is  notoriously  more  subject  to  colic  than  other  horses 
usually  are,  and  to  a  species  dilHcult  of  treatment,  and  even  dangerous. 
Although  many  a  crib-biter  is  stout  and  strong,  and  capable  of  all  ordinary 
work,  these  horses  do  not  generally  carry  much  flesh,  and  liave  not  tlie 
endurance  of  others.  On  these  accounts,  crib-biting  has  very  properly  been 
decided  to  be  unsoundness. 

It  is  one  of  those  tricks  which  are  very  contagious.  Every  companion 
of  a  crib-biter  in  the  same  stables  is  likely  to  acquire  the  habit,  and  it  is 
the  most  inveterate  of  all  habits.  The  edge  of  the  manger  will  in  vain  be 
lined  with  iron,  or  with  sheep-skin,  or  with  sheep-skin  covered  with  tar  or 
aloes,  or  any  other  unpleasant  substance.  In  defiance  of  the  aimoyance 
which  these  may  occasion,  the  horse  will  in  a  very  short  time  again  attack 
his  manger.  A  strap  buckled  tightly  round  the  neck,  by  compressing  the 
wind-pipe,  will  prevent  the  possibility  of  this  action ;  but  the  strap  must  be 
constantly  worn,  and  its  pressure  is  too  apt  to  produce  a  worse  affection, 
viz:  an  irritation  in  the  wind-pipe,  which  terminates  in  roaring. 

Some  have  recommended  turning  out  for  five  or  six  months;  but  this 
has  never  succeeded,  except  with  a  young  horse,  and  then  rarely.  The 
old  crib-biter  will  employ  the  gate  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  edge  of  hia 
n)anger,  and  we  have  seen  him  gallop  across  a  field  for  the  mere  object 
of  having  a  gripe  at  a  rail.  Medicines,  in  cases  similar  to  this,  will  be 
altogether  thrown  away. 

The  only  remedy  is  a  muzzle,  with  bars  across  the  bottom;  sufliciently 
wide  to  enable  the  animal  to  pick  up  his  corn,  and  to  pull  his  hay,  but  not 
to  grasp  the  edge  of  the  manger.  If  this  be  worn  a  very  long  time,  the 
horse  may  be  tired  of  attempting  that  which  he  cannot  accomplish,  and 
may  possibly  for  a  while  forget  the  habit;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
desire  of  crib-biting  will  return  with  the  power  of  gratifying  it. 

The  causes  of  crib-biting  are  various,  and  some  of  them  beyond  the 
control  of  the  proprietor  of  the  horse.  We  have  said  that  it  is  often  the 
result  of  imij:ation ;  but  it  is  more  frequently  the  consequence  of  idleness. 
The  high-fed  and  spirited  horse  must  be  in  mischief,  if  he  is  not  usefully 
employed.  Sometimes,  but  we  believe  not  often,  it  is  produced  by  partial 
otarvation,  whether  in  a  bad  straw-yard,  or  from  unpalatable  food.  An 
occasional  cause  of  crib-biting  is  the  frequent  custom  of  grooms,  even  when 
the  weather  is  not  severe,  of  dressing  them  in  the  stable.  The  horse  either 
catches  at  the  edge  of  the  manger,  or  at  the  edge  of  the  partition  on  each 
side,  if  he  has  been  turned,  and  thus  he  forms  the  habit  of  laying  hold  of 
these  substances  on  every  occasion. 

WIND- SUCKING. 

This  bears  a  cose  analogy  to  crib-biting.  It  arises  from  the  same  c.iuse.'^i 
the  same  purpose  is  accomplished;  and  the  same  results  follow.  Tho 
horse  stands  with  his  neck   ben*;  his  head  drawn  inward;    his  lips  flter 


OVERREACH.  341 

nately  a  little  opened  and  then  closed,  and  a  noise  is  heard  as  if  he  were 
sucking.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  same  comparative  want  of  condition, 
and  the  flatulence  wliich  we  have  described  under  tlie  last  liead,  either 
some  portion  of  wind  enters  the  stomach,  or  there  is  an  injurious  loss  of 
saliva.  This  diminishes  the  value  of  the  horse  almost  as  much  as  crib- 
biting;  it  is  as  contagious,  and  it  is  as  inveterate.  The  only  remedies,  and 
they  will  seldom  avail,  are  tying  the  head%p,  except  when  the  horse  is 
feeding,  or  putting  on  a  muzzle,  with  sharp  spikes  towards  the  neck,  and 
which  shall  prick  him  whenever  he  attempts  to  rein  his  head  in  for  the 
purpose  of  wind-sucking. 

CUTTING. 

Of  this  habit  we  have  already  spoken,  at  page  252,  and  we  would  advise 
the  owner  of  a  cutting  horse,  without  trying  any  previous  experiment  of 
raising  or  lowering  the  heels,  to  put  on  the  cutting  foot  a  shoe  of  ever 
thickness  from  heel  to  toe,  not  projecting  in  the  slightest  degree  beyond  the 
crust,  and  the  crust  itself  being  rasped  a  little  above  the  quarters  ;  and  to  kt 
that  shoe  be  fastened  as  usual  on  the  outside,  but  with  only  one  nail  on  the 
inside,  and  that  almost  close  to  the  toe.  The  principle  on  which  the  shoe 
acts,  has  been  explained  at  page  252. 

NOT  LYING  DOWN. 

It  not  uncommonly  happens  that  a  horse  will  seldom  or  never  lie  down 
in  the  stable.  He  sometimes  continues  in  apparent  good  health,  and  feeds 
and  works  well ;  but  generally  his  legs  swell,  or  he  becomes  fatigued 
sooner  than  another  horse.  If  it  is  impossible  to  let  him  loose  in  the  stable, 
or  to  put  him  into  a  spare  box,  we  know  not  what  is  to  be  done.  No 
means,  gentle  or  cruel,  will  force  him  to  lie  down.  The  secret  is  that  he 
is  tied  up,  and  either  has  never  dared  to  lie  down  through  fear  of  the  con- 
finement of  the  halter,  or  he  has  been  cast  in  the  night,  and  severely 
injured.  If  he  can  be  suffered  to  range  the  stable,  or  have  a  comfortable 
box,  in  which  he  may  be  loose,  he  will  usually  lie  down  the  first  night. 
Some  few  horses,  however,  will  lie  down  in  the  stable,  and  not  in  a 
loose  box.  A  fresh,  well-made  bed  will  generally  tempt  'be  tired  horse  to 
lie  down. 

OVERREACH. 

This  unpleasant  noise,  known  also  by  the  terms  "clicking,"  "over- 
reach," &c.,  arises  from  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot  knocking  against  the  shoe 
of  ♦he  fore-fjot.  In  the  trot,  one  fore-leg  and  the  opposite  hind-leg,  are  first 
iiftcd  from  the  ground  and  moved  forward,  the  other  fore-leg  and  the 
opposite  hind-leg  remaining  fixed  ;  but,  to  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  within 
the  base,  and  as,  the  stride,  or  space  passed  over  by  these  legs,  is  often 
greater  than  the  distance  between  the  fore  and  hind-feet,  it  is  nece.ssary 
that  the  fore-feet  should  be  moved  alternately  out  of  the  way  for  the  hind- 
feet  to  descend.  Then,  as  occasionally  happens  with  horses  not  perfectly 
Droken,  and  that  have  not  been  taught  their  paces,  and  especially  if  they 
have  Iiigli  hinder  quarters  and  low  fore  ones,  if  the  fore-feet  ate  not  raised 
in  time,  the  hind-feet  will  strike  them.  The  fore-foot  will  generally  be 
i^aught  wlien  it  has  just  begun  to  be  raised,  and  the  toe  of  the  hind-fool 
will  meet  tlie  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  fore-foot.  It  is  a  very  disagree- 
nble  noise,  ar.d  not  altogether  free  from  danger;    for  it  may  so  hajtpen  thai 


tilii  THE  HORSE 

a  horse,  tlie  action  of  whose  feet  generally  so  much  interferes  with  each 
other,  may  advance  the  hind-f(jot  a  little  more  rapidly,  or  raise  the  fore  one 
a  little  more  slowly,  so  that  the  blow  may  fall  on  the  heel  of  the  shoe, 
and  loosen  or  displace  it;  or  the  two  shoes  may  be  locked  together,  and 
the  animal  may  be  thrown;  or  the  contusion  may  be  received  even  higher, 
and  on  the  tendons  of  the  le^,  when  considerable  swelling  and  lameness 
may  follow.  * 

If  the  animal  is  young,  the  action  of  the  horse  may  be  materially  im- 
proved ;  otherwise,  nothing  can  be  done,  except  to  keep  the  toe  of  the  liind- 
fbot  as  short  and  as  round  as  it  can  safely  be,  and  to  bevil  off  and  round 
the  toe  of  the  shoe,  like  that  which  has  been  worn  by  a  stumbler  for  a  fort- 
night, and,  perhaps,  a  little  lower  to  the  heel  of  the  fore- foot. 

A  blow,  received  on  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot  in  this  manner,  has  not 
unfrequently,  and  especially  if  neglected,  been  followed  by  quittor. 

PAWING. 

Some  hot  and  irritable  horses  are  restless,  even  in  the  stable,  and  paw 
frequently  and  violently.  Their  litter  is  destroyed,  the  floor  of  the  stable 
broketi  up,  the  shoes  worn  out,  the  feet  bruised,  and  the  legs  sometimes 
sprained.  If  this  habit  does  not  exist  to  any  great  extent,  yet  the  stable 
never  looks  well.  Shackles  are  the  only  remedy,  with  a  chain  sufficiently 
long  to  enable  the  horse  to  shift  his  posture,  or  move  in  his  stall;  but  even 
these  must  be  taken  off  at  night,  otherwise  the  animal  will  seldom  lie  down. 

QUIDDING. 

A  horse  will,  sometimes,  partly  chew  his  hay,  and  suffer  it  to  drop  from 
his  mouth.  If  this  does  not  proceed  from  irregular  teeth,  which  it  will  be 
the  business  of  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  rasp  down,  it  will  be  found  to  be 
connected  with  sore-tliroat,  and  then  the  horse  will  exhibit  some  other 
symptom  of  indisposition,  and  the  swallowing  of  water  will  be  accompanied 
by  a  peculiar  gulping  effort.  In  this  case  the  disease  (catarrh,  with  sore 
throat)  must  be  attacked,  and  the  quidding  will  cease. 

ROLLING. 

This  is  a  very  pleasant  and  perfectly  safe  amusement  for  a  horse  at  grass, 
but  cannot  be  indulged  in  the  stable  without  the  chance  of  his  being  dan- 
gerously entangled  with  the  collar  rein,  and  being  cast.  Yet,  although 
the  horse  is  cast,  and  bruised,  and  half-strangled,  he  will  roll  again  on  the 
following  night,  and  continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  he  lives.  The  only  rem- 
edy is  not  a  very  pleasant  one  to  the  horse,  nor  always  quite  safe;  yet  it 
must  be  had  recourse  to  if  the  habit  of  rolling  is  inveterate.  "The  horse," 
says  Mr.  Castley,  in  the  Veterinarian,  "should  be  tied  with  length  enough 
of  collar  to  lie  down,  but  not  to  allow  of  his  head  resting  on  the  ground  ; 
because,  in  order  to  roll  over,  a  horse  is  obliged  to  place  his  head  quite 
down  upon  the  ground." 

SHYING. 

Ve  have  briefly  treated  of  the  cause  of  this  vice  at  page  98,  and  observed 
that  while  it  is  often  the  result  of  cowardice,  or  playfulness,  or  want  of 
work,  it  is  at  other  times  the  consequence  of  a  defect  of  sight.  It  Jias 
been  'emarked,  and  we  believe  very  truly,  that  shying  is  ofiener  a  vi(.c  of 


SHYING.  343 

half  )r  quarter-bred  horses,  than  of  those  who  have  in  them  more  of  tlie 
genuine  racing  blood. 

In  the  treatment  of  shying,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  distinguish 
between  that  whicli  is  tlie  consequence  of  defective  sight,  and  that  which 
results  from  fear,  or  newness  of  objects,  or  from  mere  affectation  or 
skittishness.  For  the  first,  the  nature  of  which  we  have  explained  at 
page  98,  every  allowance  must  be  made,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  tht 
fear  of  correction  be  not  associated  with  the  imagined  existence  of  some 
terrifying  object.  The  severe  use  of  the  whip  and  the  sp«ur  cannot  do  good 
here,  and  are  likely  to  aggravate  the  vice  tenfold.  A  word,  half  encouraging 
and  half  scolding,  with  a  gentle  pressure  of  the  heel,  or  a  slight  touch  of 
the  spur,  will  tell  the  horse  that  there  was  nothing  to  fear,  and  will  give  him 
confidence  in  his  rider  on  a  future  occasion.*  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  although  a  horse  that  shies  from  defective  sight  may  be  taught 
considerable  reliance  on  his  rider,  he  can  never  have  the  cause  of  the  habit 
removed.  We  may  artificially  strengthen  the  human  sight,  but  the  horse's 
must  be  left  to  itself 

The  shying  from  skittishness  or  affectation  is  quite  a  different  affair,  and 
must  be  conquered.  But  how  ?  Severity  is  out  of  place  even  here.  If  he 
is  forced  up  to  the  object  by  dint  of  correction,  the  dread  of  punishment 
will  afterwards  be  associated  with  that  object,  and  on  the  next  occasion,  his 
startings  will  be  more  frequent  and  more  dangerous.  The  way  to  cure  him 
is  to  go  on,  turning  as  little  as  possible  out  of  the  road,  giving  the  animal  a 
harsh  word  or  two,  and  a  gentle  touch  with  the  spur,  and  then  taking  no 
more  notice  of  the  matter.  After  a  few  times,  whatever  may  have  been 
the  object  which  he  chose  to  select  as  the  pretended  cause  of  affright,  he 
will  pass  it  almost  without  notice. 

In  page  225,  under  the  head  "  Breaking  in,"  we  have  described  how  the 
colt  may  be  cured  of  the  habit  of  shying  from  fear  or  newness  of  objects ; 
and  if  he  then  be  accustomed  as  much  as  possible  to  the  objects  among 
tvhich  his  services  will  be  required,  he  will  not  possess  this  annoying  vice 
tvhen  he  grows  to  maturer  age. 

Mr.  John  Lawrence,  in  his  last  pleasing  work  on  the  horse,  says: 
"These  animals  generally  fix  on  some  particular  shying  butt:  for  example, 
[  recollect  having,  at  different  periods,  three  hacks,  all  very  powerful  ;  the 
one  made  choice  of  a  wind-mill  for  the  object  or  butt,  the  other  a  tilted 
waggon,  and  the  last  a  pig  led  in  a  string.  It  so  happened,  however,  that 
[  rode  the  two  former  when  aniiss  from  a  violent  cold,  and  they  then  paid 
no  more  attention  to  either  wind-mills  or  tilted  waggons  than  to  any  other 
objects,  convincing  me  that  their  shying  when  in  health  and  spirits  was 
pure  affectation  ;  an  affectation,  however,  which  may  be  speedily  united 
with  obstinacy  and  vice.  Let  it  be  treated  with  marked  displeasure, 
mingled  with  gentle,  but  decided  firmness,  and  the  habit  will  be  of  short 
endurance. "* 

*  "We  will  suppose  a  case,  a  very  common  one,  an  every-day  one.  A  man  is  riding  a 
young'  horse  upon  the  hiffh-road  in  the  country,  and  meets  a  stag-e-coach.  What  with  the 
noise,  the  bustle,  the  imposing  appearance  altogether,  and  the  slashing- of  the  coachnuin's 
whip,  tlie  animal  at  its  approach,  erects  his  head  and  crest,  pricks  liis  ears,  looks  affrighted, 
and  no  sooner  conies  alongside  of  the  machine  than  he  suddenly  starts  out  of  the  road. 
His  rider,  annoyed  by  this,  instantly  commences  a  round  of  castiga'ion  with  whip,  spur, 
and  curb,  in  whicii  he  persists  until  the  horse,  as  well  as  himself,  has  lost  his  temper;  and 
then  one  whips,  spurs,  and  pulls,  and  the  other  jumps,  plunges,  frets,  and  throws  up  his 
head,  until  both,  pretty  well  exhausted  by  the  conflict,  grow  tranquil  again,  and  proceed  on 
iheir  journey,  tliough  not  for  some  time  afterwards  in  their  former  mutual  confidence  and 
satisfaction.  Should  ihey  in  their  njad,  or  even  on  a  distant  day,  meet  with  another  coach, 
wijat  is  'he  consequence  1     That  the  horse  is  not  only  mc*e  alarmed  than  before;  but  now 


344 


THE  HORSE. 


Shying  on  coming  out  of  the  stable  is  a  habit  that  can  rarely  or  never  be 
cured.  It  proceeds  from  the  remembrance  of  some  ill-usage  or  hurt  which  the 
animal  has  received  in  the  act  of  proceeding  from  the  stable,  such  as  striking 
his  head  against  a  low  door-way,  or  entangling  the  harness.  Coercion  will 
but  associate  greater  fear  and  more  determined  resistance  with  the  old  recol- 
lection. Mr.  Castley,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  much  that  is  valuable 
on  the  subject  of  the  vices  of  the  horse,  gives  an  interesting  anecdote  which 
tends  to  pi'ove  that  while  severity  will  be  worse  than  useless, ,  even  kind 
treatment  will  not  break  a  confirmed  habit.  "I  remember  a  very  fine  grey 
mare  that  had  got  into  this  habit,  and  never  could  be  persuaded  to  go 
throug  a  door-way  without  taking  an  immense  jump.  To  avoid  this,  the 
servants  used  to  back  her  in  and  out  of  the  stable ;  but  the  mare  happening 
to  meet  with  a  severe  injury  of  the  spine,  was  no  longer  able  to  back;  and 
then  I  have  seen  the  poor  creature,  when  brought  to  the  door,  endeavouring 
to  balance  herself  with  a  staggering  motion  upon  her  half-paralyzed  hind 
extremities,  as  if  making  preparation  and  summoning  up  resolution  for 
some  great  effort;  and  then,  when  urged,  she  would  plunge  headlong  for. 
ward  with  such  violence  of  exertion,  as  often  to  lose  her  feet,  and  tumble 
down 'altogether  most  pitiable  to  be  seen.'  This  I  merely  mention,"  he 
continues,  "as  one  proof  how  inveterate  the  habits  of  horses  are.  They 
are  evils,  let  it  always  be  remembered,  more  easy  to  prevent  than  cure." 

SLIPPING  THE  COLLAR. 

This  is  a  trick  at  which  many  horses  are  so  clever,  that  scarcely  a  nisht 
passes  without  their  getting  loose.  It  is  a  very  serious  habit,  for  it  enables 
the  horse  sometimes,  to  gorge  himself  with  food,  to  the  imminent  danger 
of  staggers;  or  it  exposes  him,  as  he  wanders  about,  to  be  kicked  and 
injured  by  the  other  horses,  while  his  restlessness  will  often  keen  the  whole 
team  awake.  If  the  web  of  the  halter,  being  first  accurately  fitted  to  his 
neck,  is  suffered  to  slip  only  one  way,  or  a  strap  is  attached  to  the  halter 
and  buckled  round  the  neck,  but  not  sufficiently  tight  to  be  of  serious 
inconvenience,  the  power  of  slipping  the  collar  will  be  taken  av\'ay. 

TRIPPING. 

He  must  be  a  skilful  practitioner  or  a  mere  pretender  who  promises  to 
remedy  this  habit.  If  it  arises  from  a  heavy  forehand,  and  the  fore-legs 
being  too  much  under  the  horse,  no  one  can  alter  the  natural  frame  of  the 
beast:  if  it  proceeds  from  tenderness  of  the  foot,  grogginess,  or  old  lame- 
ness, these  ailments  are  seldom  cured  ;  and  if  it  is  to  be  traced  to  habitual 
carelessness  and  idleness,  no  whipping  will  rouse  the  drone.  A  known 
stumbler  should  never  be  ridden,  or  driven  alone,  by  any  one  who  values 
his  safety  or  his  life.  A  tight  hand,  or  a  strong  bearing-rein  are  precautions 
that  should  not  be  neglected,  but  they  are  generally  of  little  avail;  for  the 
inveterate  stumbler  will  rarely  try  to  save  himself,  and  tins  tight  rein  may 
sooner  and  farther  precipitate  the  rider.  If,  after  a  trip,  the  horse  suddenly 
starts  forward,  and  endeavours  to  break  into  a  canter,  the  rider  or  driver 
may  be  assured  that  others  before  him  have  fruitlessly  endeavoured  to 
remedy  the  nuisance. 

If  the  stumbler  has  the  foot  kept  as  short  and  the  toe  pared  as  close  as 

the  moment  he  has  started,  being-  conscious  of  his  fault,  and  expecting-  chastisement,  he 
jumps  about  in  fearful  ajritation,  makinsr  plunsres  to  strike  into  a  callop,  and  attemptincr  to 
run  away.  Sc^  that  by  this  correction,  instead  of  rendering-  his  horse  tranquil  during-  the 
passag-c  of  a  coacli,  the  rider  adds  to  the  evil  of  shying  tliat  of  sulisequently  plunging-,  and 
perhaps  running  away." — The  Veterinarian,  by  Messrs.  Percivall  and  Youati,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 


AIR.  34f 

safety  will  permit,  and  the  shoe  be  rounded  at  the  toe.  or  have  that  shape 
giveii  to  it  which  it  naturally  acquires,  in  a  fortnight,  from  the  action  of 
such  a  horse,  the  animal  may  not  stumble  quite  so  much;  or  if  the  disease 
which  produced  the  habit  can  be  alleviated,  some  trilling  good  may  be  done; 
liut  in  almost  every  case  a  stumbler  should  be  got  rid  of,  or  put  to  slow  and 
heavy  work.  If  the  latter  alternative  be  adopted,  he  may  trip  as  much  as 
ho  pleases,  for  the  weight  of  the  load,  and  the  motion  of  the  other  horses 
will  keep  him  upon  his  legs. 

WEAVING. 

This  consists  in  a  motion  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body,  from  side  to  side, 
like  the  shuttle  of  a  weaver  passing  through  the  web,  and  hence  the  name 
which  is  given  to  this  peculiar  and  incessant  action.  It  indicates  an  im- 
patient, irritable  temper,  and  a  dislike  to  the  confinement  of  the  stable; 
and  a  horse  that  is  thus  incessantly  on  the  fret  will  seldom  carry  flesh,  or 
be  safe  to  ride  or  drive.  There  is  no  cure  for  it,  but  the  close  tying  up  of 
the  auimal,  except  at  feeding  time. 


CHAPTER    XX. 
THE  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Tins  is  a  most  important  part  of  our  subject,  even  as  it  I'egards  the 
farmer,  although  there  are  comparatively  few  glaring  errors  in  the  treat- 
nient  of  the  agricultural  horse:  but  it  comes  more  especially  home  to  the 
gentleman,  who  is  too  often,  and  too  implicitly  under  the  guidance  of  an 
idle,  and  ignorant,  and  designing  groom. 

We  will  arrange  the  most  important  points  of  general  management  under 
the  following  heads: 

AIR. 

A  supply  of  pure  air  is  necessary  to  the  existence  and  health  of  man  and 
beast.  In  some  agricultural  stables,  the  supply,  if  not  too  great,  is  care- 
lessly and  injudiciously  admitted;  for  the  wind  blows  in  from  every 
quarter,  and  beats  directly  upon  the  animal.  When  he  has  been  well 
seasoned  to  this,  it  seems  to  do  him  little  harm,  except  that  he  has  an  un- 
thrifty coat,  and  is  out  of  condition.  Tlie  common  error,  however,  is  to 
exclude,  as  much  as  possible,  every  breath  of  air,  and  to  have  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  stable  hot,  contaminated,  and  unwholesome.  The  effect  of 
several  horses  being  shut  up  in  the  same  stable,  is  to  render  the  air 
unpleasantly  hot.  A  person  coming  from  without  cannot  breathe  it  many 
minutes  without  profuse  perspiration.  The  horse  stands  hour  after  hour 
m  it,  and  sometimes  clothed;  and  then  his  covering  is  suddenly  stripped 
off",  and  he  is  led  into  the  open  air,  the  temperature  of  which  is  thirty  or 
forty  degrees  below  that  of  the  stable.  Putting  the  humanity  of  the  thing 
for  a  moment  out  of  the  question,  we  ask,  must  not  the  animal,  thus  unnat- 
urally and  absurdly  treated,  be  subject  to  rheumatism,  catarrh,  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  lungs?  It  has  been  replied,  that  the  horse  keeps  himself 
v/arm  by  exercise  while  he  is  thus  exposed,  and  that  a  man,  using  strong 
exertion,  cares  little  about  the  quantity  of  clothing  upon  him.     Is  the  horse 


;Mf,  THE  HORSE. 

constantly  in  motion  after  liis  great-coat  and  all  his  body  clothes  have  been 
stripped  from  him,  and  he  has  been  turned  out  naked,  when  the  mercury  in 
the  thermometer  is  below  the  freezing  point?  Does  he  not  often  stand,  liour 
after  liour,  in  the  road  or  the  street,  while  his  owner  is  w^arming  himself 
within,  and  tliis  perhaps  after  every  pore  has  been  opened  by  a  brushing 
gallop;  and  his  susceptibility  to  the  painful  and  the  injuriouc  influence  of 
cold  has  been  excited  to  the  utmost? 

It  is  not  so  generally  known  as  it  ought  to  be,  that  the  return  to  a  hot 
stable  is  quite  as  dangerous  as  the  change  from  a  heated  atmosphere  to  a 
cold  and  biting  air.  Many  a  horse,  that  has  travelled  without  harm  over 
a  bleak  country,  has  been  suddenly  seized  with  inflammation  and  ievi  r 
when  he  has,  immediately  at  tlie  end  of  his  journey,  been  surrounded  wi  h 
heated  and  foul  air.  It  is  the  sudden  change  of  temperature,  whether 
from  heat  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  heat,  that  does  the  mischief,  and  yearly 
destroys  a  multitude  of  horses. 

The  stable  should  be  as  large,  compared  with  the  number  of  horses 
which  it  is  destined  to  contain,  as  circumstances  will  allow.  A  stable  for 
six  horses  should  not  be  less  than  forty  feet  in  length,  and  thirteen  or 
fourteen  feet  wide.  If  there  be  no  loft  above,  the  inside  of  the  roof  should 
always  be  plastered,  to  prevent  direct  currents  of  air  and  occasional  drop- 
pings from  broken  tiles;  and  the  heated  and  foul  air  should  escape,  and 
cool  and  pure  air  be  admitted,  by  elevation  of  the  central  tiles;  or  by  large 
tubes  carried  through  the  roof  with  caps  a  little  above  them  to  prevent  the 
beating  in  of  the  rain  ;  or  by  gratings  placed  high  up  in  the  walls.  These 
latter  apertures  should  be  as  far  above  the  horses  as  they  can  conveniently 
be  placed,  by  which  means  all  injurious  draught  will  be  prevented. 

If  there  is  a  loft  above  the  stable,  the  ceiling  should  be  plastered  in  order 
to  prevent  the  foul  air  from  penetrating  to  the  hay  above,  and  injuring  both 
its  taste  and  its  wholesomeness;  and  no  openings  should  be  allowed  above 
the  racks,  through  which  the  hay  may  be  thrown  into  the  rack,  for  they 
also  will  permit  the  foul  air  to  ascend  to  the  provender,  and,  in  the  act  of 
nlling  the  rack,  and  while  the  horse  is  eagerly  gazing  upward  for  his  food, 
many  a  grass-seed  has  fallen  into  his  eye,  and  produced  considerable  in- 
flammation ;  while  at  other  times,  when  the  careless  groom  has  lelt  open  the 
♦rap-door,  a  stream  of  cold  air  beats  down  on  the  head  of  the  horse. 

The  stable  with  a  loft  over  it,  should  never  be  less  than  twelve  feet  high, 
and  proper  ventilation  should  be  secured  either  by  tubes  carried  up 
through  the  loft  to  the  roof,  or  by  gratings  close  to  the  ceiling.  These 
gratings  or  openings  should  be  enlarged  or  contracted  by  means  of  h 
covering  or  shutter,  so  that  during  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  the  stable 
should  possess  nearly  the  same  temperature  with  the  open  air,  and,  in 
winter,  a  temperature  not  more  than  ten  degrees  above  that  of  the  external 
atmosphere.  A  hot  stable  has,  in  the  mind  of  the  groom,  been  long  connected 
with  a  glossy  coat.  The  latter,  it  is  thought,  cannot  be  attained  without 
the  former.  To  this  we  should  reply  that,  in  winter,  a  thin,  glossy  coat  is 
not  desirable.  Nature  gives  to  every  animal  a  warmer  clothing  when  the 
cold  weather  approaches.  The  horse  acquires  a  thicker  and  a  lengthened 
coat,  in  order  to  defend  him  from  the  surrounding  cold.  Man  puts  on  an 
additional  and  a  warmer  covering,  and  his  comfort  is  increased,  and  his 
health  preserved  by  it.  He  who  knows  any  thing  of  the  horse,  or  cares 
any  thing  for  his  enjoyment,  will  not  object  to  a  coat  a  little  longer  and  a 
little  roughened,  when  the  wintry  wind  blows  bleak.  The  coat,  however, 
need  not  be  so  long  as  to  be  unsightly ;  and  warm  clothing,  even  in  a  cool 
stable,   will,   with   plenty  of  honest  grooming,   keep   the  hair  sufliciently 


LITTER.  347 

smooth  and  glossy  to  satisfy  the  most  fastidious.  The  over-heated  an"  of  n. 
close  stable  saves  much  of  this  grooming,  and  therefore  the  idle  attendant 
unscrupulously  sacrifices  the  liealth  and  safety  of  the  horse. 

If  the  stable  is  close,  tlie  air  will  not  only  be  hot,  but  ti:)ul.  The  breathing 
of  every  animal  contaminates  it;  and  when,  in  the  course  of  the  night, 
with  every  aperture,  even  the  key-hole,  stopped,  it  passes  again  and  again 
through  the  lungs,  the  blood  cannot  undergo  its  proper  and  healthy  ciiange  ; 
digestion  cannot  be  so  perfectly  performed,  and  all  tlie  functions  of  life  are 
injured.  Let  the  owner  of  the  valuable  horse  think  of  his  passing  twenty 
or  twenty-two,  out  of  tlie  twenty-four  hours,  in  this  debilitating  atmosphere. 
Nature  does  wonders  in  enabling  every  animal  to  acconmiodate  itself  to  the 
situation  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  the  horse  that  lives  in  the  stable-oven 
suffers  less  from  it  than  would  scarcely  be  conceived  possible;  but  he  does 
not  and  cannot  possess  the  power  and  tlie  hardihood  which  he  would  acquire 
under  other  circumstances. 

The  air  of  the  improperly-close  stable  is  still  further  contaminated  by 
the  urine  and  dung,  which  rapidly  ferment  in  the  heat,  and  give  out 
stimulating  and  unwholesome  vapours.  VVHien  a  person  first  enters  an  ill- 
managed  stable,  and  especially  early  in  the  morning,  he  is  annoyed  not 
only  by  the  heat  of  the  confined  air,  but  by  a  pungent  smell,  resembling 
hartshorn;  and  can  he  wonder  at  the  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  the 
chronic  cough,  and  the  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  with  which  the  animal, 
that  has  been  shut  up  in  this  vitiated  atmosphere  all  night,  is  often  attacked; 
or  if  glanders  and  farcy  should  occasionally  break  out  in  such  stables?  It 
has  been  ascertained,  by  chemical  experiment,  that  the  urine  of  the  horse 
contains  in  it  an  exceedingly  large  quantity  of  hartshorn  ;  and,  not  only  so, 
but  that,  influenced  by  the  heat  of  a  crowded  stable,  and  possibly  by  other  de- 
compositions that  are  going  forward  at  the  same  time,  this  ammoniacal  vapour 
begins  to  be  rapidly  given  out,  almost  immediately  after  the  urine  is  voided. 

When  disease  begins  to  appear  among  the  inhabitants  of  these  ill- 
ventilated  places,  is  it  wonderful  that  it  should  rapidly  spread  among  them, 
and  that  the  plague-spot  should  be,  as  it  were,  placed  on  the  door  of  such 
a  stable?  When  distemper  appears  in  spring  or  in  autumn,  it  is,  in  very 
many  cases,  to  be  traced  first  of  all  to  such  a  pest-house.  It  is  peculiarly 
fatal  there.  The  horses  belonging  to  a  small  establishment,  and  rationally 
treated,  have  it  comparatively  seldom,  or  have  it  lightly;  but,  among  the 
inmates  of  a  crowded  stable,  it  is  sure  to  display  itself,  and  there  it  is  most 
of  all  fatal.  The  experience  of  every  veterinary  surgeon,  and  of  every 
large  proprietor  of  horses,  will  corroborate  this  statement.  Agriculturists 
should  bring  to  their  stables  the  common  sense  which  directs  them  in  the 
usual  concerns  of  life;  and  should  begin,  when  their  pleasures  and  their 
property  are  so  much  at  stake,  to  assume  that  authority,  and  to  enforce  that 
obedience,  to  the  lack  of  which  is  to  be  attributed  the  greater  part  of  bad 
stable-management  and  horse  disease.  Of  nothing  are  we  more  certain, 
than  that  the  majority  of  the  maladies  of  the  horse,  and  those  of  the  worst 
And  most  fatal  character,  are  directly  or  indirectly  to  be  attributed  to  tlie 
unnatural  heat  of  the  stable,  and  the  sudden  change  of  the  animal  from  a 
high  to  a  low,  or  from  a  low  to  a  high  temperature. 

LITTER. 

Having  spoken  of  the  vapour  of  hartshorn,  which  is  so  rapidly  and  so 
plentifully  given  out  from  the  urine  of  a  horse  in  a  heated  stable,  we  take 
next  into  consideration  the  subject  of  litter.  The  first  caution  is  frequently 
^o  remove  it.  Tlie  early  extrication  of  gas  shows  the  rapid  putrefaction  of 
the  u""ine-   and  the  consequence  of  which  wiU  be  'he  rapid  putrefaction  of 


giS  THE  HORSE. 

the  litl'^r  that  lias  been  moistened  by  it.  Every  thing  hastening  to  deeom. 
,;osilion  should  bo  carefully  removed  where  lile  and  liealtii  are  to  be  pre- 
served. Every  portion  of  the  litter  that  has  been  much  wetted,  or  at  all 
sjofteued  by  the  urine,  and  is  beginning  to  decay,  should  be  swept  away 
every  morning:  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  may  be  then  piled  under 
the  manger,  a  little  being  left  to  prevent  tlie  painful  and  injurious  pressure 
of  the  feet  on  the  hard  pavement  during  the  day.  Tiie  soiled  and  macer- 
ated portion  of  that  which  was  left  should  be  removed  at  night. 

No  heap  of  fermenting  dung  should  be  suffered  to  remain  during  the 
day  in  the  corner,  or  in  any  part  of  the  stable.  With  regard  to  tiiis,  the 
direciions  of  the  master  should  be  peremptory. 

The  stable  should  be  so  contrived  that  the  urine  shall  quickly  run  off 
and  the  ollensive  and  injurious  vapour  from  the  decomposing  urine  and  the 
litter  will  thus  be  materially  lessened:  if,  however,  the  urine  be  carried 
away  by  means  of  a  gutter  running  along  the  stable,  the  floor  of  the  stalls 
must  slant  toward  that  gutter,  and  the  declivity  will  sometimes  be  so  great 
as  to  strain  the  bade  sinews,  and  become  an  occasional,  although  unsus- 
pected cause  of  lameness.  Mr.  R.  Lawrence  well  observes  that,  "if  the 
reader  will  stand  for  a  few  minutes  wiih  his  toes  higher  than  his  heels,  the 
pain  he  will  feel  in  the  calves  of  his  legs  will  soon  convince  him  of  the 
xruth  of  this  remark.  Hence,  when  a  horse  is  not  eating,  he  always 
endeavors  to  find  his  level,  either  by  standing  across  the  stall,  or  else  as  far 
back  as  his  halter  will  permit,  so  that  his  hind-legs  may  meet  the  ascent  of 
the  other  si'tle  of  the  channel." 

This  direction  of  the  stall  is  also  a  frequent  cause  of  contraction  of  the 
heels  of  the  toot,  by  tii rowing  too  great  a  proportion  of  the  weight  upon  the 
toe,  and  removing  that  pressure  on  the  heels  which  tends  most  to  keep 
them  open.  Care,  therefore,  must  be  taken  that  the  slanting  of  the  floor 
of  the  stalls  shall  be  no  more  than  is  sufficient  to  drain  off  the  urine  with 
tolerable  rapidity.  Stalls  of  this  kind  certainly  do  best  for  mares;  but  for 
horses  we  much  prefer  those  with  a  grating  in  the  centre,  and  an  inclination 
of  the  floor  on  every  side  towards  the  middle.  A  short  branch  may  communi- 
cate with  a  larger  drain,  by  means  of  which  the  urine  may  be  carried  off 
to  a  reservoir  outside  the  stable.  Traps  are  now  contrived,  and  may  be 
procured  at  little  expense,  by  means  of  which  neither  any  offensive  smell 
nor  cuirent  of  aii  can  pass  through  the  grating. 

The  farmer  should  not  lose  any  of  the  urine.  It  is  from  the  dung  of 
the  horse  that  he  derives  a  principal  and  the  most  valuable  part  of  his  ma- 
nure. It  is  that  which  earliest  takes  on  the  process  of  putrefaction,  and 
forms  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  durable  dressings.  That  which  is 
most  of  all  concerned  with  the  rapidity  and  perfection  of  the  decomposition, 
is  the  urine. 

The.  reasons  why  the  horse  should  always  stand  on  litter  have  been 
given  at  page  295.  Humanity  and  interest,  as  well  as  the  appearance  ol' 
the  stable,  will  induce  the  general  proprietor  of  the  horse  to  place  a  mode- 
rate quantity  of  litter  under  him  during  the  day.  The  farmer,  who  wants 
to  convert  every  otherwise  useless  substance  into  manure,  will  have  addi- 
tional reason  for  adopting  this  practice;  especially,  as  he  does  not  confine 
hinistlf  to  that  to  which  in  towns  and  in  gentlemen's  stables  custom  seems 
to  have  limited  the  bed  of  the  horse.  Pea  and  bean-haum,  and  potato- 
tops,  and  heath,  occupy  in  the  stable  of  the  farmer,  during  a  part  of  the 
year,  the  place  of  wheaten  and  oaten  straw.  It  should,  however,  be 
remembered,  that  these  substances  are  disposed  more  easily  to  ferment  an-l 
putrefy  than  straw,  and  therefore  should  be  more  carefully  examined,  and 
otkner   removed.      It  is  the   faullv  custom  of  some   farmers  to  let  the  bed 


LIGHT.  349 

accumulate  until  it  reaches  almost  to  the  horse's  belly,  and  the  bntU)in  ot 
it  is  a  mass  of  duij<:.  If  there  were  not  often  many  a  hole  and  cranny 
through  which  the  wind  can  enter,  and  disperse  tlie  ibul  air,  tiie  hoaltli  of 
the  animal  would  suflcr. 

LIGHT. 

This  neglected  branch  of  stable- management  is  of  far  more  consequcncf 
than  is  generally  imagined ;  and  it  is  particularly  neglected  by  those  for 
whom  these  treatises  are  principally  designed.  The  ftirmer's  stable  is  fre- 
quently destitute  of  any  glazed  window;  and  has  only  a  shutter,  which  is 
raised  in  warm,  and  shut  down  in  cold  weather.  VV^hen  the  horse  is  in  the 
ratable  only  during  a  few  hours  of  the  day,  this  is  not  of  so  much  conse- 
quence; nor  of  so  much,  probably,  to  horses  of  slow  work ;  but  to  car- 
riage horses  and  hackneys,  so  far  at  least  as  the  eyes  are  concerned,  a 
dark  stable  is  little  less  injurious  than  a  foul  and  heated  one.  To  illus- 
trate this,  reference  may  be  made  t-o  the  unpleasant  feeling  and  the  utter 
impossibility  of  seeing  "distinctly,  when  a  man  suddenly  emerges  from  a 
dark  place  into  the  I'ull  blaze  of  da)  The  sensation  of  mingled  pain  and 
giddiness  is  not  soon  forgotten ;  and  some  minutes  pass  before  the  eye  can 
accommodate  itself  to  the  increased  light.  If  this  were  to  happen  every 
day,  or  several  times  in  the  day,  the  sight  would  be  'irreparably  injured; 
or,  possibly,  blindness  would  ensue.  Can  we  wonder,  then,  that  the  horse 
taken  from  a  dark  stable  into  a  glare  of  light,  and  feeling,  probably,  as  we 
should  under  similar  circumstances,  and  unable,  for  a  considerable  time,  to 
see  any  thing  around  him  distinctly,  should  become  a  starter,  or  that  the 
frequently  repeated  violent  effect  of  sudden  light  should  induce  inflamma- 
tion of  the  eye,  so  intense  as  to  terminate  in  blindness?  There  is,  indeed, 
no  doubt,  in  the  mind  of  any  one  familiar  with  the  subject,  that  horses  kept 
in  a  dark  stable  are  frequently  notorious  starters,  and  that  starting  has  been 
evidently  traced  to  this  cause. 

Farmers  know,  and  should  profit  by  the  knowledge,  that  the  darkness  of 
the  stable  is  not  unfrequently  a  cover  for  great  uncleanliness.  A  glazed 
window,  with  leaden  divisions  between  the  small  panes,  would  not  cost 
much,  and  would  admit  a  degree  of  light  somewhat  more  approaching  to 
that  of  day;  and,  at  the  same  time,  would  render  the  concealment  of  gross 
inattention  and  want  of  cleanliness  impossible. 

If  plenty  of  light  be  admitted,  the  walls  of  the  stable,  and  especially 
that  portion  of  them  which  is  before  the  horse's  head,  must  not  be  of  too 
glaring  a  colour.  The  constant  reflection  from  awiiite  wall,  and  especially 
if  the  sun  shines  into  the  stable,  will  be  as  injurious  t(5  the  eye  as  the  sudden 
changes  from  darkness  to  light.  The  perpetual  slight  excess  of  st-imulus 
will  do  as  much  mischief  as  the  occasional,  but  more  violent  one,  when 
the  animal  is  taken  from  a  kind  of  twilight  to  the  blaze  of  day.  The 
colour  of  the  stable,  therefore,  should  depend  on  the  quantity  of  light. 
VVhere  much  can  be  admitted,  the  walls  should  be  of  a  grey  hue.  Where 
darkness  would  otherwise  prevail,  frequent  whitewashing  may  in  some 
degree  dissipate  the  gloom. 

For  another  reason  it  will  be  evident  that  the  stable  should  not  possess 
00  glaring  a  light.  It  is  the  resting-place  of  the  horse.  The  work  of  the 
farmer's  horse,  indeed,  is  confined  principally  to  the  day,  but  the  labours 
of  others  are  demanded  at  all  periods.  The  hour  of  exertion  having 
passed,  the  animal  returns  to  his  stable  to  feed  and  to  repose,  and  the  latter 
is  as  necessary  as  the  former,  in  order  to  prepare  him  for  renewed  work. 
Something  approaching  f"  the  dimno««  of  twilight  is  requisite,  to  induce  tl)e 


3^vS  THK  HORSE. 

auiinul  to  coiii])os('  hiinsuH'  In  sleep.  Tliis  halfliglit  more  particularly  suits 
horses  of  lieavy  work,  and  wIid  draw  almost  as  much  i)y  tlic  weight  of 
carcase  which  they  can  throw  into  the  colhir,  as  by  the  de;Liree  of  muscular 
eneroy  of  which  they  are  capable.  In  the  (juiciness  of  a  dimly-liiihted 
stable  they  obtain  repose,  and  accumulate  flesh  and  Hit.  Dealers  are  i)er 
feetly  aware  of  this.  Tliey  have  their  darkened  stables,  in  which  the 
young  horse,  with  little  or  no  exercise,  and  fed  upon  mashes  and  ground 
corn,  is  made  up  for  sale.  The  round  and  plunip  appearance,  however, 
which  may  delude  the  unwary,  soon  vanishes  with  altered  treatment,  and 
the  animal  is  found  to  be  unfit  for  hard  work,  and  predisposed  to  every 
inflammatory  disease.  The  circumstances,  then,  under  which  a  stable 
somewhat  darkened  may  be  allowed,  will  be  easily  determined  by  the  ownei 
of  the  horse;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  dark  stables  are  unfriendly  to  cleanli. 
ness,  and  the  frequent  cause  of  the  vice  of  starting,  and  of  the  most  seriou 
diseases  of  the  eyes. 

GROOMING. 

Of  this  much  need  not  be  said,  since  custom,  and,  apparently  without 
ill  effect,  has  allotted  so  little  of  the  comb  and  the  brush  to  the  farmer's 
horse.  The  animal  that  has  worked  all  day,  and  is  turned  out  at  night, 
requires  little  more  to  be  done  to  him  than  have  the  dirt  brushed  off  hi?, 
limbs.  Regular  grooming,  by  rendering  his  skin  more  sensible  to  the 
alteration  of  temperature,  and  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  would  ht 
prejudicial.  The  horse  that  is  altogether  turned  out  needs  no  grooming. 
The  dandriff  or  scurf  which  accumulates  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  is  a  pro- 
vision of  nature  to  defend  him  from  the  wind  and  the  cold. 

It  is  to  the  stabled  horse,  highly  fed,  and  little  or  irregularly  worked,  that 
grooming  is  of  so  much  consequence.  Good  rubbing  with  the  brush  or 
the  currycomb  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  circulates  the  blood  to  the 
extremities  of  the  body  aad  through  the  minute  vessels  of  the  skin,  and 
produces  free  and  healthy  perspiration,  and  stands  in  the  room  of  exercise. 
No  horse  will  carry  a  fine  coat  without  either  heat  or  dressing.  They 
both  effect  the  same  purpose;  they  both  increase  the  insensible  perspira- 
tion ;  but  the  first  does  it  at  the  expense  of  health  and  strength,  while  the 
second,  at  the  same  time  that  it  produces  a  glow  on  the  skin,  and  a  determina- 
tion of  blood  to  it,  rouses  all  the  energies  of  the  frame.  It  would  be  well 
for  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  if  he  were  to  insist  upon  it,  and  to  see 
that  liis  orders  are  really  obeyed,  that  the  fine  coat  in  which  he  and 
his  groom  so  much  delight,  is  produced  by  honest  rubbing,  and  not  by  a 
heated  stable  and  thick  clothing,  and  most  of  all,  not  by  stimulating  or 
injurious  spices. 

When  tiie  weather  will  permit  the  horse  to  be  taken  out,  he  should 
never  be  groomed  in  the  stable.  Without  dwelling  on  the  want  of  clean- 
Jiness,  when  the  scurf  and  dust  that  are  brushed  from  the  horse  lodge  in 
his  manger,  and  mingle  with  his  food,  experience  teaches,  that  if  the  cold 
is  not  too  great,  the  animal  is  braced  and  invigorated  from  being  dressed 
in  the  o])en  air,  to  a  degree  that  cannot  be  attained  in  the  stable.  There 
is  no  necessity,  however,  for  half  the  punishment  which  n)any  a  groom 
inflicts  upon  the  horse  in  the  act  of  dressing;  and  particularly  on  one 
whose  skin  is  thin  and  sensible.  The  currycomb  should  at  all  times 
be  lightly  applied.  With  many  horses  its  use  may  be  almost  dispenscu 
with;  and  even  the  brush  need  not  be  so  hard,  nor  the  points  of  the  bristles 
so  irregular  as  they  often  are.  A  soft  brush,  with  a  little  more  weight 
of  the   hand,  will    be  equally   effectual   and   a  great  deal  more   pieasanl 


EXERCISE.  351 

lo  the  horse.  A  hair  cloth,  while  it  will  seldom  irritate  and  tease,  will  be 
al-nost  sufHcient  with  horses  that  have  thin  hair,  and  that  have  not  been 
neglected. 

VVhoever  would  be  convinced  of  the  benefit  of  friction  to  the  horse's 
skin,  and  to  the  horse  generally,  need  only  observe  the  effect  produced  by 
well  hand-rubbing  the"  legs  of  a  tired  horse.  Wiiile  every  enlargement 
subsides,  and  the  painful  stiflhess  disappears,  and  the  legs  attain  their 
natural  warmth;  and  become  fine,  the  animal  is  evidently  and  rapidly 
reviving;  he  attacks  his  food  with  appetite,  and  then  quietly  lies  down 
to  rest. 

EXERCISE. 

Our  observations  on  this  important  branch  of  stable-management  must 
have  only  slight  reference  to  the  agricultural  horse.  His  work  is  usually 
regular  and  not  exhausting.  He  is  neither  predisposed  to  disease  by 
idleness,  nor  worn  out  by  excessive  exertion.  He,  like  his  master,  has 
enough  to  do  to  keep  him  in  health,  and  not  enough  to  distress  or  injure 
hiniT  on  the  contrary,  the  regularity  of  his  work  pn^ongs  life  to  an  extent 
rarely  witnessed  in  the  stable  of  a  gentleman.  Our  remarks  on  exercise, 
then,  must  have  a  general  bearing,  or  have  principle  reference  to  those 
persons  who  are  in  the  middle  stations  of  life,  who  contrive  to  keep  a  horse 
for  business  or  pleasure,  but  cannot  afford  to  maintain  a  servant  for  the 
express  purpose  of  looking  after  it.  The  first  rule  we  would  lay  down  is, 
that  every  horse  should  have  daily  exercise.  The  horse  that,  with  the 
usual  stable  feeding,  stands  idle  for  three  or  four  days,  as  is  the  case  in 
many  establishments,  must  suffer.  He  is  disposed  to  fever,  or  to  grease, 
or,  most  of  all,  to  diseases  of  the  foot;  and  if,  after  these  three  or  four  days 
of  inactivit)^,  he  is  ridden  fast  and  far,  is  almost  sure  to  have  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  or  of  the  feet. 

A  gentleman  or  tradesman's  horse  suffers  a  great  deal  more  from  idle- 
ness than  he  does  from  work.  A  stable-fed  horse  should  have  two  hours' 
exercise  every  day,  if  he  is  to  be  kept  free  from  disease.  Nothing  of  ex. 
traordinary,  or  even  of  ordinary  labour  can  be  effected  on  the  road  or  in 
the  field  without  sufficient  and  regular  exercise.  It  is  this  alone  which 
can  give  energy  to  the  system,  or  develop  the  powers  of  any  animal. 

How  then  is  this  exercise  to  be  given  ?  As  much  as  possible  by,  or 
under  the  suprintendence  of,  the  owner.  The  exercise  given  by  the  groom 
is  rarely  to  be  depended  upon.  It  is  inefficient,  or  it  is  extreme.  It  is  in 
many  cases  both  irregular  and  injurious.  It  is  dependent  on  the  caprice 
of  him  who  is  performing  a  task,  and  who  will  render  that  task  subservient 
to  his  own  pleasure  or  purposes. 

In  training  the  hunter  and  the  race-horse,  regular  exercise  is  the 
most  important  of  all  considerations,  however  it  may  be  forgotten  in  the 
usual  management  of  the  stable.  The  exercised  horse  will  discharge  his 
task,  and  sometimes  a  severe  one,  with  ease  and  pleasure,  while  the  idle  and 
neglected  one  will  be  fatigued  ere  half  his  labour  be  accomplished,  and 
if  he  be  pushed  a  little  too  far,  dangerous  inflammation  will  ensue.  How 
often,  nevertheless,  does  it  happen,  that  the  horse  that  has  stood  inactive 
m  the  stable  three  or  four  days,  is  ridden  or  driven  thirty  or  forty  miles  in 
the  course  of  a  single  day  ?  This  rest  is  often  purposely  given  to  prepare 
for  extra-exertion ;  to  lay  in  a  stock  of  strength  for  the  performance  of  the 
task  required  of  him:  and  then  the  owner  is  surprised  and  dissatisfied,  if 
the  animal  is  fairly  knocked  up,  or  possibly  becomes  seriously  ill.  Nothing 
is  so  common   and  preposterous,  as  for  a  person  to  buy  a  horse   from  a 


352  'I'HE  HORSE. 

deab-ir's  stable,  where  he  has  been  idly  fattening  for  sale  for  many  a  day, 
and  immediately  to  give  him  a  long  run  after  the  hounds,  and  complain 
bitterly,  and  tiiink  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon,  if  the  animal  is  exhausted 
before  the  end  of  the  chase,  or  is  compelled  to  be  led  home  suffering  from 
violent  inflammation.  Regular  and  gradually  increasing  exercise  would 
have  made  the  same  horse  appear  a  treasure  to' his  owner. 

Exercise  should  be  somewhat  proportioned  to  the  age  ^)f  the  horse.  A 
young  horse  requires  more  than  an  old  one.  Nature  has  given  to  young 
animals  of  every  kind  a  disposition  to  activity;  but  the  exercise  must  not 
be  violent.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  given. 
To  preserve  the  temper,  and  to  promote  health,  it  should  be  moderate,  at 
least  at  the  beginning  and  the  termination.  The  rapid  trol,  or  even  the 
gallop,  may  be  resorted  to  in  the  middle  of  the  exercise,  but  the  horse 
must  be  brought  in  cool.  If  the  owner  would  seldom  intrust  his  horse  to 
boys,  and  would  insist  on  the  exercise  being  taken  witliin  sight,  or  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  his  residence,  many  an  accident  and  irreparable  injury 
would  be  avoided.  It  should  be  the  owner's  pleasure,  and  is  his  interest, 
personally  to  attend  to  all  these  things.  He  manages  every  other  part  of 
his  concerns,  and  he  may  depend  on  it,  that  he  suffers  when  he  neglects, 
or  is  in  a  manner  excluded  from  his  stables. 

FOOD. 

The  system  of  manger-feeding  is  becoming  general  among  tarmers. 
There  are  few  horses  that  do  not  habitually  waste  a  portion  of  their  hay; 
and  by  some  the  greater  part  is  pulled  down  and  trampled  under  foot,  in 
order  first  to  cull  the  sweetest  and  best  locks,  and  which  could  not  be  done 
while  the  hay  was  inclosed  in  the  rack.  A  good  feeder  will  afterwards 
pick  up  much  of  that  which  was  thrown  down;  but  some  of  it  must  be 
soiled  and  rendered  disgusting,  and,  in  many  cases,  one-third  of  this  division 
of  their  food  is  wasted.  Some  of  the  oats  and  beans  are  imperfectly  chewed 
by  all  horses,  and  scarcely  at  all  by  hungry  and  greedy  ones.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  dung  will  sutficiently  evince  this. 

The  observation  of  this  induced  the  adoption  of  manger-feeding,  or  of 
mixing  a  portion  of  chaff  with  the  corn  and  beans.  By  this  means  the 
animal  is  compelled  to  chew  his  food ;  he  cannot,  to  any  great  degree, 
bolt  the  straw  or  hay ;  and  while  he  is  forced  to  grind  that  down,  the  oats 
and  beans- are  ground  vvith  it,  and  yields  more  nourishment;  the  stomach 
is  more  slowly  filled,  and  therefore  acts  belter  on  its  contents,  and  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  overloaded;  and  the  increased  quantity  of  saliva  thrown  out  in 
the  lengthened  grinding  of  the  food,  softens  it,  and  renders  it  more  fit 
for  digestion. 

If,  when  considerable  provender  w^as  wasted,  the  horse  maintained  his 
condition,  and  was  able  to  do  his  work,  it  was  evident  that  much  might 
be  saved  to  the  farmer,  when  he  adopted  a  system  by  which  the  horse  ate 
all  that  was  set  before  him;  and  by  degrees  it  was  found  out  that  even 
food  somewhat  less  nutritious,  but  a  great  deal  cheaper,  and  which  tlie 
horse  eitlier  would  not  eat,  or  would  not  properly  grind  down,  in  its  natural 
state,  might  be  added,  while  the  animal  would  be  in  quite  as  good  plight, 
and  always  ready  for  work. 

Chair  may  be  composed  of  equal  quantities  of  clover  or  meadow  hav,  and 
wheaten,  oaten,  or  barley  straw,  cut  into  pieces  of  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch 
In  length,  an.'  mingled  well  together;  the  allowance  of  oats  or  beans  is 
afterwaids  added,  and  mixed  with  the  chaff.  Many  farmers  very  proPc-^rly 
bruise  the  oats  or  beans.     The  whole  oat  is  apt  to  slip  out  of  the  t  half  and 


FOOD      '  353 

be  lost;  but  when  it  is  bruised,  and  especially  if  the  chaff  is  a  little  vvottod, 
it  will  not  readily  separate;  or,  should  a  portion  of  it  escape  the  grinders, 
It  will  be  partly  prepared  for  digestion  l")y  the  act  of  bruising.  The  preju 
dice  against  bruising  the  oats  is,  so  far  as  the  farmer's  h.orse,  and  thr 
wafjgon-liorse,  and  every  horse  of  slow  draught  is  concerned,  altogether 
unfounded.  The  quantity  of  straw  in  the  chaff  will  always  counteract 
any  supposed  purgative  quality  in  the  bruised  oats.  Horses  of  quicker 
draught,  except  they  are  naturally  disposed  to  scour,  will  thrive  better  witii 
bruised  than  with  whole  oats;  for  a  greater  quantity  of  nutriment  wilJ 
be  extracted  from  the  food,  and  it  will  always  be  easy  to  apportion  the 
quantity  of  straw  or  beans  to  the  effect  of  the  mixture  on  the  bowels  of 
tlie  horse.  The  principal  alteration  that  should  be  made  in  the  horse  of 
harder  and  more  rapid  work,  such  as  the  post-liorse,  and  the  stage-coach 
horse,  is  to  increase  the  quantity  of  hay,  and  diminish  that  of  straw.  Two 
trusses  of  hay  may  be  cut  with  one  of  straw. 

Some  gentlemen,  in  defiance  of  the  prejudice  and  opposition  of  the  coacfi- 
man  or  the  groom,  have  introduced  this  mode  of  feeding  into  the  stables  of 
their  carriage  horses  and  hackneys,  and  with  manifest  advantage.  There 
has  been  no  loss  tsf  condition  or  power,  and  considerable  saving  of  proven- 
der. Tliis  system  is  not,  however,  calculated  for  the  hunter  or  the  race- 
horse. Their  food  must  be  in  smaller  bulk,  in  order  that  the  action  of  the 
lungs  may  not  be  impeded  by  the  distention  of  the  stomach;  yet  many 
hunters  have  gone  well  over  the  field,  who  have  been  manger-fed,  the  pro- 
portion of  corn,  however,  being  materially  increased. 

For  the  agricultural  and  cart-horse,  eight  pounds  of  oats  and  two  ol 
beans  should  be  a-lded  to  every  twenty  pounds  of  chaff;  and  tlilrty-four 
or  thirty-six  pounds  of  the  mixture  will  be  sufficient  for  any  moderate- 
sized  horse,  with  fair  or  even  hard  work.  The  dray  and  waggon-horse 
may  require  forty  pounds.  Hay  in  the  rack  at  night  is,  in  this  case, 
supposed  to  be  omitted  altogether.  The  rack,  however,  may  remain, 
as  occasionally  useful  for  the  sick  horse,  or  to  contain  tares  or  other 
green  meat. 

In  order  to  prevent  some  horses  from  turning  much  of  the  chafi'  out  of 
the  manger  in  their  search  for  the  oats,  small  iron  bars  may  be  placed 
across  it,  and  t'^e  provender  plentifully  sprinkled  with  water,  but  the  water 
should  be  appl'.ed  only  at  the  time  of  feeding,  for  the  wetted  mixture  would 
soon  become  sour  and  mouldy. 

Horses  are  very  fond  of  this  provender.  The  majority  of  them,  after 
having  been  accustomed  to  it,  will  leave  the  best  oats  given  to  them  alone, 
for  tite  sake  of  the  mingled  chaff  and  corn.  We  would,  however,  caution 
the  farmer  not  to  set  apart  too  much  damaged  hay  for  the  manufacture  of 
the  chaff.  The  horse  may  be  thus  induced  to  eat  that  which  he  would 
otherwise  refuse;  but  if  the  nourishing  property  of  the  hay  has  been  im- 
paired, or  it  has  acquired  an  injurious  principle,  the  horse  Will  either  lose 
condition,  or  become  diseased.  More  injury  is  done  by  the  eating  of 
damaged  hay  or  musty  oats  than  is  generally  imagined.  Thero  will  he 
sufficient  saving  in  the  diminished  cost  of  the  provender  by  the  inti'oduc- 
tion  of  the  straw,  and  in  the  improved  condition  of  the  horse,  without 
poisonmg  him  with  the  refuse  of  the  farm. 

While  the  mixture  of  chafI  with  the  corn  prevents  the  corn  from  bemg 
'.oo  rapidly  devoured,  and  a  porlion  of  it  swallowed  whole,  and  therefore 
.he  stomach  is  not  too  loaded  with  that  on  which,  as  containing  the  mosi 
nutriment,  its  chief  digestive  power  should  be  exerted,  yet,  on  the  whole, 
ft  groat  deal  of  time  is  gained  by  this  mode  of  feeding,  and  more  is  left  fb: 
rps.T.      When  t  horse  comes  in  wearied  at  the  close  of  the  day,  it  occupies 


J54  THE    HORSE. 

aflei  he  has  eaten  his  co.n,  two  or  thrje  hours  to  clear  his  racii.  On  ihe 
systt'm  of  manger- feeding,  the  chalf  being  already  cut  into  small  pieces, 
and  the  beans  and  oats  bruised,  he  is  able  fully  to  satisfy  his  appetite  in  an 
hour  and  a  half.  Two  additional  hours  are  therefore  devoted  to  rest. 
Tiiis  is  a  circumstance  deserving  of  much  consideration  even  in  the  farmer's 
stable,  and  of  immense  consequence  to  the  postmaster,  the  stage-coach 
proprietor,  and  tlie  owner  of  every  hard-worked  horse. 

Manger-food  will  be  the  usual  support  of  the  farmer's  horse  during  the 
winter,  and  while  at  constant  or  occasional  hard  work  ;  but  from  the  middle 
or  end  of  April,  to  the  end  of  July,  he  may  be  fed  with  this  mixture  in^the 
day,  and  turned  out  at  night,  or  he  may  remain  out  during  every  rest  day : 
a  team  in  constant  employ  should  not,  however,  be  suffered  to  be  out  at 
night,  after  the  end  of  July. 

The  farmer  should  take  care  that  the  pasture  is  thick  and  good  ;  and  that 
the  distance  from  the  yard  is  not  too  great,  nor  the  fields  too  large,  other- 
wise a  very  considerable  portion  of  time  will  be  occupied  in  catching  the 
horses  in  the  morning.  He  will  likewise  have  to  take  into  .consideration 
the  sale  he  would  have  for  his  hay,  and  the  necessity  for  sweet  and  untrod- 
den pasture  for  his  cattle.  On  the  whole,  however,  turning  out  in  this  way, 
when  circumstances  will  admit  of  it,  will  be  found  to  be  more  beneficial 
for  the  horse,  and  cheaper  than  soiling  in  the  yard. 

The  small  farmer's  horse  i«  sometimes  fed  on  hay  or  grass  alone,  and 
the  animal,  although  he  rarely  gets  a  feed  of  corn,  maintains  himself  in 
tolerable  condition,  and  does  the  work  that  is  required  of  him;  but  hay 
and  grass  alone,  however  good  in  quality,  or  in  whatever  quantity  admin, 
istered,  will  not  support  the  horse  under  hard  work  ;  and  therefore  other  sub- 
stances, containing  a  larger  proportion  of  nutriment  in  a  smaller  compass, 
have  been  added.  We  will  briefly  enumerate  them,  and  consider  their 
compartive  value.  In  almost  every  part  of  Great  Britain,  the  O^jt  has 
been  selected  as  that  portion  of  food  which  is  to  afford  the  principal  nour- 
ishment. It  contains  seven  hundred  and  forty-three  parts  out  of  a  thousand 
of  nutritive  matter.  The  oat  should  be  old,  heavy,  dry,  and  sweet.  The 
new  oat  will  weigh  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  more  than  the  old  oat;  but  the 
difference  consists  principally  in  watery  matter,  which  is  gradually  evapo- 
rated. The  new  oat  is  not  so  readily  ground  down  by  the  teeth  as  the  old 
one,  and  forms  a  more  glutinous  mass,  difficult  to  digest,  and,  when  eaten 
in  considerable  quantities,  is  apt  to  occasion  colic  and  even  staggers.  The 
old  oat  forms,  when  chewed,  a  smooth  and  uniform  mass,  which  readily 
dissolves  in  the  stomach,  and  yields  the  nourishment  which  it  contains, 
and  perhaps  some  chemical  change  may  have  been  slowly  effected  in  the 
old  oat,  disposmg  it  to  be  more  readily  assimilated.  Oats  should  be  plump, 
bright  in  colour,  and  free  from  unpl^nsant  smell  or  taste.  The  musty 
smell  of  wetted  or  damaged  corn  is  caused  by  a  fungus  which  grows  upon 
the  seed,  and  which  has  an  injurious  effect  on  the  urinary  organs,  and  often 
on  the  intestines,  producing  profuse  staling  inflammation  of  the  kidney  or 
colic,  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 

Tiiis  musty  smell  is  removed  by  kiln-drying  the  oat,  but  care  is  here 
requisite  that  too  great  a  degree  of  heat  is  not  employed.  It  should  be 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  fungus  without  injuring  the  life  of  the  seed.  Tiie 
kiln-burnt  oat,  however,  is  not  so  grateful  to  the  animal :  it  acquires  a  healing 
:|uality — causes  increased  discharge  of  urine,  and  not  unfrequently  pro- 
duces  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  mangy  affections  of  the  skin. 

Of  die  quantity  of  oats  in  the  chaff  we  have  already  spoken.  .\n 
improvement  would  be  effected,  by  cutting  the  unt'^reshed  oat  siraw  into 
rdiair.      The  expense  of  thresiiing  would   be  saved.     Oat  straw  is   heXlof 


FOOD.  35h 

han  barley  siraw,  but  does  not  contain  as  much  nourishment  as  that  of 
wheat. 

When  the  horse  is  fed  on  hay  and  oats,  the  quantity  of  the  oats  must 
vary  with  his  size  and  the  worli  to  be  performed.  In  winter,  lour  feeds, 
or  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  oats  a  day,  will  be  a  fair  allowance  for  a  horse  ol* 
fifteen  hands  one  or  two  inches  higli,  and  that  has  moderate  work  In 
summer,  half  the  quantity,  with  green  food,  will  be  sufficient. 

Oatmeal  will  form  a  poultice,  more  stimulating  than  one  composed  of 
linseed  meal  alone — or  they  may  be  mingled  in  different  proportions  as 
c'rcunistances  may  require.  In  the  form  of  gruel  it  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  articles  of  diet  for  the  sick  horse — not  indeed  forced 
upon  him,  but  a  pail  containing  it  being  slung  in  his  box,  and  of  which  he 
will  soon  begin  to  drink  when  water  is  denied.  In  cases  of  poisoning,  or 
of  over  purging,  it  is  useful,  whether  administered  by  the  mouth,  or  as  an 
injection. 

White-water,  made  by  stirring  a  pint  of  oatmeal  into  a  pail  of  water, 
the  chill  being  taken  from  it,  is  an  excellent  beverage  for  the  thirsty  and 
tired  horse. 

Barlkv  is  a  common  food  of  the  horse  on  various  parts  of  the  Continent, 
and,  until  the  introduction  of  the  oat,  seems  to  have  constituted  almost  his 
only  food.  It  is  more  nutritious  than  oats,  containing  nine  hundred  and 
twenty  parts  of  nutritive  matter  in  every  thousand.  There  seems,  how- 
ever, to  be  something  necessary  besides  a  great  proportion  of  nutritive 
matter,  in  order  to  render  any  substance  wholesome,  strengthening,  or  fat- 
tening. Except  where  horses  are  very  hardly  worked,  barley  does  not 
seem  in  our  country  to  agree  with  them  so  well  as  oats.  They  are  more 
subject  to  inflammatory  complaints,  and  particularly  to  surfeit  and  mange. 
When  barley  is  given,  the  quantity  should  not  exceed  a  peck  daily.  It 
should  be  always  bruised,  and  the  chaff  should  consist  of  equal  quantities 
of  hay  and  barley  straw,  and  not  cut  too  short.  If  the  farmer  has  a 
quantity  of  spotted  or  unsaleable  barley  which  he  wishes  thus  to  get  rid 
of,  he  must  very  gradually  accustom  his  horses  to  it,  or  he  will  probably 
produce  serious  illness  among  them.  For  horses  that  are  recovering  from 
illness,  barley,  in  the  form  of  malt,  is  often  serviceable,  as  tempting  the 
appetite  and  recruiting  the  strength.  It  is  best  given  in  mashes;  water, 
considerably  below  the  boiling  heat,  being  poured  upon  it,  and  the  vessel 
or  pail  kept  covered  for  half  an  hour. 

Grains  fresh  from  the  mash-tub,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  oats  or 
chatf,  or  both,  may  be  occasionally  given  to  horses  of  slow  work;  they 
would,  however,  afford  very  insufficient  nourishment  for  horses  of  quicker 
or  harder  work. 

Wheat  is  in  Great  Britain  more  rarely  given  than  barley.  It  contains 
nine  hundred  and  fifty-five  parts  of  nutritive  matter.  When  farmers  have 
a  damaged  or  unmarketable  sample  of  wheat,  they  sometimes  give  it  to 
their  horses,  and,  being  at  first  used  in  small  quantities,  the  horse  becomes 
accustomed  to  it,  and  thrives  and  works  well.  It  must,  however,  always 
be  bruised,  and  given  in  chaff.  Wheat  contains  a  greater  proportion 
of  gluten,  or  sticky  adhesive  matter,  than  any  other  kind  of  grain;  it  is 
difficult  of  digestion,  and  apt  to  cake  and  form  obstructions  in  the  bowels. 
This  will  oftener  be  the  case  if  the  horse  is  suffered  to  drink  much  water 
soon  after  feeding  upon  wheat;  for  the  water  passing  rapidly  through  the 
stomach  and  small  intestines,  in  its  way  to  the  coecum,  (see  page  204,)  car. 
ries  off  with  it  all  the  starch,  which  is  the  most  nourishing,  and  leaves 
this  sticky  mass  behind,  which  accumulates,  and  hardens,  and  obstructs 
the  intestines,  md  often  destroys  the  horse.     A  horse  that  is  fed  on  wheal 


^56  THE  HORSE. 

sliould  have  very  little  ha)^  The  proportion  should  not  be  more  than  one 
truss  of  hay  to  two  of  straw  Wheaton  flour,  boiled  in  water,  to  the  thick 
riess  of  starch,  is  given  witl  good  effect  in  over  purging,  and  especially 
if  combined  with  chalk  and  opium. 

Beans. — These  form  a  striking  illustration  of  the  principle,  that  the 
nourishing  or  strengthening  effects  of  the  difTerent  articles  of  food  dei)end 
more  upon  some  peculiar  property  which  they  have,  or  some  combination 
which  they  form,  than  on  the  actual  quantity  of  nutritive  matter.  Beans 
contain  but  five  hundred  and  seventy  parts  of  nutritive  matter,  yet  they 
add  materially  to  the  vigour  of  the  horse.  There  are  many  hordes  that 
will  not  stand  hard  work  without  beans  being  mingled  with  their  food,  and 
these  not  horses  whose  tendency  to  purge  it  may  be  necessary  to  restrain 
by  the  astringency  of  the  bean.  Tliere  is  no  traveller  who  is  not  aware 
of  the  difference  in  the  spirit  and  continuance  of  his  horse  if  he  allows  or 
denies  him  beans  on  his  journey.  They  afford  not  merely  a  temporary 
stimulus,  but  they  may  be  daily  used  without  losing  their  povver,  or 
producing  exhaustion.  Two  pounds  of  beans  may,  with  advantage,  be 
mixed  with  the  chafi"  of  the  agricultural  horse,  during  the  winter.  In 
summer,  the  quantity  may  be  lessened,  or  the  beans  altogether  discontinued. 
Beans  are  generally  given  whole.  This  is  very  absurd  ;  for  th.e  young 
horse,  whose  teeth  are  strong,  seldom  requires  them;  while  the  old  horse, 
to  whom  they  are  in  a  manner  necessary,  is  scarcely  able  to  masticate 
them,  swallows  many  of  them  whole  which  he  is  unable  to  break,  and  drops 
much  corn  from  his  mouth  in  the  ineffectual  attempt  to  break  them. 
Beans  should  not  be  merely  split,  but  crushed;  they  will  even  then  give 
sufficient  employment  to  the  grinders  of  the  animal.  Some  postmasters 
use  chaff  with  beans  instead  of  oats.  With  hardly-worked  horses,  they 
may  possibly  be  allowed  ;  but  in  general  cases,  the  beans,  withou-t  oats, 
would  be  too  binding  and  stimulating,  and  would  produce  costiveness,  and 
probably  megrims  or  staggers. 

Peas  are  occasionally  given.  They  appear  to  be  in  a  slight  degree 
more  nourishing  than  beans,  and  not  so  heating.  They  contain  five  hun- 
dred and  seventy-four  parts  of  nutritive  matter.  For  horses  of  slow  work 
they  may  be  used  ;  but  the  quantity  of  chaff  should  be  increased,  and  a 
few  oats  added.  They  have  not  been  found  to  answer  with  horses  of  quick 
draught.  It  is  essential  that  they  should  be  crushed  ;  otherwise,  on  account 
of  their  globular  form,  they  are  apt  to  escape  from  the  teeth,  and  many  are 
swallowed  whole.  Exposed  to  warmth  and  moisture  in  the  stom-ach,  they 
swell  very  much,  and  mav  painfully  and  injuriously  distend  it. 

Many  horses  have  died  after  gorging  themselves  with  peas,  and  the 
stomach  has  been  found  to  have  been  burst  by  their  swelling.  If  a  small 
phial  is  filled  with  peas,  and  warm  water  poured  on  them,  and  the  bottle 
tiglitly  corked,  it  will  burst  in  a  few  hours. 

Herbage,  green  and  dry,  constitutes  a  principal  part  of  the  food  ot  the 
horse.  There  are  few  things  with  regard  to  which  the  farmer  is  so  care- 
less as  the  mixture  of  grasses,  on  both  his  upland  and  meadow  pasture. 
Hence  we  find,  in  the  same  field,  the  ray  grass,  coming  to  perfection  only 
in  a  loamy  soil,  not  fit  to  cut  until  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  July,  and 
yielding  little  aftermath ;  the  meadow  fox-tail,  best  cultivated  in  a  clayey 
soil,  fit  for  the  scythe  in  the  beginning  of  June,  and  yielding  a  plentiful 
aftermath;  the  glaucous  fescue  grass,  ready  at  the  middle  of  June,  and 
rapidly  deteriorating  in  value  as  its  seeds  ripen;  and  the  fertile  meadow 
grass,  increasing  in  value  until  the  end  of  July.  These  are  circum- 
stances,  the  importance  of  which  will,  at  no  distant  period,  be  recog- 
fiised.     In    the   moan    time,   Sinclair's  account  of  the    different    gras>*Ph;. 


FOOD.  SSI 

or  tlie  conaensation  of  the  most  important  part  of  his  work  in  Sir  tJuii'.phry 
Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistr}-,  are  well  deserving  of  the  diligent  perusa) 
of  the  farmer. 

Were  there  not  too  many  proofs  that  the  very  refuse  of  th3  farm  is  often 
devoted  to  the  keep  of  the  agricultural  horse,  it  would  be  needless  to  repeat 
that  the  animal  that  works  constantly  and  hard  should  have  the  best  food, 
and  plenty  of  it.  Old  hay,  as  having  longer  undergone  that  slow  process 
of  fermentation,  by  which  the  sugar  it  contains  is  developed,  is  far  more 
nutritive  and  wholesome  than  new  hay.  Mowburnt  hay  is  more  injurious 
to  horses  than  to  any  other  of  ti)e  domestic  animals,  and  is  a  fruitful  sourcA 
of  disease.  • 

Where  the  manger  system  of  feeding  is  not  adopted,  or  where  hay  is  still 
given  at  night,  and  chatf  and  corn  in  the  day,  there  is  no  error  into  which 
the  farmer  is  so  apt  to  fall  as  to  give  an  undue  quantity  of  hay,  and  that 
generally  of  the  worst  kind.  If  the  manger  system  is  good,  there  can  be 
no  necessity  for  hay,  or  only  for  a  small  quantity  of  it;  but  if  the  rack  is 
overloaded,  the  greedy  horse  will  be  eating  all  night,  instead  of  taking  his 
rest;  and  when  the  time  for  the  morning  feed  arrives,  his  stomacii  will  be 
already  filled,  and  he  will  be  less  capable  of  work,  from  the  want  of  sleep, 
and  from  the  long-continued  distension  of  theslomach  rendering  it  impossible 
for  the  food  to  be  properly  digested. 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  sprinkle  the  hay  with  water  in  which  salt  has 
been  dissolved.  It  is  evidently  more  palatable  to  the  animal,  who  will 
leave  the  best  unsalted  hay  for  that  of  an  inferior  quality  that  has  been 
moistened  with  brine;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  salt  very  mate- 
rially assists  the  process  of  digestion.  The  preferable  way  of  salting  the 
hay  would  be  to  sprinkle  it  over  the  different  layers  as  the  rick  is  formed. 
From  its  attraction  for  water,  it  would  combine  with  that  excess  of  moisture 
which,  in  wet  seasons,  is  the  cause  of  too  rapid  and  violent  fermentation, 
and  of  the  hay  becoming  mowburnt,  or  the  I'ick  sometimes  catching  fire, 
and  it  would  become  more  incorporated  with  the  hay.  The  only  objection 
to  its  being  thus  used  is,  that  the  colour  of  the  hay  is  not  so  bright;  but  this 
would  be  of  little  consequence  for  home  consumption. 

Of  the  value  of  Tares,  as  forming  a  portion  of  the  late  spring  and  sum- 
mer food  of  the  stabled  and  agricultural  horse,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
They  are  very  nutritive,  and  they  act  as  a  kind  of  medicine.  When  surfeit- 
lumps  appear  on  the  skin,  and  the  horse  begins  to  rub  himself  agai-nst  the 
divisions  of  the  stall,  and  the  legs  swell,  and  the  heels  threaten  to  crack,  a 
few  tares,  cut  up  with  the  chatf,  or  given  instead  of  a  portion  of  tlie  hay, 
will  often  afford  immediate  and  perfect  relief  Ten  or  twelve  pounds  may 
be  given  daily,  and  half  that  weight  of  hay  subtracted.  It  is  an  erroneous 
notion,  that,  given  in  moderate  quantities,  they  either  roughen  the  coat  or 
lessen  the  capability  for  hard  work. 

11ye-(Jrass  affords  a  valuable  article  of  fiDod,  but  is  inferior  to  the  tare. 
It  is  not  so  nutritive;  it  is  apt  to  scour;  and  occasionally,  and  late  in  the 
spring,  it  has  appeared  to  become  injurious  to  the  horse. 

Clover,  for  soiling  the  horse,  is  inferior  to  the  tare  and  the  rye-grass, 
but,  nevertheless,  is  useful  when  they  cannot  be  obtained.  Clover  liay  is, 
perhaps,  preferable  to  meadow  hay  for  chaff;  it  will  soinetimes  tempt  tho 
sick  horse,  and  may  be  given  with  advantage  to  those  of  slow  and  heavy 
work;  but  custom  seems  properly  to  have  forbidden  it  to  the  hunter  and 
the  havkney. 

LucERN,  where  it  can  be  obtained,  is  preferable  even  to  tares,  and 
Salnt-foin  is  superior  to  lucern.  Although  they  contain  but  a  smali 
quantity  of  nutritive   matter,  that   is  easily  digested,  and   perfectly  assimi. 


358  THE  HORSE 

laicd  ;  llie^  speedily  put  both  muscle  and  fat  on  the  horse  that  is  worn  down 
by  labour,  and  they  are  almost  a  specific  for  hide-bound.  Some  farmers 
have  thought  so  higiily  of  lucern  as  to  substitute  it  for  oats.  This  may  do 
for  the  agricultural  horse  of  slow  and  not  hard  work;  but  he  from  whom 
speedier  action  is  sometimes  required,  and  the  horse  of  all  work,  must  liave 
a  proportion  of  hard  meal  within  him. 

The  Swedish  Tuknip  is  an  article  of  food,  the  value  of  which  has  not 
been  suIRciently  appreciated,  and  particularly  for  agricultural  horses. 
Although  it  is  far  from  containing  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  which 
has  been  supposed,  that,  like  the  nutriment  of  the  saint-foin  and  the  lucern, 
seems  to  be  capable  of  easy  and  complete  digestion.  Tt  should  be  sliced 
with  chopped  straw,  and  without  hay.  Thirty  pounds  of  tlie  turnip,  with 
two  or  three  quarterns  of  oats,  and  six  pounds  of  straw,  will  be  sufficient 
for  a  horse  of  moderately  hard  work.  Hackneys  have  been  kept  on  them 
with  a  less  quantity  of  oats. 

Carrots. — The  virtues  of  this  root  are  not  sufficiently  known,  whether 
as  contributing  to  the  strength  and  endurance  of  the  healthy  horse,  or  the 
rapid  recovery  of  the  sick  one.  To  the  healthy  horse  they  should  be  given 
sliced  in  his  chaff.  Half  a  bushel  will  be  a  fiair  daily  allowance,  and  the 
two  pounds  of  beans,  and  three  pounds  of  the  oats,  may  be  withdrawn. 
There  is  little  provender  of  which  the  horse  is  fonder.  Some  farmers 
allow  a  bushel  of  carrots  with  chaff,  and  without  any  oats;  and  the  horses 
nre  said  to  be  equal  to  all  agricultural  or  slow  work. 

Potatoes  have  been  given,  and  with  advantage,  in  their  raw  state,  sliced 
with  the  chaff;  but,  where  it  has  been  convenient  to  boil  or  steam  them, 
the  benefit  has  been  far  more  evident.  Some  have  given  boiled  potatoes 
alone,  and  horses,  instead  of  rejecting  them,  have  soon  preferred  them  even 
to  the  oat ;  but  it  is  better  to  mix  them  with  the  usual  manger  feed,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  pound  of  potatoes  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the  other 
ingredients.  The  use  of  the  potato  must  depend  on  its  cheapness,  and  the 
facility  for  boiling  it.  Half  a  dozen  horses  would  soon  repay  the  expense 
of  a  steaming  boiler  in  the  saving  of  provender,  without  taking  into 
the  account  their  improved  condition  and  capability  for  work.  A  horse  fed 
on  potatoes  should  have  his  quantity  of  water  materially  curtailed  during 
the  continuance  of  such  feeding. 

Furze  has  sometimes  been  given  during  the  winter  months.  There  is 
considerable  trouble  attending  the  preparation  of  it,  although  its  plentiful- 
ness  and  little  value  for  other  purposes  would,  on  a  large  farm,  well  repay 
that  trouble.  The  furze  is  cut  down  at  about  three  or  four  years'  growth; 
the  green  branches  of  that  and  the  preceding  year  are  cut  off,  and  bruised  in 
a  mill,  and  then  given  to  the  horses  in  the  state  in  which  tiiey  came  from  the 
mill,  or  cut  up  with  the  chaff.  Horses  are  very  fond  of  it.  If  twenty 
pounds  of  the  furze  be  given,  five  pounds  of  straw,  the  beans,  and  three 
pounds  of  the  oats,  may  he  withdrawn. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  conclude  this  catalogue  of  the  different 
articles  of  horse  food  with  a  list  of  the  quantities  of  nutritive  matter 
".ontained  in  each  of  them ;  for  although  these  quantities  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  expressing  the  actual  value  of  each,  because  other  circum- 
stances besides  the  simple  quantity  of  nutriment  seem  to  influence  their 
effect  in  supporting  the  strength  and  condition  of  tiie  horse,  yet  many 
a  useful  hint  may  be  derived  when  the  farmer  looks  over  the  produce 
of  his  soil,  and  inquires  what  other  grasses  or  vegetables  might  suit 
his  .soil.  The  list  is  partly  taken  from  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  Agricultural 
Chemistry:  1000  parts  of  wheat  contain  955  parts  of  nutritive  matter; 
barley,  970;  oats,  743 ;  peas,  574 ;   beans;  570;   potatoes,  230 ;   red  beeu 


FOOD.  350 

148  ;  parsnips,  99;  carrots,  98.  Of  the  grasses,  1000  parts  of  the  meadow 
cat's  tail  contain  at  the;  time  of  seeding  98  parts  of  nutritive  matter ;  narrow- 
leaved  meadow  grass  in  seed,  and  sweet-scented  soft  grass  in  ilower,  95; 
narrow-leaved  and  flat-stalked  meadow  grass  in  flower,  fertile  meadow 
grass  in  seed,  and  tall  fescue,  in  flower,  93;  fertile  meadow  grass,  meadow 
fescue,  reed-like  fescue,  and  creeping  soft  grass  in  flower,  78;  sweet- 
scented  soft  grass  in  flower,  and  the  aftermath,  77;  florin,  cut  in  winter, 
76;  tall  fescue,  in  the  aftermath,  and  meadow  soft  grass  in  flower,  74; 
cabbage,  73;  crested  dog's  tail  and  brome  flowering,  71;  yellow  oat,  in 
flower,  60 ;  Swedish  turnips,  64;  narrow-leaved  meadow  grass,  creeping 
beet,  round-headed  cocksfoot,  and  spiked  fescue,  59;  roughish  and  fertile 
meadow  grass,  flowering,  56  ;  florin,  in  summer,  54;  common  turnips, 
42;  saint-foin,  and  bi'oad-leaved  and  long-rooted  clover,  39;  white  clover, 
32  ;  and  lucern,  23. 

The  times  of  feeding  should  be  as  equally  divided  as  convenience  will 
permit;  and  when  it  is  likely  that  the  horse  will  be  kent  longer  than  usual 
from  home,  the  nose-bag  should  invariably  be  taken.  The  small  stomach 
of  the  horse  is  emptied  in  a  kw  hours;  and  if  he  is  suffered  to  remain 
hungry  much  beyond  his  accustomed  time,  he  will  afterwards  devour  his 
food  so  voraciously  as  to  distend  the  stomach  and  endanger  an  attack  of 
staggers.  When  this  disease  appears  in  the  farmer's  stable,  he  may  attribute 
it  to  various  causes;  the  true  one,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  is  irregu- 
larity in  feeding.  If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  page  104,  he  will  be  con- 
vinced that  this  deserves  more  serious  attention  than  is  generally  given  to  it. 
When  extra  work  is  required  from  the  animal,  the  system  of  management 
is  often  injudicious;  for  a  double  feed  is  put  before  him,  and  as  soon  as  he 
has  swallowed  it,  he  is  started.  It  would  be  far  better  to  give  him  a  double 
feed  on  the  previous  evening,  which  will  be  digested  before  he  is  wanted, 
and  then  he  may  set  out  in  the  morning  after  a  very  small  portion  of 
jorn  has  been  given  to  him,  or  perhaps  only  a  little  hay.  One  of  the  most 
successful  methods  of  enabling  a  horse  to  get  well  through  a  long  journey 
IS  to  give  him  only  a  little  at  a  time  while  on  the  road,  and  at  night  to  give 
him  a  double  feed  of  corn  and  a  full  allowance  of  beans. 

Water. — This  is  a  part  of  stable  management  little  regarded  by  the 
farmer.  He  lets  his  horses  loose  morning  and  night,  and  they  go  to  the 
nearest  pond  or  brook,  and  drink  their  fill,  and  no  harm  results;  for  they 
obtain  that  kind  of  water  which  nature  designed  them  to  have,  in  a  -nanner 
prepared  for  them  by  some  unknown  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  as  well 
as  by  the  deposition  of  many  saline  admixtures.  The  difference  between 
hard  and  soft  water  is  known'to  every  one.  In  hard  water  soap  will  curdle, 
vegetables  will  not  boil  soft,  and  the  saccharine  matter  of  the  malt  cannot 
be  foully  obtained  in  the  process  of  brewing.  There  is  nothing  in  which 
the  difl'erent  effect  of  hard  and  soft  water  is  so  evident  as  in  the  stomach 
and  digestive  organs  of  the  horse.  Hard  water,  drawn  fresh  from  the 
well,  will  assuredly  make  the  coat  of  a  horse  unaccustomed  to  it  stare,  and 
it  will  not  unfrequently  gripe  and  otherwise  injure  him.  Instinct  or  expe- 
rience has  made  even  the  horse  conscious  of  this,  for  he  will  never  drink 
hard  water  if  he  has  access  to  soft :  he  will  leave  the  most  transparent  and 
pure  water  of  the  well  for  a  river,  although  the  water  may  be  turbid,  and 
even  for  the  muddiest  pool.*  He  is  injured,  however,  not  so  much  by  tliG 
hardness  of  the  well-water  as  by  its  coldness — particularly  by  its  coldness 

*  Some  trainers  have  so  much  fear  of  hard  or  strangre  water,  that  they  carry  with  thein 
to  the  (lifferctit  courses  the  water  that  the  animal  has  been  accustomed  to  drinit,  aiiJ  .um 
tliey  Kiiow  agrees  with  it. 


360  THE  HORSE. 

in  summer,  and  when  it  is  many  degrees  below  the  temperature  of  t/ie 
atmospliere.  The  water  in  the  brook  and  the  pond  being  warmed  by  long 
exposure  to  the  air,  as  well  as  having  become  soft,  the  horse  drinks  freeU 
of  it  without  danger. 

If  tlie  horse  were  watered  three  times  a  day,  and  especially  in  summer, 
he  would  often  be  saved  from  the  sad  torture  of  thirst,  and  from  many  a 
disease.  Whoever  has  observed  the  eagerness  with  which  the  over- 
worked horse,  hot  and  tired,  plunges  his  muzzle  into  tlie  pail,  and  the 
difficulty  of  stopping  him  until  he  has  drained  the  last  drop,  may  form 
some  idea  of  wiiat  he  had  previously  suffered,  and  will  not  wonder 
at  the  violent  spasms,  and  inflammation,  and  sudden  death,  that  often  result 
frorxT  drinking  too  much  cold  water. 

There  is  a  prejudice  in  the  minds  of  many  people  against  the  horse  being 
fairly  supplied  with  water.  They  think  that  it  injures  his  wind,  and  dis- 
ables him  for  quick  and  hard  work.  If  he  is  galloped,  as  he  too  often  is, 
immediately  after  drinking,  his  wind  may  be  irreparably  injured;  but  if 
he  were  oftener  sutfered  to  satiate  his  tiiirst  at  the  intervals  of  rest,  he 
would  be  happier  and  better.  It  is  a  fact  unsuspected  by  those  who  have 
not  carefully  observed  the  horse,  tliat  if  lie  has  frequent  access  to  water  he 
will  not  drink  so  much  in  the  course  of  the  day,  as  another  who,  to  cool  his 
parched  mouth,  swallows  as  fast  as  he  can,  and  knows  not  when  to  stop. 

On  a  journey  a  horse  should  be  liberally  supp'lied  with  water.  When 
he  is  a  little  cooled,  two  or  three  quarts  of  water  may  be  given  to  him,  and 
after  that  his  feed.  Before  he  has  finished  his  corn,  two  or  three  quarts 
more  may  be  offered.  He  will  take  no  harm  if  this  be  repeated  three  or 
four  times  during  a  long  and  hot  day. 

It  is  a  judicious  rule  with  travellers,  that  when  a  horse  begins  to  refuse 
his  food,  he  should  be  pushed  no  farther  that  day.  It  may,  however,  be 
worth  while  to  try  whether  this  may  not  proceed  from  thirst,  as  much  as 
from  exhaustion,  for  in  many  instances  his  appetite  and  his  spirits  will 
return  soon  after  he  has  partaken  of  the  refreshing  draught. 

Maxagempnt  of  the  Feet. — This  is  the  only  division  of  stable  manage- 
ment that  remains  to  be  considered,  and  one  sadly  neglected  by  the  cartel 
and  groom.  The  feet  should  be  carefully  examined  every  morning,  for 
the  shoes  may  be  loose,  and  the  horse  would  have  been  stopped  in  the 
middle  of  his  work ;  or  the  clenches  may  be  raised,  and  endanger  the 
wounding  of  his  legs;  or  the  shoe  may  begin  to  press  upon  the  sole  or  the 
heel,  and  bruise  of  the  sole,  or  corn,  may  be  the  result ;  and,  the  horse 
having  stood  so  long  in  the  stable,  every  little  increase  of  heat  in  the  foot, 
or  lameness,  will  be  more  readily  detected,  and  serious  disease  may 
probably  be  prevented. 

When  the  horse  comes  in  at  night,  and  after  the  harness  has  been  taken 
off"  and  stowed  away,  the  heels  should  be  well  brushed  out.  Hand- rub- 
bing will  be  preferable  to  washing,  especially  in  the  agricultural  horse, 
whose  heels,  covered  with  long  hair,  can  scarcely  be  dried  again.  If  the 
dirt  be  suffered  to  accumulate  in  that  long  hair,  the  heels  will  become  sore, 
and  grease  will  follow;  and  if  the  heels  are  washed,  and  particularly 
during  the  winter,  grease  will  result  from  the  coldness  occasioned  by  the 
slow  evaporation  of  the  moisture.  The  feet  should  be  stopped — even  the 
leet  of  the  farmer's  horse,  if  he  remains  in  the  stable.  No  clay  stopping 
should  be  used,  for  it  will  get  hard,  and  press  upon  the  sole;  cow-dung  is 
the  best  stopping  to  preserve  the  feet  cool  and  elastic ;  but  before  the 
stopping  is  applied,  the  picker  must  be  run  round  the  whole  of  the  foot 
between    the    shoe   and    the    sole,   to  detect    any  stone   which   may  have 


UXSOUxXDNESS.  ^Q 

I'niimf.ated  itself  there,  or  a  wound  on  any  other  part  of  the  sole.  Fo-  the 
hackney  and  hunter,  stopping  is  indispensable.  After  several  days'  Jiard 
work,  it  will  atFord  very  great  relief  to  take  the  shoes  off",  having  put  plenty 
of  litter  under  the  horse,  or  to  turn  him,  if  possible,  into  a  loose  box  ;  and 
the  shoes  of  every  horse,  whether  hardly  worked  or  not,  should  be  removed 
or  chann;ed  once  a  month. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 
ON  SOUNDNESS  AND  THE  PURCHASE  AND  SALE  OF  HORSES 

There  are  few  sources  of  greater  annoyance,  both  to  the  buyer  and  the 
seller  of  the  horse,  tiian  disputes  with  regard  to  the  soundness  of  the  animal. 
Although,  in  describing  the  various  parts  of  the  horse,  we  have  glanced  at 
the  connection  of  certain  natural  conformations,  and  some  alterations  of 
structure,  and  accidents,  and  diseases,  with  the  question  of  soundness  and 
unsoundness,  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  those  for  whom  our  work  was 
designed,  if  we  now  bring  into  one  point  of  view  the  substance  of  that 
which  has  been  scattered  over  many  pages. 

That  horse  is  sound  in  whom  there  is  no  disease,  nor  any  alteration  of 
structure  in  any  part  which  impairs,  or  is  likely  to  impair,  his  natural  use- 
fulness.  That  horse  is  unsound  that  labours  under  disease,  or  that  has 
some  alteration  of  structure  that  does  interfere,  or  is  likely  to  interfere,  with 
his  natural  usefulness.  The  term  '■'natural  usefulness ^^  must  be  borne  in 
mind.  One  horse  may  possess  great  speed,  but  is  soon  knocked  up; 
another  will  work  all  day,  but  cannot  get  beyond  a  snail's  pace:  one  with 
a  heavy  forehead  is  liable  to  stumble,  and  is  continually  putting  to  hazard 
the  neck  of  his  rider;  another,  with  an  irritable  constitution  and  a  washy 
make,  loses  his  appetite,  and  begins  to  scour  if  a  little  extra  work  is  exacted 
from  him.  The  term  unsoundness  cannot  be  applied  to  either  of  these;  it 
would  be  opening  far  too  widely  a  door  to  disputation  and  endless  wran- 
gling. The  buyer  can  discern,  or  ought  to  know,  whether  the  form  of  the 
horse  is  that  which  will  render  him  likely  to  suit  his  purpose,  and  he  should 
try  him  sufficiently  to  ascertain  his  natural  strength,  endurance,  and  man- 
ner of  going.  Unsoundness,  we  repeat,  has  reference  only  to  disease,  or 
to  that  alteration  of  structure  which  is  connected  with,  or  will  produce  dis- 
ease, and  lessen  the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

These  principles  will  be  best  illustrated  by  a  brief  consideration  of  the 
usual  supposed  causes  of  unsoundness.  ' 

IJroken-knees  certainly  do  not  constitute  unsoundness  after  the  wounds 
are  healed,  unless  they  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  joint,  for  the  horse 
may  have  fallen  from  mere  accident,  or  through  the  fault  of  the  rider;  but 
no  person  would  buy  a  horse  with  broken  knees  until  he  had  thoroughly 
tried  him,  and  satisfied  himself  as  to  his  form  and  action. 

CAPrED  Hocks  may  be  produced  by  lying  on  an  unevenlv-paved  stable 
with  a  scanty  supply  of  litter,  or  by  kicking,  in  neither  of  vvhicii  cases 
would  they  constitute  unsoundness,  though  in  the  latter  they  would  be  an 
indication  of  vice;  but  in  the  majority  of  instances,  they  are  either  tiie 
consequence  of  sprain  of  the  hock,  and  accompanied  by  enlargement  of  it, 
when  they  would  be  unsoundness.  A  special  warranty  should  always  be 
^iiken  against  capped-hocks. 

CoNTKACTiON  is  a  Considerable  deviation  from   the   natural    form  of  th 

A  A 


62  THE  HORSE. 

foot,  but  mt  necessarily  constituting  unsoundness*;  it  rcqui  es,  however,  s 
most  careful  examination  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser  or  veterinary  surgeon 
to  ascenain  that  there  is  no  heat  about  the  quarter,  or  ossification  of  tht 
cartilage;  that  the  frog,  althougb  diminished  in  size,  is  not  diseased;  that 
the  horse  does  not  step  short  and  go  as  if  the  foot  were  tender,  and  that 
there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  lameness.  Unless  these  circumstances, 
or  some  of  them,  are  detected,  a  horse  must  not  be  pronounced  to  be  unsound 
Decause  his  feet  are  contracted,  for  many  horses  with  strangely  contracted 
feet,  are  never  lame:  a  special  warranty,  however,  should  be  required 
where  the  feet  are  at  all  contracted. 

Coi{.\s  manifestly  constitute  unsoundness.  The  portion  of  the  foot  in 
which  they  are  situated  will  not  bear  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  shoe; 
and  any  accidental  additional  pressure  from  the  growing  down  of  the  horn, 
or  the  introduction  of  dirt  or  gravel,  will  cause  serious  lameness.  They 
render  it  necessary  to  wear  a  thick  and  heavy  shoe,  or  a  bar  shoe,  to 
protect  the  weakened  and  diseased  part ;  and  corns  are  very  seldom  radi- 
cally cured.    ' 

Cough. — This  is  a  disease,  and  consequently  unsoundness.  Howevei 
slight  may  be  its  degree,  and  of  whatever  short  standing  it  is,  although  it 
may  sometimes  seem  scarcely  to  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the  horse., 
a  change  of  stabling,  or  slight  exposure  to  wet  and  cold,  or  the  least  over- 
exertion, may  at  other  times  cause  it  to  degenerate  into  many  dangerous 
complaints.  A  horse,  therefcjre,  should  never  be  purchased  with  a  cough 
upon  him  without  an  especial  warranty  ;  or  if,  the  cough  not  being  observed, 
he  is  purchased  under  a  general  warranty,  he  may  be  returned  as  soon  as 
it  is  discovered. 

Roaring,  Wheezing,  Whistling,  High-blowing,  and  Grunting,  being 
the  result  of  alteration  of  structure  or  disease  in  some  of  the  air  passages, 
and  interfering  with  the  perfect  freedom  of  breathing,  and  especially 
when  the  horse  is  put  on  his  speed,  without  doubt  constitute  unsound- 
ness. There  are  decisions  to  the  contrary,  which  are  now  universally 
admitted  to  be  erroneous.  Broken-wind  may  be  regarded  as  still  more 
decidedly  unsoundness. 

Crib-biting. — Although  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  vete- 
rinary surgeons  on  this  point,  crib-biting  must  be  regarded  as  unsoundness. 
This  unnatural  sucking  in  of  the  air,  must  be  to  a  certain  degree  injurious 
to  digestion,  must  dispose  to  colic,  and  so  interfere  with  the  strength,  and 
usefulness,  and  health  of  the  horse.  Some  crib-biters  are  good  goers,  but 
they  would  have  probably  possessed  more  endurance  had  they  not  acquired 
this  habit;  and  it  is  a  fact  well  established,  that  as  soon  as  a  horse  begins 
to  become  a  crib-biter,  he,  in  more  than  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  begins  to  lose 
condition.  He  is  not,  tb  the  experienced  eye,  the  horse  he  was  before.  It 
may  not  lead  on  to  absolute  disease,  or  it  may  rarely  do  so  to  any  consider, 
able  degree;  but  a  horse  that  is  deficient  in  condition,  must,  to  that  extent, 
have  his  capability  for  extraordinary  work  diminished,  although  not  so  as 
often  to  be  apparent  in  ordinary  work,  and  so  far,  the  horse  is  unsound. 
Were  there  no  other  consideration,  the  wear  of  the  front  teeth,  and  even 
the  frequent  breaking  of  them,  make  a  horse  old  before  his  time,  and 
sometimes  render  it  difficult  or  almost  impossible  for  him  to  graze,  when 
the  stale  of  the  animal  or  the  convenience  of  the  owner  require  that  he 
should  be  turned  out. 

Curb  constitutes  unsoundness  while  it  lasts,  and  perhaps  while  the  swell- 
ing remains,  although  the  inflammation  may  have  subsided ;  for  a  horse 
hat  has  once  thrown  out  a  curb,  is,  for  a  while  at  least,  very  liable  lo  do  so 
iigain  on  the  slightest  extra  exertion.     A  horse,  jjowever,  is  not  returnahie 


UNSOUNDNESS  3G3 

if  he  sliould  spring  a  curb  five  minutes  after  the  purchase  for  it  is  done  in 
a  moment,  and  does  not  necessarily  indicate  any  previous  unsoundness  or 
weakness  of  the  part. 

Cutting,  as  rendering  a  horse  liable  to  serious  injury  of  the  legs,  ana 
indicating  that  he  is  either  weak,  or  has  an  awkwardness  of  gait  inconsist^ 
ent  with  safety,  should  be  considered  as  unsoundness.  Many  horses  go 
lame  for  a  considerable  period  after  cutting  themselves  severely  ;  and  others 
have  dropped  from  the  sudden  agony,  and  endangered  themselves  and  their 
riders.  As  some  doubt,  however,  exists  on  tiiis  subject,  and  as  it  is  a  very 
material  objection  to  a  horse,  cutting,  when  evident,  should  have  its  serious- 
consequences  provided  against  by  a  special  warranty. 

Enlarged  Glands. — The  enlargement  of  the  glands  under  the  jaw  has 
not  been  so  much  considered  as  it  ought,  in  our  estimate  of  the  soundness 
of  the  horse.  Simple  catarrh  will  occasionally,  and  severe  affection  of  the 
chest  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  swelling  of  these  glands,  and  which 
does  not  subside  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  cold  or  fever  has  apparently 
been  cured.  To  a  slight  enlargement  of  the  glands  under  the  jaw  much 
attention  need  not  be  paid ;  but  if  they  are  of  considerable  size,  and 
especially  if  they  are  tender,  and  the  gland  at  the  root  of  the  ear  partakes 
of  the  enlargement,  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  redder  than  it  should 
be,  we  should  hesitate  in  pronouncing  that  horse  to  be  sound.  We  should 
fear  the  commencement,  or  the  insidious  lurking  of  disease. 

Enlarged  FIock. — A  horse  with  enlarged  hock  is  unsound.  The  structure 
of  this  complicated  joint  being  so  materially  affected,  that  although  the  horse 
may  appear  for  a  considerable  time  to  do  ordinary  work  well,  he  will  occasion- 
ally fail  even  as  to  that,  and  a  few  days'  hard  work  will  always  lame  him. 
The  Eyes. — Tiiat  inflammation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  which  usually 
terminates  in  blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes,  has  the  peculiar  character  of 
remitting  or  disappearing  for  a  time,  once  or  twice,  or  thrice,  before  it  fully 
runs  its  course.  The  eye,  after  an  attack  of  inflammation,  regains  so  nearly 
its  former  natural  brilliancy,  that  a  man  well  acquainted  with  horses  will 
not  always  recognise  the  traces  of  former  disease.  After  a  time,  however, 
the  inflammation  returns,  and  the  result  is  unavoidable.  A  horse  from  four 
to  six  years  of  age  that  has  had  one  attack  of  this  complaint,  is  long  after- 
wards unsound,  however  perfect  the  eye  may  seem  to  be,  because  he 
carries  about  with  him  a  disease  that  will  again  break  out,  and  eventually 
destroy  the  sight.  Whether,  therefore,  he  may  be  returned  or  not,  depends 
on  the  possibility  of  proving  an  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  eye,  prior 
to  the  purchase.  Next  to  direct  evidences  of  this,  are  appearances  about 
the  eye,  of  which  the  veterinary  surgeon  at  least  ought  not  to  be  igno- 
rant. They  have  been  described  at  page  114.  They  consist  chiefly  of  a 
puckering  of  the  lids  towards  the  inner  corner  of  one  or  both  eyes — a 
difference,  although  perhaps  only  a  slight  one,  and  not  discovered  except  it 
be  looked  for,  in  the  size  of  the  eyes;  a  gloominess  of  the  eye,  a  dullness 
of  the  iris,  a  little  dullness  of  the  transparent  part  of  tlie  eye  generally — 
a  minute,  faint,  dusky  spot,  deep  in  the  eye,  and  generally  with  little 
radiations  of  white  lines  proceeding  from  it:  if  these  symptoms,  or  the 
majority  of  them,  were  observed  at  the  time  of  purchase,  the  animal  had 
assuredly  been  diseased  before,  and  is  unsound.  Starting  is  an  equivocal 
proof.  It  is  usually  an  indication  of  defective  sight,  but  is  occasionally  a 
trick.  Connected,  however,  with  the  appearances  just  described,  it  is  a 
very  strong  corroborative  proof. 

If  a  man  buys  a  horse  actually  blind,  he  may  repent  of  his  bargain,  hv.': 
he  cannot  get  rid  of  it.  He  should  be  more  careful,  and  the  law  will  net 
protect  hini  if  he  does  not  Uvse  common  precaution. 


3(;.J  THrl  HORSE. 

Lameness,  from  whatever  cause  arising,  is  unsoundness.  He  wever 
tein|)orafy  it  may  be,  or  Iiowever  obscure,  it  lessens  the  utility  of  the  horse, 
and  renders  him  unsound  for  the  time.  How  far  his  soundness  may  be 
afterwards  affected,  must  depend  on  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  A  lame 
horse  is  for  the  time  an  unsound  one. 

Neurotomy. — A  question  has  arisen  how  far  a  horse  that  has  under- 
gone the  operation  of  the  division  of  the  nerve  of  the  leg  (see  page  110), 
and  has  recovered  from  the  lameness  with  which  he  was  before  affected, 
and  stands  his  work  well,  may  be  considered  to  be  sound.  In  our  opiniosi 
there  cannot  be  a  doubt  about  the  matter.  Does  the  operation  of 
neurotomy  render  a  horse  as  capable  of  work  as  he  was  before  he  became 
affected  with  the  disease  on  account  of  which,  and  to  relieve  him  from 
the  torture  of  which,  the  nerve  was  divided?  Is  the  operation  of  neu- 
rotomy so  invariably  followed  by  capability,  and  continued  capability  ol' 
ordinary  and  even  extraordinary  work,  that  they  may  regularly  be  con- 
sidered as  cause  and  effect?  The  most  strenuous  defenders  of  the  nerve 
operation  cannot  affirm  this.  They  only  say  that  they  partially  succeed 
in  almost  every  fair  case — that  they  perfectly  succeed  in  the  majority  of 
cases;  but  they  cannot  deny  that  the  horse  will  batter  and  bruise  that  foot, 
when  he  has  lost  sensation  in  it,  which  should  have  been  tenderly  used; 
that  even  the  hoof  will  sometimes  be  lost,  after  operations  performed  with 
the  greatest  judgment;  that  the  lameness  will  sometimes  return  after  the 
animal  has  gone  sound,  one,  two,  or  three  years;  and  that,  after  all,  there 
is  a  little  unpleasantness,  and  even  unsafeness  in  the  action  of  the  horse, 
from  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  the  foot  meets  the  ground,  when  its 
feeling  is  destroyed;  and  that  the  horse  is  more  liable  to  accidents;  for  he 
will  travel  on  without  warning  his  rider  of  the  evil,  after  a  piece  of  glass 
has  penetrated  his  foot,  or  a  stone  has  insinuated  itself  between  the  sole 
and  the  shoe;  and  thus  irreparable  mischief  will  be  done,  before  the 
cause  of  it  can  possibly  be  detected.  A  horse  on  whom  this  operation 
has  been  performed  may  be  improved — may  cease  to  be  lame,  may  go 
well  for  many  years;  but  there  is  no  certainty  of  his  continuing  to  do  so, 
and  he  is  unsound. 

Ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages  constitutes  unsoundness,  as 
interfering  with  the  natural  expansion  of  the  foot,  and  in  horses  of  quick 
work  almost  invariably  producing  lameness. 

PuMiCED-FOOT. — When  the  union  between  the  horny  and  sensible  lamella?, 
or  little  plates  of  the  foot  (see  p.  291),  is  weakened,  and  the  coffin-bone 
is  let  down,  and  presses  upon  the  sole,  which  yields  to  this  unnatural 
weight,  and  becomes  rounded,  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
gets  bruised  and  injured,  that  horse  must  be  unsound,  and  unsound  for 
ever,  because  there  are  no  means  by  which  we  can  lift  up  the  coffin-bone 
again  into  its  place. 

QuiDDlNG. — If  the  mastication  of  the  food  gives  pain  to  the  animal,  in 
consequence  of  soreness  of  the  mouth  or  throat,  he  will  drop  it  before  it  is 
perfectly  chewed.  This,  as  an  indication  of  disease,  constitutes  unsouml- 
ness.  Quidding  sometimes  arises  from  irregularity  in  the  teeth,  w  iu'ch 
wound  the  cheek  with  their  sharp  edges;  or  a  protruding  tooth  renders  it 
impossible  for  the  horse  to  close  his  jaws  so  as  to  chew  his  food  thoroughly. 
Quidding  is  unsoundness  for  the  time;  but  the  unsoundness  will  cease 
when  the  teeth  are  properly  filed,  or  the  catarrh  relieved,  or  the  cause  of 
this  imperfect  chewing  removed. 

QuiTTOR  is  unsoundness. 

Ring-bone. — Although  when  the  bony  tumour  is  small,  and  on  one  ?ide 
only,  thore  is  little   or  no   lameness,   and   there   are    a    few   instances    in 


UNSOUNDNESS.  3(i£ 

which  a  horse  with  ring-bone  lias  worlied  for  many  years  without  lame- 
ness; yet,  Irom  the  action  of  the  foot,  and  the  stress  upon  the  |>art,  the 
mllammation  and  tlie  formation  of  bone  have  such  a  tendency  rai)i(lly  tc 
spread,  that  we  must  pronounce  the  slightest  enlargement  of  the  pastern« 
or  around  the  coronet,  to  be  a  cause  of  unsoundness. 

Sand-crack  is  manifestly  unsoundness;  but  it  may  occur  without  the 
slightest  warning,  and  no  horse  can  be  returned  for  one  that  is  sprung 
after  purchase.  Its  usual  cause  is  too  great  brittleness  of  the  crust  of  the 
hoof;  but  there  is  no  infallible  method  of  detecting  this,  or  the  degree  in 
which  it  must  exist  to  constitute  unsoundness.  When  the  horn  round  the 
bottom  of  the  foot  has  chipped  off  so  much  that  only  a  skilful  smith  can 
fasten  the  shoe  without  pricking  the  horse,  or  even  when  there  is  a  tendency 
in  the  horn  to  chip  and  break  off  in  a  much  less  degree  than  this,  the  horse 
may  probably  be  returned  as  unsound,  for  this  brittleness  of  the  crust  is  a 
disease  of  the  part,  or  it  is  such  an  altered  structure  of  it,  as  to  interfere 
materially  with  the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

Spavin  is  unsoundness,  whether  the  bony  or  the  blood-spavin.  In  the 
first,  lameness  is  produced,  at  least  at  starting,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of 
a  hundred,  and  there  is  enlargement  of  the  hock,  which  rapidly  spreads 
with  quick  and  hard  work,  although  the  horse  may  be  capable  of,  and  may 
even  get  better  at  slow  work.  If  there  be  no  lameness,  we  would  yet 
reject  a  spavined  horse,  because  the  bony  enlargement  is  too  near  a  very 
important  and  complicated  joint,  and  on  the  least  injury  or  sprain  of  that 
joint,  would  spread  over  it,  and  materially  interfere  with  its  motion. 

Blood-spavin  is  unsoundness,  because,  although  it  may  not  be  productive 
of  lameness,  at  slow  work,  the  rapid  and  powerful  action  of  the  hock  in 
quicker  motion  will  produce  permanent,  although  not  considerable  lameness, 
and  which  can  scarcely  ever  be  with  certainty  removed. 

Splent. — It  depends  entirely  on  the  situation  of  the  bony  tumour  on 
the  inside  of  the  shank-bone,  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  unsoundness. 
If  it  is  not  in  the  neighbourhood  of  any  joint,  so  as  to  interfere  with  its 
action,  and  if  it  does  not  press  upon  any  ligament  or  tendon,  it  can  be  no 
cause  of  unsoundness;  although  it  is  often  very  unsightly,  it  does  not 
lessen  the  capability  and  value  of  the  animal.  Of  this  we  have  treated  at 
length  at  pages  241  and  350. 

Stking-halt. — This  singular  and  very  unpleasant  action  of  the  hind- 
leg  cannot  be  termed  unsoundness.  It  is  an  irregular  communication  of 
nervous  energy  to  some  muscle  of  the  thigh,  observable  when  the  horse 
first  comes  from  the  stable,  and  gradually  ceasing  on  exercise,  and  has 
usually  been  found  in  those  horses  that  have  a  more  than  common  degree 
of  strength  and  endurance. 

Thickening  of  the  Back  Sinews. — Sufficient  attention  is  not,  always 
paid  to  the  fineness  of  the  legs  of  the  horse.  If  the  flexor  tendons 
iiave  been  sprained  so  as  to  produce  considerable  thickening  of  the 
cellular  substance  in  which  their  sheaths  are  enveloped,  they  will  long 
afterwards,  or  perhaps  ever  after,  be  liable  to  sprain  from  causes  by  which 
ihey  would  otherwise  be  scarcely  atFected.  The  continuance  of  any 
considerable  thickness  around  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons  indicates  pre- 
vious and  violent  sprain.  This  very  thickening  will  fetter  the  action  of 
the  ten  Jons,  and  after  much  quick  work  will,  from  the  very  friction, 
occasionally  renew  the  LiflanuTiation  and  the  lameness;  therefore,  such  a 
iiorse  cannot  be  sound.  It  requires,  however,  a  little  discrimination  to 
distinguish  this  from  the  gummiuP'i.^  or  roundness  of  leg,  peculiar  to 
Home  breeds.  There  sliould  be  ar  evident  d'fference  between  the  injured 
los  n-d  the  others. 


.•J66  THE  HORSE. 

Ti'oi{()T;&fi-piN,  except  it  be  of  great  size,  is  rarely  productive  of  lame 
iiess,  and  tlierefore  cannot,  when  unaccompanied  by  lameness,  be  termed 
unsoundness;  but  as  it  is  the  consequence  of  hard  work,  and  now  and 
then  does  produce  lameness,  the  hock  should  be  most  carefully  examined, 
and  there  should  be  a  special  warranty  against  it. 

Thrush. — There  are  various  cases  on  record  of  actions  on  account  of 
thrushes  in  horses,  and  the  decisions  have  been  much  at  variance,  or 
perfectly  contradictory.  Thrush  has  not  been  considered  by  legal  men 
as  unsoundness:  it  seemed  to  be  necessary  to  prove  lameness,  or  probable 
injury  to  the  foot.  We  confess,  however,  that  we  are  inclined  to  consider 
thrush  as  unsoundness.  We  are  compelled  to  consider  it  so  according  to 
our  definition,  that  every  disease  is  unsoundness.  It  is  inflammation  of  the 
lower  surface  of  the  inner  or  sensible  frog,  and  the  secretion  or  throwing 
out  of  pus,  almost  invariably  accompanied  by  a  slight  degree  of  tenderness 
of  the  frog  itself,  or  of  the  heel  a  little  above  it;  and  if  neglected,  leading 
to  diminution  of  ihe  substance  of  the  frog,  and  separation  of  the  horn  from 
the  parts  beneath,  and  undermining,  and  the  production  of  fungus  and 
canker,  and  ultimately  a  diseased  state  of  the  foot,  destructive  of  the 
present,  and  dangerous  to  the  future  usefulness  of  the  horse. 

Wind-galls. — There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  wind-galls,  but 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  tetlock,  or  cause  lameness, 
except  when  they  are  numerous  or  large.  They  constitute  unsoundness 
only  when  they  cause  lameness,  or  are  so  large  and  numerous  as  to  render 
it  likely  that  they  will  soon  cause  it. 

In  the  purchase  of  a  horse  the  buyer  usually  receives,  embodied  in  the 
receipt,  what  is  termed  a  warranty.     It  should  be  thus  expressed : 

"Received  of  A.  B.  forty  pounds  for  a  grey  mare,  warranted  only  five 
years  old,  sound,  free  from  vice,  and  quiet  to  ride  and  drive. 

£40.  CD." 

A  receipt,  including  merely  the  word  "warranted,"  extends  only  to 
soundness — "warranted  sound"  extends  no  further;  the  age,  freedom 
from  vice,  and  quietness  to  ride  and  drive,  should  be  especially  named. 
This  warranty  extends  to  every  cause  of  unsoundness  that  can  be 
detected,  or  that  lurks  in  the  constitution  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  to  every 
vicious  habit  which  the  animal  has  hitherto  shown.  To  establish  a 
breach  of  the  warranty,  and  to  be  enabled  to  return  the  horse  or  recover 
the  price,  ihe  purchaser  must  prove  that  if.  was  unsound  or  viciously 
disposed  at  Ihe  time  of  sale.  In  case  of  cough,  the  horse  must  have  been 
heard  to  cough  previous  to  the  purchase,  or  as  he  was  led  home,  or  as 
soon  as  he  had  entered  the  stable  of  the  purchaser.  Coughing,  even  on 
the  following  morning,  will  not  be  sufficient;  for  it  is  possible  that  he 
might  have  caught  cold  by  change  of  stabling.  If  he  is  lame,  it  must 
be  proved  to  arise  from  a  cause  that  could  not  have  occurred  after 
the  animal  was  in  the  purchaser's  possession.  No  price  will  imply  a 
Tvarrauty,  or  be  equivalent  to  one;  there  must  be  an  express  warranty. 
A  fraud  must  be  proved,  in  the  seller,  in  on-ler  that  the  buyer  may  be 
enabled  to  return  the  horse  or  maintain  an  action  for  the  price.  The  war. 
ranty  should  be  given  at  the  time  of  sale.  A  warranty,  or  a  promise  to 
warrant  the  horse,  given  at  any  period  antecedent  to  the  sale,  is  invalid; 
for  the  horse  is  a  very  perishable  commodity,  and  his  constitution  and 
his  usefulness  may  undergo  a  considerable  change  in  a  few  days.  A 
warranty  after  the  sale  is  invalid,  for  it  is  given  without  any  legal  con- 
sideration. In  order  to  complete  the  purchase,  there  must  be  a  transfer  of 
»he  animal,  or  a  memorandum  of  agreement,  or  the  payment  of  rarnest- 


WARRANTY.  367 

money :  the  least  sum  will  suffice  for  earnest.  No  verbal  promise  to  buy 
or  to  sell  is  binding  without  one  of  these;  and  the  moment  either  of  inesc 
is  effected,  the  legal  transfer  of  property  or  delivery  is  made,  and  whatevei 
may  happen  to  the  horse,  the  seller  retains  or  is  entitled  to  tlje  money.  li 
the  purchaser  exercises  any  act  of  ownership,  by  using  the  animal  without 
leave  of  the  vender,  or  by  having  any  operation  performed,  or  done  to 
him,  or  medicines  given,  he  makes  him  his  own.  The  warranty  of  a  ser- 
vant  is  considered  to  be  binding  on  the  master.* 

If  the  horse  should  be  afterwards  discovered  to  have  been  unsound  at  the 
time  of  warranty,  the  buyer  may  return  it.  Although  not  legally  com- 
pelled to  give  notice  to  tiie  seller  of  the  discovered  unsoundness,  it  will  be 
better  for  it  to  be  done.  The  animal  should  then  be  tendered  at  the  house 
or  stable  of  the  vendor.  If  he  refuses  to  receive  him,  it  is  cruel  to  tie  up 
the  poor  beast  in  the  street,  and  leave  him  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the 
other  party:  it  will  be  more  advisable  to  send  the  animal  to  a  livery-stable, 
for  an  action  (the  horse  having  been  tendered)  may  be  brought  for  expenses 
as  well  as  for  price.  The  k^ep,  however,  can  be  recovered  only  for  the 
time  that  necessarily  intervened  between  the  tender  and  the  determination 
of  the  action.  It  is  not  legally  necessary  to  return  the  horse  as  soon  as  the 
unsoundness  is  discovered.  The  animal  may  be  kept  for  a  reasonable  time 
afterwards,  and  even  proper  medical  means  used  to  remove  the  unsound- 
ness; but  courtesy,  and  indeed  justice,  will  require  that  notice  should  be 
given  as  soon  as  possible.  Although  it  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Lord 
Loughborough,  that  "no  length  of  time  elapsed  after  the  sale  will  alter  the 
nature  of  a  contract  originally  folse;"  yet  there  are  eases  on  record  in 
which  the  plaintiff  was  non-suited  because  he  did  not  give  notice  of  the 
unsoundness  in  a  reasonable  time.  The  extent  of  this  reasonable  time 
must  depend  on  many  circumstances.  It  used  to  be  supposed  that  the 
buyer  had  no  right  to  have  the  horse  medically  treated,  and  that  he  would 
vitiate  the  warranty  by  doing  so.  The  question,  however,  would  be,  hag 
he  injured,  or  diminished  the  value  of  the  ho'-se  by  this  treatment?  It  will 
generally,  however,  be  prudent  for  him  to  rpfrain  from  all  medical  treat- 
ment,  because  the  means  adopted,  however  skilfully  employed,  may  have 
an  unfortunate  effect,  or  what  he  does  may  be  misrepresented  by  ignorant 
or  interested  observers. 

When  a  horse  is  returned,  and  an  action  brought  for  the  price,  it  will  be 
indispensable  that  in  every  other  respect,  except  the  alleged  unsoundness, 
the  animal  shall  be  as  perfect  and  valuable  as  when  bought. 

The  purchaser,  possibly,  may  like  the  horse  notwithstanding  his  dis- 
covered  defect,  and  he  may  retain  and  bring  his  action  for  the  depre- 
ciation in  value  on  account  of  the  unsoundness.  Few,  however,  will  do 
this,  because  the  detention  of  the  horse  will  cause  a  suspicion  that  the 
defect  was  of  no  great  consequence,  and  will  give  rise  to  much  cavil 
about  the  quantum  of  damages,  and,  after  all,  very  slight  damages  will 
probably  be  obtained. f 

*  The  weight  of  authority  decides  that  the  master  is  bound  by  the  act  of  the  servant. 
Lord  Kenyon,  however,  had  some  doubt  on  the  subject. 

t  "  I  take  it  to  be  clear  law,  that  if  a  person  purchases  a  horse  that  is  warranted,  and  it 
afterwards  turns  out  that  the  horse  was  unsound  at  the  time  of  the  warranty,  the  buyer 
may,  if  he  pleases,  keep  the  horse,  and  bring  an  action  on  the  warranty;  in  which  he  will 
have  a  right  to  recover  the  difference  between  the  value  of  a  sound  horse,  and  one  with 
such  defects  as  existed  at  the  time  of  warranty;  or  he  may  return  the  horse,  and  bring 
an  action  to  recover  the  full  money  paid;  but  in  the  latter  case  the  seller  has  a  right  to 
expect  that  the  horse  shall  be  returned  to  him  in  the  same  state  he  was  vvhen  sold,  and  not 
by  any  means  diminished  in  value;  for  if  a  person  keeps  a  warranted  article  for  any  length 
of  time  after  discovering  iia  defects,  and  when  he  returns  it,  it  is  in  a  worse  state  than  it 


2QS  THE  HORSE. 

Where  Ihere  is  no  warranty,  an  action  may  be  broufjht  on  the  g  "ojnd  oi 
fraud,  bu'  this  is  very  difficult  to  be  maintained,  and  few  possibly  will 
iiazard  it.  It  will  be  necessary  to  prove  that  the  dealer  knew  the  defect, 
and  that  the  purchaser  was  imposed  upon  by  his  false  representation  ;  and 
that,  lO'">,  in  a  case  in  which  a  person  of  ordinary  circumspection  might 
have  been  imposed  upon.  If  the  defect  was  evident  to  every  eye,  the  pur- 
chaser has  no  remedy — he  should  have  taken  more  care;  but  if  a  warranty 
was  given,  it  extends  to  all  unsoundness,  palpable  or  concealed.  Although 
a  person  should  ignorantly  or  carelessly  buy  a  blind  horse,  warranted 
sound,  he  may  return  it — the  warranty  is  his  guard,  and  prevents  him  from 
so  closely  examining  the  horse  as  he  otherwise  would  have  done  ;  but  if  he 
buys  a  blind  horse,  thinking  him  to  be  sound,  and  without  a  warranty,  he 
has  no  remedy.  The  law  supposes  every  one  to  exercise  common  circu<n- 
spection  and  common  sense. 

A  man  should  have  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  horses  than  falls  to  the 
lot  of  most,  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  vendor  too,  who  ventures  to 
buy  a  horse  without  a  warranty. 

if  a,  person  buys  a  horse  warranted  sound,  and  discovering  no  defect  in 
him,  and  relying  on  the  warranty,  resells  him,  and  the  unsoundness  is 
discovered  by  the  second  purchaser,  and  the  horse  returned  to  the  first 
purchaser,  or  an  action  commenced  against  him.,  he  has  his  claim  on  the 
first  seller,  and  may  demand  of  him  not  only  the  price  of  the  horse,  or  the 
difference  in  value,  but  every  expense  that  may  have  been  incurred  in 
the  transaction. 

Exchanges,  whether  of  one  horse  absolutely  for  another,  or  a  sum  of 
money  being  paid  in  addition  by  one  of  the  parties,  stands  on  the  same 
ground  as  simple  sales.  If  there  is  a  warranty  given  on  either  side,  and 
that  is  broken,  the  exchange  is  vitiated :  if  there  be  no  warranty  given, 
deceit  must  be  proved. 

The  subject  of  trial  is  a  very  intricate  one,  and  we  are  inclined  to  think 
that  the  dealer  is  often  very  ill-used.  It  is  well  known  that  a  horse  from 
1  dealer's  stable  is  seldom  or  never  fit  for  hard  work  until  he  has  under- 
gone some  preparation  and  training.  It  is  right  that  the  purchaser  should 
have  a  trial  of  him,  but  he  should  try  him  in  a  fair  way — in  a  way  con- 
sistent with  the  state  in  which  the  animal  is.  If  a  horse  from  a  dealer's 
stable  is  galloped  far  and  fast,  it  is  probable  that  he  will  soon  show  distress ; 
and  if  he  is  pushed  farther,  inflammation  and  death  may  ensue.  The 
dealer  rarely  gets  recompensed  for  this;  and  if  it  should  occur  soon  after 
the  sale,  the  horse  is  returned,  or  an  action  is  brought  for  its  price.  When 
accidents  have  arisen  in  the  fair  trial  of  a  horse,  the  decisions  of  the 
courts  of  law  have  been  strangely  contradictory;  and,  indeed,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  determine  whether  the  fault  rests  with  the  horse  or  the  rider. 
If  the  horse  be  detained  after  the  specified  time  of  trial,  he  is  supposed  to 
be  sold,  and  with  all  his  faults. 

In  London,  and  in  most  great  towns,  there  are  repositories  for  the 
periodical  sale  of  horses  by  auction.  They  are  a  great  convenience  to  the 
seller,  who  can  at  once  get  rid  of  a  horse  with  which  he  wishes  to  part, 
without  waiting  month  after  month  before  he  can  obtain  a  purchaser,  and 
who  is  relieved  from  the  nuisance  or  fear  of  having  the  horse  returned  on 
account  of  breach  of  the  warranty,  because  in  these  places  only  two  days 
are   allowed    for  the   trial,  and    if   the   horse  is  not  returned   within  that 

woulfl  have  been  if  returned  immediately  after  such  discovery,  I  think  the  party  can  have 
/to  defence  to  an  action  for  the  price  of  the  article  on  the  g-round  of  non-compliance  with 
the  warranty,  but  must  be  left  to  his  action  on  the  warranty  to  recover  the  dillcronce  in 
the  value  of  the  article  warranted,  and  its  value  when  sold." — Curtis  v.  Hannay,  3  F»p   3i. 


THE  SKIxN  AND  ITS  DISEASES.  3G9 

period  he  cannot  be  returned  afterwards.  They  are  also  convenient  to 
the  purchaser,  who  can  tlius  in  a  large  town  soon  find  a  horse  that  will 
suit  him,  and  which,  from  this  restriction  as  to  the  returning  tiie  animal, 
he  will  obtain  twenty  or  thirty  per  cent,  below  the  dealer's  prices.  Although 
an  auction  may  seem  to  otier  a  fair  open  competition,  there  is  no  place  at 
whicli  it  is  more  necessary  for  a  person  not  much  accustomed  to  horses  to 
take  with  him  an  experienced  friend,  and  when  there  to  depend  on  his  own 
judgment  or  that  of  his  friend,  heedless  of  tiie  observations  or  manoeuvres 
of  tlie  by-standers,  the  exaggerated  commendations  of  some  horses,  and 
the  thousand  faults  found  with  others.  There  are  always  nunierousr 
groups  of  low  dealers,  copers,  and  chaunters,  whose  business  it  is  to 
delude  and  deceive. 

The  principal  repositories  in  London,  are  Tattersall's,  at  Hyde  Park 
Corner,  on  Monday  and  TImrsday,  at  one  o'clock,  for  racers,  hunters,  and 
superior  liorses  of  every  kind,  although  many  that  are  good  for  nothing  find 
their  way  there.  Young's,  at  the  Bazaar  in  King  Street,  Portman  Square, 
on  Tuesday  and  Saturday,  at  twelve  o'clock,  for  liorses  of  every  descrip. 
tion ;  and  where,  likewise,  horses  are  always  standing  for  private  sale. 
Dixon's,  in  Barbican,  for  machiners  of  every  kind,  and  generally  the  best 
of  them,  with  occasionally  good  hackney;  and  Morris's,  in  St.  Martin's 
Lane,  for  draught-horses  and  hackneys  of  every  grade  and  value.  Horses 
should  be  sei'-';  two  days  before  the  sale;  and  it  should  be  so  contrived,  if 
possible,  that  they  should  be  placed  about  or  beyond  the  middle  of  the  cata- 
logue; so  that  they  may  be  brought  out  when  those  persons  who  lie  abed 
utuil  after  noon,  begin  to  appear.  If  the  horses  are  bought  in,  the  owner 
will  have  to  pay  Ss.  6d.  per  night  for  their  keep,  and  6s.  for  the  otFering 
them  for  sale:  if  they  are  sold,  he  will  be  charged  with  five  per  cent,  for 
the  auction-duty,  five  per  cent,  for  commission,  and  the  keep;  and  the 
balance  may  be  received  the  day  after  the  period  of  trial  expires. 

One  of  the  regulations  at  the  Bazaar  is  exceedingly  fair,  both  with 
regard  to  the  previous  owner  and  the  purchaser,  viz: 

"When  a  horse,  having  been  warranted  sound,  shall  be  returned  within 
the  prescribed  period,  on  account  of  unsoundness,  a  certificate  from  a  vete- 
rinary surgeon,  particularly  describing  the  unsoundness,  must  accompany 
the  horse  so  returned;  when,  if  it  be  agreed  to  by  the  veterinary  surgeon 
of  the  establishment,  the  amount  received  tor  the  horse  shall  be  immediately 
paid  back;  but  if  the  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  establishment  should  not 
confirm  the  certificate,  then,  in  order  to  avoid  further  dispute,  one  of  the 
veterinary  surgeons  of  the  college  shall  be  called  in,  and  ids  decision  shall 
be  final,  and  the  expense  of  such  umpire  shall  be  borne  by  the  party  in  error. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  DISEASES. 


The  skin  x)[  the  horse  differs  little  in  construction  from  that  of  other 
animals.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the  cuticle  or  scarf  skin  extei-nally — 
very  thin,  and  somewhat  transparent,  as  is  proved  by  the  action  of  a  blister 
when  the  cuticule  is  raised  from  the  true  skin  beneath,  in  the  form  of 
almost  pellucid  bladders.  The  dandrifT  or  scurf,  which  is  brushed  out  in 
grooming,  consists  of  scales  or  portions  of  the  cuticule  detached  in  the 
gradual  change  or  renewal  of  this  membrane.     The  parts  within  '.ho  frame 


370  THE  HORSE. 

as  thej  are  separated  are  carried  ofT  by  the  absorbent? — the  outer  skin  is 
ntiore  luadily  got  rid  of,  in  the  form  of  scales.  Tlie  culicule  is  produced 
by  the  true  slvin,  and  is  perforated  by  all  its  pores,  whether  exhalent  or 
absorbent;  and  it  adheres  to  the  true  skin  through  the  medium  of  these 
pores,  and  likewise  of  little  eminences  or  projections,  which  seem  to  be 
prolongations  of  the  nerves  of  the  skin. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  horse  possesses  to  any  considerable  degree  the 
sense  of  touch,  or  whether  he  is  able  to  ascertain  the  form  and  nature  of 
bodies  by  impressions  made  through  the  medium  of  the  nerves  of  the  skin. 
The  skin  is  thinner  about  the  muzzle  than  at  otiier  parts,  because  it  is 
devoid  of  hair,  but  we  never  see  this  animal  examining  bodies  by  moving 
or  rolling  them  about  with  his  muzzle.  He  seems  to  examine  them  simply 
by  the  smell. 

Beneath  the  cuticule  is  a  thin  soft  substance,  through  which  the  pores 
and  eminences  of  the  true  skin  pass;  and  on  which  the  horse  depends  for 
his  colour.  The  dandriff  or  scurf  of  a  black  horse  is  as  white  as  that  of 
the  lightest  grey ;  and  the  skin  beneath  is  of  the  same  hue  in  all.  The 
soft  substance  is  called  the  rcle  mucosiim  ,  from  its  web-like  structure,  and 
its  soft  mucous  consistence. 

Under  this  is  the  true  skin,  very  different  in  different  breeds:  thin  and 
highly  sensible  in  the  blood  horse  ;  thick,  and,  fortunately  for  the  animal, 
jndowed  with  far  less  sensibility,  in  the  common  cart  horse.  Over  a  great 
l)art  of  the  frame  it  lies  upon  a  very  singular  muscle,  peculiar  to  quadru- 
peds, and  more  extensive  and  powerful  in  thin-skinned  and  thin-haired 
animals  than  in  those  of  thicker  hides.  It  reaches  from  the  poll  over  the 
whole  of  the  carcase,  and  down  to  the  arm  before,  and  stifle  behind.  By  its 
contraction,  the  skin  is  puckered  in  every  direction ;  and  if  it  acts  strongly 
and  rapidly,  the  horse  is  not  only  enabled  to  shake-off  any  insect  or  fiy  that 
may  annoy  him,  but  sometimes  to  displace  a  great  part  of  his  harness;  and 
we  have  seen  determinedly  vicious  horses  shake  themselves  so  violently 
that  the  most  expert  rider  could  scarcely  keep  his  seat.  This  muscle  also 
assists  the  skin  in  bracing  that  part  of  the  frame  which  it  covers,  and 
perhaps  it  gives  additional  strength  to  the  muscles  beneath.  It  is  called 
ihe  pannicii/us  carnosus  of  fleshy  pinnacle  or  covering. 

The  skin  answers  the  double  purpose  of  proteotion  and  strength. 
Where  it  is  necessary  that  the  parts  should  be  bound  and  knit  together,  it 
adheres  so  tightly  that  we  can  scarcely  raise  it.  Thus  the  bones  of  the 
knees  and  the  pasterns  and  the  tendons  of  the  legs,  on  which  so  nmch 
stress  is  frequently  thrown,  are  securely  tied  down  and  kept  in  their  places. 
It  is  in  order  to  take  additional  advantage  of  this  binding  and  strength- 
ening power  that  we  fire  the  legs  of  overworked  horses,  in  whom  the 
sinews  have  begun  to  start,  and  the  ligaments  of  the  joints  to  swell,  or  be 
displaced.  We  find  the  skin  tight  along  the  muscles  of  the  back  and 
loins,  and  down  the  yet  more  powerful  muscles  of  the  quarters;  but  in 
other  places  it  seems  to  be  destined  only  to  protect  the  parts  beneath,  and 
there  it  is  loosely  attached,  that  it  may  not  interfere  with  the  motions  of 
the  animal.  About  the  brisket,  and  within  the  arms  and  at  the  flanks,  il 
hangs  even  in  folds,  to  allow  for  the  extraordinary  distension  of  those  parts 
in  rapid  action. 

Of  its  strength  we  have  abundant  proof,  both  in  the  living  and  dead 
animal.  Its  fibres  are  interlaced  in  a  most  curious  and  intricate  manner, 
so  as,  when  living,  to  be  scarcely  lacerable.  It  offers  considerable  resist- 
ance even  to  the  knife,  and  is  converted  into  leather  after  death. 

It  is,  while  the  animal  is  alive,  one  of  the  most  elastic  bodies  with 
.vhich    we    arc    acquainted.      It    not   only    perfectly    adapts    itself  to  the 


HIDE-BOUND.  37' 

slow  growth  or  decrease  of  the  body,  and  appears  equally  to  fit,  whelhoi 
the  horse  is  in  the  plumpest  condition  or  reduced  to  a  skeleton,  but  when 
a  portion  of  it  is  distended  to  an  extraordinary  degree  in  the  most  poweriul 
action  of  the  muscles,  it  in  a  moment  again  contracts  to  its  usual  dimen- 
sions.  It  is  principally  indebted  for  this  elasticity  to  almost  innumerable 
little  glands  which  pour  out  an  oily  fluid  that  softens  and  supples  it. 
When  the  horse  is  in  health,  and  every  organ  discharges  its  proper  func- 
tions, a  certain  quantity  of  this  unctuous  matter  is  spread  over  the  surface 
of  I  he  skin,  and  is  contained  in  all  the  pores  tiiat  penetrate  its  substance, 
and  the  skin  is  pliable,  easily  raised  from  the  texture  beneath,  easily  doubled 
between  the  finger  and  thumb,  and  presenting  that  peculiar  yielding  softness 
and  elasticity  which  experience  has  proved  are  the  best  proofs  of  the  condi- 
tion, that  is,  the  general  health  of  the  animal.  Then,  too,  from  the  oiliness  and 
softness  of  the  skin,  the  hair  lies  in  its  natural  and  proper  direction,  and  is 
smooth  and  glossy — another  proof  of  the  condition  of  the  horse.  When 
the  system  is  deranged,  and  especially  the  digestive  system,  and  the  vessels 
concerned  in  the -nourishment  of  the  animal  cease  to  act,  or  act  feebly,  the 
vessels  of  the  skin  immediately,  and  to  a  very  marked  degree,  sympathize; 
and  this  oily  secretion  is  no  more  thrown  out,  and  the  skin  loses  its  pliancy, 
and  it  is  difficult  or  almost  impossible  to  take  it  up  between  the  finger  anc 
thumb,  and  losing  its  pliancy,  it  seems  seems  to  cling  to  the  animal,  and  we 
have  that  peculiar  feeling  which  we  call 

HIDE-BOUND. 

Hide-bound  is  not  so  much  a  diminution  of  the  cellular  or  fatty  sub 
stance  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles  and  bones  beneath,  as  it  is  aH 
alteration  in  the  skin  itself  It  is  a  hardness  and  unyieldingness  of  the 
skin  from  the  want  of  the  oily  matter  on  its  surface,  and  in  its  substance, 
which  has  just  been  mentioned.  It  is  precisely  the  difference  which  is 
presented  to  the  feeling  by  well-curried  and  supple  leather,  and  that  which 
has  become  dry  and  unyielding. 

The  surface  of  the  skin  becoming  dry  and  hard,  the  scales  of  the 
cuticle  no  longer  yield  to  the  hair,  but,  separating  themselves  in  every 
direction,  turn  the  hair  various  ways,  and  give  that  staring  coat  or  irregu- 
lar direction  of  the  hair  which  accompanies  the  want  of  condition.  This 
state  of  the  skin,  by  proving  the  impaired  functions  of  the  vessels  of  the 
skin,  shows  the  impaired  function  of  the  vessels  every  where,  and  particu- 
larly those  of  the  stomach  and  bowels.  The  horseman  should  remember 
that  hide-bound  is  not  so  much  a  disease  as  a  symptom  of  disease,  and 
particularly  of  the  digestive  organs;  and  our  remedies  must  be  applied  not 
so  much  to  the  skin,  (although  we  have,  in  friction  and  in  warmth,  most 
valuable  agents  in  producing  a  healthy  condition  of  the  integuments,) 
as  to  the  cause  of  the  binding  of  the  coat  and  the  state  of  the  constitution 
generally.  Every  disease  that  can  affect  the  general  system  is  likely  to 
produce  this  derangement  of  the  functions  of  the  skin.  Glanders,  when 
become  constitutional,  is  strongly  characterized  by  the  unthrifty  appear- 
anc(>  of  the  coat.  Chronic  cough,  grease,  farcy,  and  founder,  are  accom- 
Danied  by  hide-bound;  and  diet  too  sparing,  and  not  adequate  to  the  work 
exacted,  is  an  unfailing  source  of  it.  If  the  cause  be  removed,  the  effect 
will  cease. 

Should  the  cause  be  obscure,  as  it  frequently  is — should  ihe  horse 
wear  an  unthrifty  coat,  and  his  hide  cling  to  his  ribs,  without  any  apparent 
disease — we  shall  be  warranted  in  tracing  it  to  sympathy  with  the  actual, 
although  not  demonstrable  suspension  of  some  important  secretion,  and,  \vf 


372  THE   HORSE. 

lepea;.  generally  in  the  alimentary  canal;  therefore  a  few  mashes,  anJ  a 
mild  dose  of  physic,  are  first  indicated,  and,  simple  as  they  appear  to  he, 
they  often  have  a  very  beneficial  elfect.  The  regular  action  of  the  bowels 
being  re-established,  that  of  all  the  organs  of  the  frame  will  speedily  follow. 
[f  tiie  horse  cannot  be  spared  for  physic,  alteratives  may  be  administe'-ed. 
There  is  no  better  alterative  for  being  hide-bound  and  having  an  unthrifty 
coat  than  that  which  is  in  common  use,  and  which  we  have  so  often  recom- 
mended, levigated  antimony,  nitre  and  sulphur;  and  given,  in  these 
cases,  in  doses  of  two  drachms  of  the  first,  three  of  the  second,  and  four 
>)f  the  last,  and  repealed  every  night  in  a  mash,  or  in  the  form  of  ball. 
The  peculiar  effect  of  the  antimony  and  sulphur  on  the  skin,  of  the 
sulphur  on  the  bowels,  and  of  the  nitre  on  the  urinary  organs,  will  be  here 
advantageously  combined. 

Should  the  horse  not  feed  welt,  and  there  be  no  indication  of  fever,  a 
slight  tonic  may  be  added,  as  one  drachm  of  gentian,  and  half  a  drachin  of 
ginger;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  attended  by  a  lofty  condition  and  an 
unthrifty  coat,  and  hide-bound,  tonics  and  aromatics  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  Tlie  cause  of  the  impaired  action  of  the  vessels  being  removed, 
the  powers  of  nature  will  generally  be  sufficient,  and  had  better  be  let 
alone.  There  are  not  any  more  dangerous  medicines  in  common  use  in 
the  stable,  and  especially  in  cases  like  tliese,  than  tonics  and  cordials. 
They  often  arouse  to  fatal  action  a  tendency  to  kvev  that  would  otherwise 
have  slept,  or  they  produce  a  state  of  excitement  near  akin  to  fever,  and 
apt  to  degenerate  into  it.  By  the  stimulus  of  a  cordial  the  secretions  may 
be  suddenly  roused,  and  among  them,  this  unctuous  secretion  from  the 
pores  of  the  skin,  so  necessary  to  apparent  condition ;  but  the  efTect  soon 
passes  over,  a  repetition  of  the  stimulus  is  necessary — the  habit  is  soon 
formed — the  dose  must  be  gradually  increased,  and  in  the  mean  time  the 
animal  is  kept  in  a  state  of  dangerous  excitement,  and  the  powers  of 
nature  must  be  eventually  impaired. 

Friction  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  the  removal  of  hide-bound. 
[t  has  repeatedly  been  shown  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  efficacious  instru- 
ments  we  can  use  to  call  into  exercise  the  suspended  energies  either  of  the 
absorbent  or  secreting  vessels.  Warmth  may  likewise  be  employed,  not 
warmth  of  stable,  which  has  been  shown  to  be  so  injurious,  and  that  in  a  much 
more  important  way  than  the  mere  want  of  condition,  but  warmth  of 
clothing.  But  before  this  can  be  fully  considered,  the  hair  by  which  the 
skin  is  covered  must  be  described. 

THE  HAIR. 

The  hair  is  the  natural  clothing  of  all  our  domestic  quadrupeds.  It  la 
some  protection  from  violence,  and  more  so  from  cold ;  and  it  varies  with 
the  climate  in  which  they  live.  It  springs  from  below  the  skin.  There 
are  found  on  the  cellular  and  fatty  substance,  immediately  in  contact  with 
the  internal  surface  of  the  skin,  numerous  little  bulbs,  which  penetrate  into 
and  pass  through  the  true  skin,  and  which  arriving  at  the  cuticle,  the  hair 
protrudes  from  the  summit  of  them.  The  hair  itself,  when  examined 
through  a  microscope,  is  seen  to  be  a  little  tube,  containing  a  pulpy  matter, 
which  runs  through  the  whole  length  of  it,  by  whicii  probably  the  hair  is 
fed  and  rendered  pliant;  and  the  loss  of  which  under  disease  may  add  to 
the  hard  and  unthrifty  feeling  of  the  coat  of  a  horse  out  of  condition. 
There  is  no  essential  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  hair  m  difTeren 
parts,  as  the  mane,  the  tail,  and  the  body,  except  that  the  former  is  larger, 
longer,  and  stronger. 


MOULTING. 


373 


Tl'O  base  of  the  bulb  whence  the  hair  proceeds  being  beneatn  the  true 
skin,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  the  hair  will  grow  again,  although  the  cu''cle 
may  have  been  destroyed.  A  good  blister,  although  it  may  remove  tiu' 
cuticle,  and  seemingly  for  a  while  the  hair  with  it,  leaves  no  lasting  Ijlemish 
Even  firing,  lightly  and  skilfully  performed,  and  not  penetrating  through 
the  skin,  leaves  not  much  blemish  ;  but  when,  in  broken  knees,  the  true 
skin  is  cut  through,  or  destroyed,  there  will  ever  remain  a  spot  devoid  of 
hair.  The  method  of  hastening  and  perfecting  the  re-production  of  th« 
hair  has  been  described  in  p.  243. 

PORES  OF  THE  SKIN. 

Besides  the  openings  already  mentioned  through  which  proceeds  thi? 
\mctuous  fluid  to  supple  and  soften  the  skin,  there  are  others  more 
numerous,  through  which  a  vast  quantity  of  aqueous  fluid  escapes,  and 
perspiration  is  carried  on  ;  and,  as  in  the  human  being,  this  actually  exists 
in  a  state  of  health  and  quietness,  although  imperceptible,  yet,  when  the 
animal  is  excited  by  exercise,  or  labours  under  some  stages  of  disease,  it 
becomes  visible,  and  appears  in  the  form  of  drops. 

This  process  of  perspiration  is  not,  however,  so  far  under  the  control  of 
medicine  as  in  the  human  being.  We  can,  indeed,  abate  those  profuse 
perspirations  which  accompany  want  of  condition,  or  moulting,  or  disease, 
but  we  cannot  easily  produce  or  increase  the  visible  perspiration. 

We  are  not  aware  of  any  medicine  that  will  certainly  produce  it.  Warm 
clothing  seems  occasionally  to  eflect  it,  but  this  is  more  in  appearance  than 
reality.  The  insensible  perspiration  cannot  escape  through  the  mass  of 
clothing,  and  assumes  a  visible  form.  This,  perhaps,  is  the  case,  even 
when  sheep-skins  are  applied  over  the  back  and  loins  in  "  locked-jaw;"  and 
they  produce  a  good  effect,  acting  as  a  warm  poultice  over  the  part,  and  so 
contributing  to  relax  the  muscular  spasms.  There  are,  however,  .^ome  medi- 
cines, as  antimony  and  sulphur,  which  have  an  evident  and  very  consider- 
able effect  on  the  skin,  in  opening  its  pores  and  exciting  its  vesse.s  to  action. 

Of  the  existence  of  absorbent  vessels  on  the  skin,  or  those  which  take 
up  some  fluid  or  substance,  and  convey  it  into  the  circulation,  we  have 
satisfactory  proof.  A  horse  is  even  more  easily  salivated  than  the  human 
biMng.  Salivation  has  been  produced  by  rubbing  a  splint  with  mercurial 
ointment,  previous  to  blistering;  and  a  very  few  drachms  rubbed  on  the 
inside  of  the  thighs  will  probably  produce  a  greater  effect  than  the 
piactitioner  desires. 

From  some  parts  of  the  skin  there  are  peculiar  secretions,  as  that  of 
grease  in  the  heel,  and  mallenders  in  the  knee. 

MOULTING. 

Twice  in  the  year  the  hair  of  the  body  of  the  horse  is  changed.  The 
hair  of  the  mane  and  tail  remains.  The  bulbous  root  of  the  hair  does  not 
die,  but  the  pulpy  matter  seems  to  be  removed  from  the  root  of  the  hair, 
which,  thus  deprived  of  its  nourishment,  perishes  and  drops  off',  and  a  new 
hairsprings  at  its  'jide  from  the  same  bulb.  As  this  is  a  process  extending 
over  the  whole  of  the  skin,  and  requiring  a  very  considerable  expenditure 
vf  vi'al  power,  the  health  of  the  animal  is  generally  alFected  at  these  times. 
That  energy  and  nervous  and  vital  influence,  which  should  support  the 
whole  of  the  frame,  is  to  a  great  degree  determined  to  the  skin,  and  the 
animal  is  languid,  atjd  unequal  to  much  hard  work.     He  perspires  greatly 


374  THE  HORSE. 

with  the  least  unusual  exertion,  and  if  he  is  pressed  beyond  his  strengtl 
becomes  seriously  ill. 

The  treatment  which  the  groom  in  this  case  adopts  is  most  absurd  anc 
dangerous.  The  horse,  from  the  deranged  distribution  of  vital  power,  is. 
disposed  to  fever,  or  lie  labours  under  a  slight  degree  of  fever,  sutliciently 
indicated  by  the  increased  quickness  of  pulse,  redness  of  nose,  and  heat 
of  mouth.  The  lassitude  and  want  of  appetite  which  are  the  accompani- 
ment of  tills  febrile  state,  are  mistaken  for  debility;  and  cordials  of 
various  kinds,  some  of  them  exceedingly  stimulating,  are  unsparingly 
administered.  Common  sense  would  require  that,  in  this  deranged  dis- 
tribution of  power,  excitants  should  be  scrupulously  avoided  ;  not  only 
no  cordials  should  be  given,  l)ut  the  usual  quantity  of  food  should  be 
diminished — bran  mashes  should  be  given — a  little  fever  or  alterative  medi- 
cine should  be  administered,  such  as  that  which  we  have  just  described, 
and  the  horse  should  be  a  little  more  warmly  clothed,  and  sudden  or  too 
great  exposure  to  cold  should  be  guarded  against.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
spices  hasten  the  process  of  moulting.  The  old  hair  is  evidently  more 
speedily  thrown  off,  and  the  new  produced,  but  this  at  the  expense  of  greater 
derangement  of  the  constitution — greater  fever — and  no  little  danger,  if, 
during  this  process  of  moulting,  and  while  nature  is  thus  unnaturally  forced 
on,  disease  of  a  febrile  character  should  attack  the  animal.  Friction  may 
be  allowed,  to  assist  the  falling  off  of  the  old  hair,  and  to  loosen  the  cuticle 
lor  the  appearance  of  the  new  hair,  but  it  should  be  gentle.  The  curry- 
comb should  by  no  means  be  used  ;  even  the  brush  siiould  not  be  applied 
too  hard  or  too  long.  The  old  hair  must  not  be  forced  off  before  the  young 
hair  is  ready  to  take  its  place.  The  exercise  should  be  moderate;  the 
clothing  rather  warmer  than  usual,  and  the  water  chilled.  Nature  adapts 
the  coat  to  the  climate  and  to  the  season.  The  Sheltie  has  one  as. long  and  as 
thick  as  that  of  a  bear;  and  as  the  summer  is  short  and  cold  too  in  those 
northern  islands,  the  coat  is  rough  and  shaggy  during  the  whole  of  the 
year.  In  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  where  the  winter  is  rarely  cold,  the  coat 
remains  short  and  glossy  throughout  the  year.  In  our  climate,  the  short 
covering  of  summer  is  succeeded  in  autumn  by  one  of  considerably 
greater  length  and  thickness;  and  that  in  its  turn  yields  in  the  spring  to 
the  lighter  clothing  which  summer  requires.  As  a  thin  and  glossy  coat 
adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  horse,  and  is  identified,  to  a  great  degree 
improperly,  with  his  condition,  an  artificial  system  has  been  adopted,  by 
v/hich  the  coat  shall  remain  of  nearly  the  same  length,  and  that  a  short  one, 
during  the  year.  Natare  changes  it  with  the  change  of  season  ;  man  con- 
trives that  there  shall  be  no  change  of  season  in  the  stable.  It  is  always 
summer  there;  always  sufficiently  hot  to  make  a  long  coat  useless,  and 
therefore  nature,  who  accommodates  herself  to  circumstances,  does  not 
give  it.  The  exposure  to  cold  during  the  i'ew  hours  of  exercise  may 
roughen  the  coat  for  a  little  while,  but  the  hot  clothing  and  the  hot  air  of 
more  than  twenty  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  give  the  character  to  the 
covering  which  nature  bestows  on  such  an  animal.  This  system  is  not  now 
carried  to  the  injurious  extent  that  it  used  to  be,  but  it  yet  partakes  too 
much  of  absurdity  and  danger.  The  inflammatory  complaints  to  which 
these  hot-house  animals  are  subject,  and  the  average  shortness  of  their  lives, 
are  sufficient  proofs  of  the  error  of  the  practice. 

The  farmer  has,  or  should  have,  little  to  do  with  this  artificial  manage- 
ment  of  the  coat,  and  he  may  be  assured  that  his  hackney,  or  his  hunter, 
if  he  does  occasionally  venture  to  follow  the  hounds,  will,  with  his  winter 
hair  apou  him,  be  to  all  intents  and   purposes  in  as  full  condition,  and  &e 


COLOUR.  375 

strong  and  as  stout  ab  the  glossiest-coated  horse  in  the  field,  if  1  e  has  been 
sufTicieiitly  and  properly  fed  and  trained  for  the  purpose. 

Hunters  that  are  summered  out,  as  reason  and  humanity  demand, 
should,  however,  if  they  are  to  wear  the  sliort  fushionablc  coat,  be  taken 
up  before  tiie  end  of  June,  not  only  because  the  grass  may  then  begin  to 
fail,  and  the  ground  begin  to  grow  hard,  and  the  flies  to  annoy,  but  that 
they  may  be  accustomed  to  the  warmth  of  the  stable  by  day  and  by^  night, 
for  a  sufficient  time  before  the  moulting  season  commences,  and  that  the 
coat  may  be  accommmodated  to  that  warmth ;  for  if  they  are  suffered  to 
remain  out  unt'il  the  autumnal  coat  begins  to  grow,  no  grooming  will 
remove  it  until  the  following  spring. 

CLIPPING. 

As  to  the  newly. invented  practices  of  clipping,  and  its  supposed  improve- 
ment, shaving  the  horse,  and  especially  the  hunter,  such  deviations  from 
nature  rarely  come  to  any  good.  There  may  not  be  so  much  perspiration 
hanging  about  the  hair  when  the  Imnter,  warmed  by  a  long  burst,  comes  to 
a  check  on  a  piercing  day,  and  therefore  the  cooling  process  of  evaporation 
in  such  a  situation  may  not  be  so  long  continued ;  but  let  it  be  remembered 
that  this  cold  must  be  abundantly  more  intense,  when  the  frosty  air  comes 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  heatf-d  skin.  It  is  during  these  pauses  of 
action  that  the  animal  wants  clothing  to  protect  him  from  the  chilling,  inju- 
rious efTect  of  the  piercing  blast  upon  the  opened  steaming  pores  of  the 
skin.  Wliile  the  animal  is  in  action,  a  sufficient  supply  of  heat  is  obtained 
by  the  effect  of  that  action  on  the  capillaries,  and  the  increased  development 
of  temperature;  but  when  the  action  is  suspended,  some  clothing,  natural 
or  artificial,  something  through  which  the  animal  heat  shall  not  escape,  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  the  chilling  of  the  frame,  the  exhaustion  of 
vital  power,  and  the  dangerous  re-action  of  fever. 

COLOUR. 

The  colour  of  the  hair  admits  of  every  variety,  and  each  colour  becomes 
in  turn  fashionable.  The  colour  of  the  hair,  like  that  of  the  skin,  is  influ- 
enced by,  or  depends  on,  that  of  the  mucous  mesh-work  under  tlie  cuticle. 
There  are  comparatively  few  perfectly  white  horses  now  remaining.  The 
snow-white  palfrey,  with  its  round  carcase,  and  barb  head,  originally  from 
Spain,  or  perhaps  from  Barbary,  and  rarely  exceeding  the  size  of  a  Gal- 
loway, is  now  nearly  extinct.  Some  yet  remain  in  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Montrose.  They  are  of  good  constitution,  and  pleasant  in  their 
paces.  The  majority  of  white  horses  are  those  that  have  become  so. 
Light-grey  colts  begin  to  grow  white  before  they  are  five  years  old,  espe- 
cially if  they  have  not  much  dark  mixture  about  the  joints. 

Grey  horses  are  of  different  shades,  from  the  lightest  silver  to  a  dark 
iron  grev.  The  silver  grey  reminds  the  observer  of  the  palfrey,  improved 
by  an  admixture  of  Arab  blod.  He  does  not  often  exceed  fourteen  hands 
and  a  half  high,  and  is  round  carcased — light  legged — with  oblique  pasterns, 
calculated  for  a  light  carriage,  or  for  a  lady's  riding — seldom  subject  to 
disease — but  not  very  fleet,  or  capable  of  hard  work. 

The  iron  grev  is  usually  a  larger  horse;  higher  in  the  withers,  deeper 
and  thinner  in  the  carcase,  more  angular  in  all  his  proportions,  and  in 
many  cases  a  little  too  long  in  the  legs.  Some  of  these  greys  make  good 
hackneys  and  hunters,  and  especially  the  Irish  horses;  but  they  are  princi- 
pally  used  for  the    carriage.      They  have  more  endurance  than   the   flat- 


370 


THE  HORSE. 


noss  of  the  chest  vvou  promise;  but  their  princival  defect  is  their  feet, 
wnich  are  liable  to  contraction,  and  yet  that  contraction  not  so  often  accom- 
panied by  lameness  as  in  many  other  horses. 

The  dappled  grey  is  generally  a  handsomer  and  a  better  horse:  all  the 
angular  points  of  the  iron  grey  are  filled  up,  and  with  that  which  not  only 
adds  to  symmetry,  but  to  use.  Whether  as  a  hackney,  or  the  larger 
variety,  a  carriage-horse,  there  are  few  better,  especially  since  hia 
form  has  been  so  materially  improved,  and  so  much  of  his  heaviness  got 
rid  of,  by  the  free  use  of  foreign  blood.  There  are  not,  however,  so  many 
dappled  greys  as  there  used  to  be,  since  the  bays  have  been  bred  with  so 
much  care.  The  dappled  grey,  if  dark  at  first,  generally  retains  his  colour 
to  old  age. 

Some  of  the  greys  approach  to  a  nutmeg,  or  even  bay  colour.  Many 
of  these  are  handsome,  and  most  of  them  are  hardy. 

The  roans  of  every  variety  of  colour  and  form,  are  composed  of  white 
mixed  with  bay  or  red,  or  black.  In  some  it  seems  to  be  a  natural  mix- 
ture of  the  colours;  in  others  it  appears  as  if  one  colour  was  powdered 
or  sprinkled  over  another.  They  are  pretty  horses  for  ladies  or  light 
carriages,  and  many  of  them  easy  in  their  paces,  but  they  do  not  usually 
display  much  blood,  nor  are  they  celebrated  for  endurance.  If  they  should 
have  white  fore-legs,  with  white  hoofs,  they  are  too  often  tender-footed,  or 
become  so  with  even  a  little  hard  work. 

The  strawberry  horse  is  a  mixture  of  sorrel  with  white;  usually  hand- 
some and  pleasant,  but  more  celebrated  for  these  qualities  than  for  strength 
and  endurance. 

The  pied  iiorse  is  one  that  has  distinct  spots  or  patches  of  different 
colours,  but  almost  invariably  of  white  with  some  other  colour.  They  are 
not  liked  as  hackneys,  on  account  of  their  peculiarity  of  colour,  nor  in 
teams  of  horses;  but  they  look  well  when  tolerably  matched  io  a  phaeton 
or  light  carriage.  Their  value  must  depend  on  their  breed  ;  but  of  them- 
selves  they  have  no  peculiar  character,  except  that  a  white  leg  and  foot  is 
as  suspicious  in  them  as  it  is  in  the  roan. 

The  dun,  of  the  Galloway  size,  and  with  considerable  blood,  is  often 
attached  to  the  curricle  or  the  phaeton;  but  the  larger  is  a  true  farmer's 
or  miller's  horse,  with  no  great  speed,  and  not  always  extraordinary 
strength,  and  sometimes  a  little  of  a  drone,  yet  a  good-tempered,  good- 
feeding,  good-constitutioned,  useful  horse  enough.  Varieties  of  the  dun, 
shaded  with  a  darker  colour,  or  dappled,  and  with  some  breeding,  and  not 
standing  too  high,  are  very  beautiful,  and  are  sought  after  for  light-carriages, 
and  particularly  for  ladies  to  drive. 

The  cream-colour  of  Hanoverian  extraction,  with  his  white  iris  and  red 
pupil,  is  appropriated  to  royal  use.  Atttached  to  the  state-carriage  of  the 
monarch,  he  is  a  superb  animal.  His  bulky,  yet  perfectly-formed  body, 
his  swellnig  crest,  and  his  proud  and  lofty  action,  as  if  conscious  of  his 
office,  qualify  him  for  the  service  which  is  exacted  from  him,  but  we  have 
no  ex-perience  how  far  he  would  suit  other  purposes. 

Of  the  chesnuts  there  are  three  varieties — the  lightest  red  or  the 
sorrel,  usually  with  white  about  them,  either  on  the  face  or  the  legs — • 
generally  lightly  made,  yet  some  of  them  bulky  enough  for  the  licaviest 
loads.  Their  colour  is  generally  considered  objectionable.  Many  of  them 
nave  no  breeding  at  all,  and  the  best  bred  are  supposed  to  be  somewliat 
deficient  in  endurance. 

The  light  chesnut,  with  less  red  and  a  little  more  bay  or  brown,  is  con- 
sidered as  a  preferable  horse,  especially  if  he  has  no  white  about  him,  or 
only  a  small  portion  of  it;  yet  even  he,  although  pleasant  to  ride,  is  some. 


COLOUR.  jrj 

aines  (rri'anle,  and  generally  weak.  We  must  except  one  rariety,  the 
Suffolk  punch;  a  heavy  horse,  and  adapted  for  slow  work,  but  perfect  in 
his  kini:,  which  no  labour  can  daunt,  no  fatigue  overcome.  This  is  a  breed 
now,  unibrtuuately,  nearly  extinct.  The  present  variety,  however  crossed, 
is  not  equal  to  the  old  Suiiblk. 

The  dark-chesnut  is  as  different  a  horse  from  the  hackney  light-chesnut 
as  can  be  easily  imagined;  round  in  the  carcase,  powerful  in  the  quarters 
but  rather  fine  in  the  legs:  possessed  of  great  endurance,  and  with  a  con 
stilution  that  rarely  knows  an  ailment,  except  that  the  feet  are  small,  and 
disposed  to  contraction,  and  that  accompanied  by  lameness,  and  that  tht 
horse  is  too  often  of  a  hot  and  unmanageable  temper. 

Of  the  bays,  there  are  many  varieties,  and  they  include  the  very  best  of 
our  horses  of  every  description.  The  bright  yellow  bay,  although  very 
beautiful,  and  especially  if  his  mane  and  tail  are  black,  is  the  least  valuable, 
because  the  lightness  of  his  colour  seems  to  give  him  some  tenderness  of 
constitution.  The  proper  bay,  with  no  white  about  him,  and  black  from 
the  knees  and  the  hocks  to  the  feet,  is  the  most  desirable  of  all  colours; 
he  has  generally  a  good  constitution,  naturally  good  feet,  and  if  his  conforma- 
tion is  not  faulty,  will  turn  out  a  valuable  horse  for  almost  every  purpose. 

As  we  approach  to  the  brown,  we  find  in  the  bay- brown  not  always  so 
much  show  and  action,  but  more  strength  and  endurance,  and  more  use- 
fulness. He  usually  has  more  substance  than  the  lighter  bay,  and  more 
depth  of  leg  ;  and,  could  we  find  the  same  degree  of  breeding,  he  wouk' 
be  as  handsome,  and  more  valuable.  A  good  bay-brown  or  a  brown  horse, 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  blood,  is  indeed  a  good  horse. 

When,  however,  we  arrive  at  the  browns,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the 
degree  of  breeding.  This  colour  is  not  so  fashionable,  and  therefore  these 
horses  have  been  considerably  neglected.  There  are  many  good  ones,  and' 
those  that  are  good  are  valuable;  but  many  of  them  are  only  a  half  or 
a  quarter  bred,  and  therefore  comparatively  coarse,  yet  useful  for  the 
saddle  and  for  harness,  for  slow  work,  and  occasionally  for  that  which  is 
more  rapid. 

The  black-brown  is  generally  more  neglected  so  far  as  its  breed  la 
concerned,  and  deserves  to  be  examined  more  carefully.  It  frequently,, 
however,  retains  much  of  the  goodness  of  constitution  of  the  brown  and' 
bay-brown. 

Of  the  black  greater  care  has  been  taken.  The  heavy  black  of  Lincoln- 
shire and  the  midland  counties,  is  a  noble  animal,  and  would  be  almost, 
beyond  price  if  he  could  be  rendered  more  active.  The  next  in  size  form, 
the  majority  of  our  waggon-horses,  and  perhaps  our  best;  and  on  a. 
smaller  breed  still,  and  to  the  improvement  of  which  much  attention  has 
been  devoted,  many  of  our  cavalry  are  mounted.  A  few  black  thorough- 
bred horses  and  black  hunters  have  been  seen,  but  the  improvement  of 
horses  of  this  colour  has  not  been  studied,  except  for  the  purposes  that 
have  been  mentioned.  Their  peculiar  high  action,  while  not  unobjectionable 
for  draught,  and  desirable  for  the  parade,  would  be  unbearable  in  the 
roadster,  and  some  have  said,' that  black  horses  are  more  subject  to  vice, 
disease,  and  blindness,  than  any  other  colour.  This  charge  is  not,  perhaps,, 
true  to  its  full  extent,  but  there  certainly  are  a  great  many  worthless  black 
horses  in  every  part  of  the  country. 

After  all,  there  is  an  old  saying,  that  a  good  horse  cannot  be  of  a  bad' 
colour;  and  it  is  far  more  necessary  to  attend  to  the  conformation  and 
points  of  the  horse  than  to  his  colour.  These  observations,  however, 
although  they  admit  of  many  exceptions,  may  be  useful  in  guiding  to  the 
judicious  purchase  of  t  e  horse. 
Bb 


378  THE  HORSE. 


SURFEIT. 


Large  pimples  or  lumps  often  suddenly  appear  on  tlie  skin  of  the 
norse,  aid  especially  in  the  spring;  and  occasionally  they  disappear  as 
quickly  as  they  came.  Sometimes  they  seem  to  be  attended  with  great 
itching,  but  at  others  they  appear  not  in  the  least  to  annoy  the  animal. 
When  they  have  remained  a  lew  days,  the  cuticle  frequently  peels  oft",  and 
a  small  scaly  spot,  though  rarely  a  sore,  is  left.  This  is  called  a  surfeit, 
from  its  resemblance  to  some  eruptions  on  the  skin  of  the  human  being,  when 
indigestible  or  unwholesome  food  has  been  taken.  These  lumps  are  in 
some  cases  confined  to  the  neck;  but  they  oftener  spread  over  the  sides, 
back,  loins,  and  quarters.  The  cause  is  enveloped  in  some  obscurity. 
The  disease  most  frequently  appears  when  the  skin  is  irritable,  during  or 
after  the  process  of  moulting,  and  when  it  sympathizes  most  with  any  dis- 
order of  the  stomach;  therefore,  some  veterinary  surgeons  have  attributed 
it  to  indigestion.  It  has  been  known  to  follow  the  eating  of  poisonous 
herbs  or  mowburnt  hay,  but  much  oftener  it  is  to  be  traced  to  exposure  to 
cold  when  the  skin  was  previously  irritable  and  the  horse  heated  by  exercise; 
it  has  also  been  attributed  to  the  immoderate  drinking  of  cold  water  when 
the  animal  was  hot.  It  is  obstruction  of  some  of  the  pores  of  the  skin  and 
swelling  of  the  surrounding  substance,  either  from  primary  affection  of  tlie 
skin,  or  from  its  sympathy  with  the  digestive  organs. 

Bleeding  will  always  be  beneficial — from  three  to  five  quarts  may  be 
taken,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  horse,  the  extent  of  the  eruption, 
and  the  degree  of  fever.  Physic  never  does  good.  If  surfeit  be  con- 
nected with  some  unhealthy  affection  of  the  stomach  or  intestines,  it  is 
that  which  the  nausea  or  subsequent  action  of  the  purgative  increases. 
Alteratives  will  be  found  useful — and  particularly  the  alterative  which  was 
recommended  for  hide-bound  (p.  371),  and  in  the  same  doses.  These 
should  be  given  on  several  successive  nights.  The  night  is  better  than 
the  morning,  because  the  warmth  of  the  stable  will  cause  the  antimony 
and  sulphur  to  act  more  powerfully  on  the  skin.  The  horse  should  be 
warmly  clothed — half  an  hour's  walking  exercise  should  be  given,  an 
additional  rug  having  been  thrown  over  him — such  green  meat  as  can  be 
procured  should  be  used  in  moderate  quantities,  and  the  chill  should  be 
taken  from  the  water. 

Although  the  eruption  may  disappear  after  the  bleeding,  and  that  very 
quickly,  it  will,  if  the  horse  be  exposed  to  cold,  come  out  again  as  suddenly, 
and  as  extensively  as  before.  It  will  rarely,  however,  be  advisable  to 
repeat  the  bleeding. 

Should  the  lumps,  after  several  of  these  alternate  appearances  and  dis- 
appearances, remain,  and  the  cuticle  and  the  hair  begin  extensively  to  peel 
off,  a  worse  affection  is  to  be  feared,  for  it  is  far  from  unusual  for  surfeit 
to  precede  or  degenerate  into  mange.  The  disorder,  therefore,  shall  next 
oe  considered. 

MANGE 

Is  a  pimpled  or  lumpy  eruption.  After  a  while  the  vesicle  breaks,  the 
cuticle  and  the  hair  fall  off,  and  there  is,  as  in  obstinate  surfeit,  a  bare 
epot  left  covered  with  scurf;  but  some  fluid  oozes  from  the  skin  beneath, 
and  this  scurfiness  changes  to  a  scab,  which  likewise  soon  peels  '"fC,  and 
leaves  a  wider  spot:  sometimes  another  scab  succeeds  to  the  first,  but 
oftener,  a  mere  scaly,  greasy-feeling,  bare  spot  remains.  '1  his  is  attended 
with  considerable  itching  and  tenderness,  and  thickening  of  the  skh\,  M'hich 


MANGE.  379 

soon  becomes  more  or  less  folded  or  puckered.  The  mange  generally  firsl 
appears  on  the  neck,  at  the  root  of  the  mane,  and  its  existence  may  he 
pretty  truly  ascertained,  even  befoi'e  the  blotches  appear,  and  when  there 
is  only  considerable  itchiness  of  the  part,  by  the  ease  with  whicli  the  short 
hair  at  the  root  of  the  mane  is  plucked  out.  From  the  neck  it  spreads 
upward  to  the  head,  or  downward  to  the  withers  and  back,  and  occasionally 
extends  over  the  whole  carcase  of  the  horse. 

One  cause  of  it,  altliough  an  unfrequent  one,  has  been  stated  to  be  neg- 
lected  or  inveterate  surfeit.  The  more  common  cause  is  contagion.  Amid 
the  whole  list  of  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is  exposed,  there  is  not  one 
more  liighly  contagious  tiian  mange.  If  it  once  gets  into  a  stable,  it  spreads 
through  it,"  for  the'slightest  contact  seems  to  be  sufficient  for  the  communi- 
cation of  this  noisome  complaint. 

If  the  same  brush  or  currycomb  be  used  on  all  the  horses,  the  propaga- 
tion of  mange  is  assured;  and  horses  feeding  in  the  same  pasture  with  a 
mangy  one  rarely  escape,  from  the  propensity  they  have  to  nibble  one  another. 
Man<'-e  in  cattle  has  been  propagated  to  the  horse,  and  from  the  horse  to 
cattle,  but  there  is  no  authenticated  instance  of  the  same  disease  in  the 
dog  being  communicated  to  the  horse.  There  is  as  much  difference  in  the 
character  and  appearance  of  mange  in  the  horse  and  dog,  as  between 
either  of  them  and  the  itch  in  the  human  subject;  and  the  itch  has  never 
been  communicated  to  the  quadruped,  nor  the  mange  of  the  quadruped  to 
the  human  being. 

Mange  has  been  said  to  originate  in  want  of  cleanliness  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  stable.  The  comfort  and  health  of  the  horse  demand  the 
strictest  cleanliness.  The  eyes  and  the  lungs  frequently  suffer  from  the 
noxious  fumes  of  the  putrefying  dung  and  urine;  but,  in  defiance  of  com- 
mon prejudice,  there  is  no  authentic  instance  of  mange  being  the  result. 
It  may,  however,  proceed  from  poverty.  When  the  animal  is  half-starved, 
and  the  functions  of  digestion  and  the  powers  of  the  constitution  are 
weakened,  we  have  seen,  in  the  cases  of  hide-bound  and  surfeit,  that  the 
skin  soon  sympathizes,  and  we  can  imagine  that  mange  may  occasionally 
be  produced  instead  of  surfeit  and  hide-bound.  Every  farmer  has  proof 
enough  of  this  being  the  case.  If  a  horse  is  turned  on  a  common,  where 
there  is  scarcely  sutficient  herbage  to  sutisfy  his  appetite,  or  if  he  is  placed 
in  one  of  those  straw-yards,  which  under  the  management  of  mercenary 
and  unfeeling  men,  are  the  very  abodes  of  misery,  the  animal  comes  up  a 
skeleton,  and  he  comes  up  mangy  too.  Poverty  and  starvation  are  fruitful 
sources  of  mange,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  tilth  has  much  to  do  with  it, 
although  poverty  and  filth  generally  go  hand  in  hand. 

The  propriety  of  bleeding  in  cases  of  mange  must  depend  on  the  con- 
dition of  tlie  patient.  If  niange  be  the  result  of  poverty,  and  the  animal 
is  much  debilitated,  bleeding  will  be  adding  power  to  the  cause  of  the  disease. 
Physic,  however,  is  indispensable.  It  is  the  first  step  in  the  progress  towards 
cure.  A  mercurial  ball  will  be  preferable  to  a  common  aloetic  one,  as 
more  certain  and  effectual  in  its  operation,  and  the  mercury  having  probably 
some  influence  in  mitigating  the  disease.  In  this,  however,  mange  in  the 
horse  resembles  the  itch  in  the  human  being — that  medicine  alone  will 
never  effect  a  cure.  There  must  be  some  local  application.  There  is  this 
further  similarity,  that  that  which  is  most  effectual  in  curing  this  disgrace- 
ful complaint  in  man,  must  form  the  basis  of  every  local  apj)lication  as  it 
regards  the  horse.  Sulphur  is  indispensable  in  every  unguent  for  mange; 
it  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

Tn  an  earlv,  and  not  very  acute  state  of  mange,  one  ounce  of  the  flowers 
•f  sulphur,  snoi  dd   be  well   rubbed  down  with  an  equal  quantity  of  tra.n 


380  THE  HORSE. 

^■hI,  and  iiaH  i  n  ounce  of  common  turpentine.  Farriers  are  fond  of  the 
lilack  sulphur,  but  that  wiiich  consists  of  eartiiy  matter,  with  the  mere 
dregs  of  the  sulj^hur,  cannot  be  so  etTectual  as  the  flowers,  which  are  pure 
sublimed  sulphur.  A  tolerably  stout  brush,  or  even  a  currycomb,  lightlv 
appl'ed,  should  be  used  wherever  there  is  any  appearance  of  mange,  to 
remove  the  dandriffor  scurf.  After  that,  the  horse  should  be  washed  with 
strong  soap  and  water  as  far  as  the  disease  has  extended;  and  when  he  has 
been  thoroughly  dried,  the  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  in  with  the 
naked  hand,  or  with  a  piece  of  flannel.  More  good  will  be  done  by  a  little 
of  the  ointment  being  well  rubbed  in,  than  by  a  great  deal  being  merely 
smeared  over  the  part.  The  rubbing  should  be  daily  repeated.  The  sul- 
phur seems  to  have  a  direct  influence  on  the  disease — the  turpentine  has  an 
indirect  one,  by  exciting  some  irritation  on  the  skin  of  a  different  nature  to 
that  produced  by  the  mange,  and  under  the  influence  of  which  the  irrita- 
tion of  mange  will  be  diminished,  and  the  disease  more  easily  combated. 
During  the  application  of  the  ointment,  as  soon  as  the  physic  has  set, 
an  alterative  ball  or  powder  similar  to  those  recommended  for  the  other 
affections  of  the  skin,  should  be  daily  given.  If,  after  some  days  have 
passed,  no  progress  should  appear  to  have  been  made,  half  a  pound  of  sulphur 
may  be  well  mixed  with  a  pint  of  oil  of  tar,  or,  if  that  is  not  to  be  obtained,  a 
pint  of  Barbadoes  tar,  and  the  affected  parts  rubbed  as  before.  On  every 
fifth  or  sixth  day  the  ointment  should  be  washed  off"  with  warm  soap  and 
water.  The  progress  towards  cure  will  be  ascertained;  the  skin  will  be 
cleansed,  and  its  pores  opened,  for  the  more  effectual  application  of 
the  ointment. 

The  horse  should  be  well  supplied  with  nourishing,  but  not  stimulating 
food.  As  much  green  meat  as  he  will  eat  should  be  given  him,  or,  what 
is  far  better,  he  should  be  turned  out,  if  the  weather  is  not  too  cold.  It 
may  be  useful  to  add,  that,  after  the  horse  has  been  once  well  dressed 
with  either  of  these  liniments,  the  danger  of  contagion  ceases.  It  is 
necessary,  however,  to  be  assured  that  every  mangy  place  has  been 
anointed. 

It  will  be  prudent  to  give  two  or  three  dressings  after  the  horse  has  been 
cured  apparently,  and  to  continue  the  alteratives  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 
The  cure  being  completed,  the  clothing  of  the  horse  should  be  well  soaked 
in  water,  to  which  a  fortieth  part  of  the  saturated  solution  of  the  chloride 
of  lime  has  been  added ;  after  which,  it  should  be  washed  with  soap  and 
water,  and  again  washed  and  soaked  in  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime, 
as  before.  Every  part  of  the  harness  should  undergo  a  similar  purifica- 
tion. The  currycomb  may  be  scoured,  but  the  brush  should  be  burnt. 
The  rack,  and  manger,  and  partitions,  and  every  part  of  tlie  stable  which 
the  horse  could  possibly  have  touched,  should  be  well  washed  with  a  hair 
broom,  a  pint  of  the  chloride  of  lime  being  added  to  three  gallons  of 
water.  All  the  wood-work  should  then  be  scoured  with  soap  and  water, 
after  which  a  second  washing  with  the  chloride  of  lime  and  water  will 
render  all  secure.  Some  farmers  have  pulled  down  their  stables  when  they 
have  been  thoroughly  infected  with  mange.  This  is  being  unnecessarily 
cautious.  The  efficacy  of  the  chloride  of  lime  was  not  then  known:  and 
if  it  is  carefully  and  sufficiently  applied  to  every  part  of  the  stable  and  its 
furniture,  there  cannot  afterwards   be  danger. 

Every  case  of  itchiness  of  the  skin  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 
When  the  horse  is  seen  to  rub  the  root  of  his  tail,  or  his  head  or  neck, 
against  the  manger,  the  parts  should  be  carefully  examined.  Some  of  the 
hair  may  have  been  rubbed  or  torn  off",  but  if  the  roots  remain  firmiy 
adherent,  and  tb  ;re  be  only  redness  and  not  scurfiness  of  the  skin,  it  prob- 


MEDICINES.  381 

ably  is  not  mange,  but  only  inflammation  of  the  skin,  from  too  great 
fullness  of  blood.  A  little  blood  should  be  taken  away — a  purgative 
administered,  and  the  alteratives  given.  The  mange  ointment  cannot  do 
harm,  and  may  possibly  prevent  this  heat  of  the  skin  from  degenerating  into 
mange,  or  stop  the  progress  of  mange,  if  it  has  commenced.  If  a  scurli. 
ness  of  skin  should  appear  on  any  of  tlie  points  that  are  pressed  upon  by 
the  collar  or  harness,  the  veterinary  surgeon  will  do  right  to  guard  against 
danger,  by  alterative  medicine  and  the  use  of  tlie  ointment. 

WARTS 

These  are  tumours  of  variable  size,  arising  first  from  the  cuticle,  and 
afterward?  connected  with  the  true  skin  by  means  of  the  vessels  which 
supply  the  growth  of  tlie  tumours.  They  are  found  sometimes  on  the  eye- 
lids, on  various  parts  of  the  skin,  and  on  the  prepuce.  They  must  be 
removed  by  an  operation.  If  the  root  be  very  small,  it  may  be  snipped 
asunder  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  close  to  the  skin,  and  the  root  touched  with 
the  lunar  caustic.  If  the  pedicle  or  stem  be  somewhat  larger,  a  ligature 
of  waxed  silk  may  be  passed  firmly  round  it,  and  tightened  every  day. 
The  source  of  nutriment  being  thus  cut  olf,  the  tumour  will,  in  a  few  days, 
die  and  drop  off.  If  they  are  large,  or  in  considerable  clusters,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  cast  the  horse,  to  cut  them  off  close  to  the  skin,  and  sear  the 
root  with  a  red-hot  iron.  Unless  these  precautions  are  used,  the  warts  will 
speedily  sprout  again. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 


A  LIST   OF   THE   MEDICINES   USED  IN   THE  TREATMENT  OF  THE 
DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

He  vvill  rarely  consult  his  own  interest,  who,  not  having  had  the 
advantage  of  a  veterinary  education,  undertakes  the  treatment  of  any  of 
the  serious  diseases  of  his  horses.  Many  of  the  maladies  of  the  horse  so 
nearly  resemble  each  other — and  are  so  continually  varying  their  character, 
and  require,  in  tlieir  different  stages,  so  different  a  treatment;  and  in  the 
plainest  case,  not  only  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  disease  are  obscure, 
i)ut  even  the  indications  of  returning  health,  or  increasing  danger,  often 
scarcely  ascertainable — so  that  the  sick  horse,  as  well  as  the  human  being, 
needs  the  care  of  one  whom  study  and  experience  have  qualified  for  the 
task.  A  list,  however,  of  the  drugs  generally  used,  with  a  slight  account 
of  their  history,  adulterations,  and  medicinal  effects,  will  be  interesting  to 
the  horse-proprietor  as  well  as  to  the  veterinary  surgeon ;  and  may  occa- 
sionally be  useful  when  professional  aid  cannot  be  obtained. 

Aloes. — There  are  two  kinds  used  in  horse  practice,  the  Barbadoes  and 
the  Cape.  The  Socotorine,  preferred  by  the  human  surgeon,  are  very 
uncertain  in  their  efi'ect  on  the  horse.  Of  the  Barbadoes  and  the  Cape,  the 
first  are  much  to  be  preferred.  The  Barbadoes  aloes  are  obtained  princi- 
pally from  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  and  are  the  juice  of  the  large  leaves 
of  the  aloe  boiled  to  a  considerable  thickness,  and  then  poured  into  gourds, 
in  which  they  gradually  harden.  The  true  Cape  is  the  extract  of  a 
ppecies  of  aloes  chiefly  cultivated  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tlie 
Socotorine    aloes    are   of    a    brown    colour,   inclining  to    red,  at  A   brittle. 


382  THE  HORSE. 

Tlie  BuoaJoes  aloes  are  black,  with  a  shade  of  brown,  of  an  unctuous 
feeling,  wiii  a  stronger  smell,  broken  with  difficulty,  and  the  fracture  dull. 
The  Cape  are  darker  coloured,  stronger  smelling,  very  brittle,  and  the 
fracture  pei'feclly  glossy.  Every  person  who  uses  much  aloes  should  buy 
them  in  the  mass,  and  powder  them  himself,  and  then,  by  attending  to 
this  account  of  the  diflerence  of  the  three,  he  can  scarcely  be  imposed 
upon.  Aloes  purchased  in  powder  are  too  often  sadly  adulterated.  The 
Cape  may  be  powdered  at  all  times,  and  the  Barbadoes  in  frosty  weathei 
when  enough  may  be  prepared,  to  be  kept  in  closed  bottles,  for  the  year's 
consumption.  They  may  also  be  powdered  when  they  have  been  taken 
from  tlie  gourd,  and  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat  for  two  or  three  hours  before 
they  are  put  into  the  mortar.  Fifteen  ounces  of  the  powder,  mixed  with 
one  ounce  of  powdered  ginger,  and  beaten  up  with  eight  ounces  of  palm 
oil,  and  afterwards  divided  into  the  proper  doses,  will  form  a  purging  mass 
more  effectual,  and  much  less  likely  to  gripe,  than  any  that  can  be  procured 
by  melting  the  drug.  If  the  physic  is  given  in  the  shape  of  ball,  it  more 
readily  dissolves  in  the  stomach,  and  more  certainly  and  safely  acts  on  the 
bowels  when  made  up  with  some  oily  matter,  like  that  just  recommended, 
than  when  combined  with  syrup  or  honey,  which  are  apt  to  ferment,  and  be 
themselves  the  cause  of  gripes.  It  is  also  worse  than  useless  to  add  any 
diuretic  to  the  mass,  as  soap,  or  carbonate  of  soda.  The  action  of  these 
on  one  set  of  organs  will  weaken  the  action  of  the  aloes  on  another.  A 
physic  mass  should  never  be  kept  more  than  two  or  three  months,  for  after 
that  time  it  rapidly  loses  its  purgative  property. 

Directions  for  physicking  will  be  found  at  p.  210.  We  will  only  add 
that,  as  a  promoter  of  condition,  the  dose  should  always  be  mild.  A  few 
fluid  stools  will  be  sufficient  for  every  good  purpose.  Violent  disease  will 
alone  justify  violent  purging. 

Three  drachms  of  Barbadoes  aloes  will  have  as  much  purgative  power 
as  four  of  the  Cape,  exclusive  of  griping  less  and  being  safer.  If  the 
horse  is  well  mashed,  and  carefully  exercised,  and  will  drink  plenty  of  warm 
water,  the  Cape  may  be  ventured  on,  or  at  least  mixed  with  equal  quantities 
of  the  Barbadoes;  but  if  there  be  any  neglect  of  preparation  for  physic,  or 
during  the  usual  operation  of  the  physic,  the  Cape  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon,  and  may  be  dangerous. 

Some  persons  are  fond  of  what  are  called  half-doses  of  physic.  Three 
or  four  drachms -are  given  in  one  day,  and  three  or  four  on  the  following, 
and  perhaps,  if  the  medicine  has  operated,  as  in  this  divided  state  it  will 
not  always,  two  or  three  additional  drachms  are  given  on  the  third  day 
The  consequence  is*,  that  the  bowels  having  been  rendered  irritable  by  the 
former  doses,  the  horse  is  over-purged,  and  inflammation,  and  death  no' 
unfrequently  ensue,  when  the  effect  of  the  three  becomes  combined.  In 
physicking  a  horse,  whatever  is  to  be  done,  should  be  done  at  once.  What- 
ever  quantity  is  intended  to  be  given,  should  be  given  in  one  dose. 

The  system  of  giving  small  doses  of  alo(;s  as  alteratives  is  not  good 
These  repeated  small  doses  lodging  in  some  of  the  folds  of  the  intestines. 
and  at  length  uniting,  often  produce  more  effect  than  is  desirable;  and  il 
is  never  safe  to  ride  a  horse  far  or  fast,  with  even  a  small  dose  of  aloes 
within  him. 

Most  of  all  objectionable  is  the  custom  of  giving  small  dosps  of  aloes  a.^^ 
a  nauseant,  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  There  is  so  much  sympathy 
between  the  contents  of  the  chest  and  the  belly  of  the  horse,  and  inflam- 
mation of  one  part  is  so  likely  to  be  transferred  to  another,  that  it  is  tread- 
ing  on  very  dangerous  ground,  when,  with  much  inflammation  of  the  lun^s, 
that  is  given  which  will  stimulate  and  may  inflar^e  the  intestines. 


MEDICINES.  38Jk 

Aloe's  are  most  commonly,  because  most  easily,  administered  in  ilie 
form  of  ball,  but  in  a  state  of  solution  their  effect  is  more  speedy,  effect, 
ual,  and  safe.  Two  ounces  of  aloes,  and  one  ounce  of  gum  (to  suspend 
the  imperfectly  dissolved  portion  of  the  aloes),  are  put  into  a  pmt  of 
boiling  water,  and  the  mixture  frequently  stirred.  When  it  is  cold,  two 
ounces  of  tincture  are  added,  as  an  aromatic,  to  prevent  the  griping  of  the 
aloes,  and  also  to  keep  the  mixture  from  fermenting.  The  aloes  must  not 
be  boiled  in  the  water;  even  five  minutes'  boiling  would  take  away  much 
of  the  purgative  effect  of  the  drug.  The  dose  of  the  solution  should  vary 
from  six  to  eight  ounces. 

Aloes  are  useful  in  the  form  of  tincture.  Eight  ounces  of  powdered 
aloes,  and  one  ounce  of  powdered  myrrh,  should  be  put  into  two  quarts  o""' 
rectified  spirit,  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water.  The  mixture 
sliould  be  daily  well  shaken  for  a  fortnight,  and  then  suffered  to  stand, 
that  the  undissolved  portion  may  fall  to  the  bottom.  This  will  constitute 
a  very  excellent  application  for  wounds,  whether  recent  or  of  long  standing, 
and  indisposed  to  heal.  It  is  not  only  a  gentle  stimulant,  but  it  forms  a 
thin  crust  over  the  wound,  and  shields  it  from  the  action  of  the  air. 

The  principal  adulteration  of  aloes  is  by  means  of  resin,  and  the  altera 
tion  of  colour  is  concealed  by  the  addition  of  charcoal,  or  lamp  black. 
This  adulteration  is  easily  enough  detected,  by  dissolving  the  aloes  in  hot 
water.  All  aloes  contain  some  resinous  matter,  which  the  water  will  not 
dissolve,  and  which  has  a  very  slight  purgative  effect.  The  excess  of  this 
resin  at  the  bottom  of  the  solution  will  mark  the  degree  of  adulteration. 

Alteratives  are  a  class  of  medicines  the  nature  and  effect  of  wnich  are 
much  misunderslood,  and  which  are  liable  to  much  abuse.  It  is  a  very  con- 
venient  name  to  excuse  that  propensity  to  dose  the  horse  with  medicines, 
which  is  the  disgrace  of  the  groom  and  the  bane  of  the  stable.  By  alteratives 
we  understand  those  drugs  which  effect  some  slow  change  in  the  diseased 
action  of  certain  parts  without  interfering  with  the  food  or  work  ;  but  by 
common  consent  the  term  seems  to  be  confined  to  medicines  for  the 
diseases  of  the  circulation,  or  of  the  digestive  organs,  or  of  the  skin. 
If  a  horse  is  heavy  and  incapable  of  work  from  too  good  keep,  or  if 
he  is  off  his  food  from  some  temporary  indigestion — or  if  he  has  mange 
or  grease,  or  cracked  heels,  or  swelled  legs,  a  few  alteratives  are  pre. 
scribed,  and  the  complaint  is  gradually  and  imperceptibly  removed. 
For  all  skin  affections  there  is  no  better  alterative  than  that  so  often 
recommended  in  this  treatise,  consisting  of  black  antimony,  nitre,  and 
sulphur.  If  there  is  any  tendency  to  grease,  two  drachms  of  resin  may  be 
added  to  each  ball.  If  the  complaint  be  accompanied  by  weakness,  a 
little  gentian  and  ginger  may  be  further  added,  but  we  enter  our  protest 
against  the  ignorant  use,  and  almost  against  the  use  in  the  most  skilful 
hands,  of  mercury  in  any  form,  or  any  of  the  mineral  acids  or  mineral 
tonics,  or  heating  spices  as  alteratives.  We  indeed  should  be  pleased  if 
we  could  banish  the  term  alterative  altogether.  The  mode  of  proceeding 
which  reason  and  science  would  dictate  is  to  ascertain  the  nature  and 
degree  of  the  disease,  and  then  the  medicine  which  is  calculated  to  restore 
the  healthy  action  of  the  part,  or,  of  the  frame  generally. 

Alu3I  is  occasionally  used  internally  in  cases  of  super-purgation  in 
the  form  of  alum-whey,  two  drachms  of  the  powder  being  added  to  a  pint 
of  hot  milk;  but  there  are  much  better  astringents,  although  this  may 
succeed  when  others  fail.  If  alum  is  added  to  a  vegetable  astringent,  as 
oak-bark,  the  power  of  both  is  diminished.  Its  principal  use  is  external. 
A  solution  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint  of  water  forms  alone,  or  with  a 
scruple  of  white  vitriol,  a  very  useful  wash  for  cracked    heels,  and  for 


384 


THE  HORSE. 


grease  generally ;  and  also  tor  those  forms  of  swelled  legs  attended  with 
exudation  of  moisture  through  the  skin.  Some  add  the  Goulard  lotion, 
forgetting  the  chemical  decomposition  that  takes  place;  the  result  of  which 
is,  that  the  alumine,  possessing  little  aslringency,  is  detached,  and  two 
salts  with  no  astringency  at  all,  the  sulphate  of  lead,  and  the  sulphate  of 
Dotash,  are  formed. 

The  Burnt  Alum  is  inferior  to  the  common  alum  for  the  purposes  men- 
.ioned,  and  we  have  better  stimulants,  or  caustics,  to  apply  to  wounds. 

Ammonia  is,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  horse,  and  the  injury  of  his  eyes 
and  his  lungs,  plentifully  extricated  from  the  putrefying  dung  and  urine  of 
the  stable;  but  when  combined  with  water  in  the  common  form  of  harts- 
horn, it  is  seldom  used  in  veterinary  practice.  It  has  been  given,  and  with 
decided  benefit,  and  when  other  things  have  failed,  in  flatulent  colic;  and 
is  best  administered  in  the  form  of  the  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  and  in 
doses  of  one  or  two  ounces,  in  warm  water. 

Chloride  of  Abimonia,  or  sal  ammoniac  is  scarcely  deserving  of  a 
place  in  our  list.  It  is  not  now  used  internally ;  and  as  an  astringent 
embrocation,  it  must  yield  to  several  that  are  more  effectual,  and  less 
likely  to  blemish. 

Anodynes. — Of  these  there  is  but  one  in  horse  practice.  Opium  is  the 
only  drug  that  will  lull  pain.  It  may  be  given  as  an  anodyne,  but  it  will 
also  be  an  astringent  in  doses  of  one,  two,  or  three  drachms. 

Antimony. — There  are  several  valuable  preparations  of  this  metal. 

The  Black  Sulphuret  of  Antimony,  a  compound  of  sulphur  and 
antimony,  is  a  good  alterative.  It  is  given  with  more  sulphur  and  with 
nitre,  in  varying  doses,  according  to  the  disease  and  the  slow  or  rapid 
effect  intended  to  be  produced.  The  maximum  dose,  and  especially  if  it 
is  to  be  continued,  should  not  exceed  four  drachms.  It  should  never  be 
bought  in  powder,  whatever  trouble  there  may  be  in  levigating  it,  for 
it  is  often  grossly  adulterated  with  lead,  manganese,  forge-dust,  and 
arsenic.  The  adulteration  may  be  detected  by  placing  a  little  of  the 
powder  on  a  red-hot  iron  plate.  The  pure  sulphuret  will  evaporate 
without  the  slightest  residue — so  will  the  arsenic,  but  there  will  be  an 
evident  smell  of  garlic;  a  portion  of  the  lead  and  the  manganese  will  be 
left  behind. 

Emetic  Tartar — the  tartrate  of  potash  and  antimony,  or  a  combination 
of  super-tartrate  of  potash  and  oxide  of  antimony,  is  a  very  useful  nauseant, 
and  has  considerable  effect  on  the  skin.  It  is  particularly  valuable  in 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  in  every  catarrhal  affection.  It  is  given  in 
doses  of  one  drachm,  or  one  drachm  and  a  half,  and  combined  with  nitre 
and  digitalis.  It  is  also  beneficial  in  the  expulsion  of  worms.  Here  it 
must  be  given  in  doses  of  two  drachms,  and  with  some  mechanical 
vermifuge,  as  tin-filings,  or  ground-glass,  and  administered  on  an  empty 
stomacli,  and  for  several  successive  days.  Although  it  may  sometimes 
fail  to  expel  the  worm,  it  materially  improves  the  condition  of  the  horse, 
and  produces  sleekness  of  the  coat.  To  a  slight  degree  the  emetic 
tartar  is  decomposed  by  the  action  of  light,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  jar, 
or  green  bottle.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  arsenic,  which  is  detected 
by  the  garlic  smell  when  it  is  placed  on  hot  iron,  and  also  by  its  not  giving 
a  beautiful  gold-coloured  precipitate  when  sulphuret  of  ammonia  is  added 
to  a  solution  of  it. 

Antimonial  Powder — Powder  of  oxide  of  antimony,  with  phosphate  of 
lime.  This  is  the  factitious  James's  powder,  and  is  used  as  a  yub^titute 
for  that  medicine  in  many  diseases  of  a  febrile  character.  The  dose  is 
from  one  to  two  drachms.     The  late  Mr.  Bloxam  used  to  trus'  to  it  alone 


MEDICINES.  385 

in  the  treatment  of  epidemic  catarrh  in  the  horse,  and  he  was  very  suc- 
cessful. It  is,  however,  decidedly  inferior  to  the  emetic  tartar.  This,  too, 
is  adulterated  with  chalk,  and  plaster  of  Paris,  and  burnt  bones,  and  other 
white  powders,  and  that  to  so  shameful  a  degree,  that  little  dependence  cart* 
be  placed  on  the  antimonial  powder  usually  sold  by  druggists.  Muriatic 
or  sulphuric  acid  will  detect  most  of  these  adulterations. 

Chloride  of  antimony  is  formed  by  distilling  corrosive  sublimate  with 
antimony.  The  butter-like  matter  which  is  produced  (whence  the  common 
name,  Buiyr  of  Antimony)  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  which  h  attracts 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  becomes  converted  into  a  fluid.  The 
h^ss  water  it  is  sutTered  to  attract  to  itself,  the  more  powerful  it  remains, 
and  therefore  it  should  be  kept  in  stopped  bottles;  and  the  proof  of  its 
goodness  is  its  weight.  It  is  decidedly  the  best  liquid  caustic  we  have; 
it  is  most  manageable,  and  its  effect  can  most  readily  be  ascertained.  As 
soon  as  it  touches  any  muscular  or  living  part,  a  change  of  colour  is  per- 
ceived  on  the  part ;  and  the  effect  of  the  caustic  can  be  fairly  judged  of  by 
the  degree  of  change.  For  corns,  canker,  indisposition  in  the  sole  to 
secrete  good  horn,  wounds  in  the  foot  not  attended  by  healthy  action,  and. 
for  every  case  where  the  superficial  application  of  a  caustic  is  needed,  the 
chloride  of  antimony  is  unrivalled. 

Anti-spasmodics.  Of  these  our  list  is  scanty,  for  the  horse  is  subject 
only  to  few  spasmodic  diseases,  and  there  are  fewer  medicines  which  have 
an  anti-spasmodic  effect.  Opium  stands  first  for  its  general  power,  and 
that  exerted  particularly  in  locked  jaw;  and  oil  of  turpentine  as  almost  a 
specific  for  spasms  of  the  bowels:  camphor  assafoetida,  and  various  others, 
used  on  the  human  subject,  have  very  doubtful  effect  in  the  horse,  or  may 
be  considered  as  almost  inert. 

Arsenic.  Were  it  not  that  some  practitioners  continue  to  use  it  as  a 
tonic,  in  doses  of  from  ten  to  twenty  grains  daily,  and  others  use  it  to  core 
out  old  ulcers,  we  would  not  include  it  in  our  list,  for  we  have  little  faith 
in  it.  There  are  better  and  safer  tonics,  and  far  better  and  safer  caustics. 
The  method  of  detecting  the  presence  of  arsenic,  in  cases  of  poisoning, 
has  been  described  at  page  200. 

Astringents  are  medicines  that  contract  the  living  fibres,  and  thus  close 
the  mouths  of  small  vessels,  and  restrain  inordinate  and  dangerous  dis- 
charges.  Opium,  alum,  and  catechu  are  powerful  astringents  in  arresting 
intestinal  and  urinary  evacuations;  and  alum  and  the  superacetate  of  lead 
are  astringents  applied  externally. 

Balls.  The  usual  and  the  most  convenient  mode  of  administering 
many  medicines  is  in  the  form  of  balls,  compounded  with  oil,  and  not  with 
honey  or  syrup,  on  account  of  their  longer  keeping  soft  and  more  easily 
dissolving  in  the  stomach.  Balls  sho'uld  never  weigh  more  than  an 
ounce  and  a  half,  or  two  ounces,  otherwise  they  will  be  so  large  as  to  pass 
with  difficulty  down  the  gullet.  Tliey  should  not  be  more  than  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  three  inches  in  length.  The  mode  of  delivering  balls  is 
not  difficult  to  acquire;  and  the  balling  iron,  while  it  often  wounds  and 
permanently  injures  the  bars,  occasions  the  horse  to  struggle  more  than 
ne  otherwise  would  against  the  administration  of  the  ball.  The  horse 
should  be  backed  in  the  stall;  the  tongue  should  be  drawn  gently  put  with 
/he  left  hand  on  tiie  off-side  of  the  mouth,  and  there  fixed,  not  by  con- 
tinuing to  pull  at  it,  but  by  pressing  the  finger  against  tiie  side  of  the 
'ower  jaw.  The  ball,  being  now  taken  between  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of 
the  right  hand,  is  passed  rapidly  up  the  mouth,  as  near  to  the  palate  aa 
oossible,  until  it  reaches  the  root  of  the  tongue;  it  is  then  delivered  with 
\  Slight  jerk,  and  the  hand  being  immediately  withdrawn  and   toe   tongue 


386  THE  HORSE. 

libejuieo,  ihc  ball  is  forced  through  the  pharynx  into  the  ajsophagus.  Its 
passage  should  be  watched  down  tiie  left  side  of  the  throat;  and  if  it  ia 
not  seen  going  down,  a  sliglit  tap  or  blow  under  the  chin  will  generally 
•cause  the  horse  to  swallow,  or  a  few  gulps  of  water  will  carry  it  down.  Jf 
the  gullet  should  be  small  or  strictured,  and  the  ball  should  remain  in  some 
part  of  it,  the  method  of  removing  it  has  been  described  in  page  162. 

Blisters  are  applications  to  the  skin  which  separate  the  cuticle  in  the 
form  of  vesicles  containing  a  serous  fluid.  They  excite  increased  action  in 
the  vessels  of  the  skin,  by  means  of  which  this  fluid  is  thrown  out.  The 
part  or  neighbouring  parts  are  somewhat  relieved  by  this  discharge,  but 
more  by  the  inflammation  and  pain  wliich  are  produced,  and  which  lessen 
the  inflammation  and  pain  previously  existing  in  some  contiguous  part. 
On  this  principle  we  account  for  the  decided  relief  often  obtained  by 
blisters  in  inflammation  of  the  lungs;  their  efficacy  in  abating  deeply- 
seated  inflammation,  as  that  of  sprain  of  the  tendons,  ligaments,  or  joints; 
and  the  necessity  of  removing  first,  in  these  latter  cases,  the  superficial 
inflammation  caused  by  the  sprain,  tiiat  inflammation  of  a  different  kind 
may  be  excited  instead  of  it,  to  which  tlie  deeply-seated  inflammation  of  the 
part  will  be  more  likely  to  yield.  The  blisters  used  in  horse-practice  are 
composed  only  of  cantharides  or  the  oil  of  turpentine,  to  which  some  have 
added  a  tincture  of  the  croton-nut.  The  method  of  forming  the  best 
blister  is  mentioned  at  page  186. 

Bole  Armenian  is  an  argillaceous  earth  combined  with  iron,  and  ia 
supposed  to  possess  some  astringent  property.  The  propriety  of  its 
being  best  administered  inwardly  is  doubtful;  for  it  may  remain  in  the 
intestinal  canal,  and  become  the  nut  of  a  stone.  On  account  of  its  supposed 
astringency,  it  is  employed  externally  to  give  consistence  to  ointments 
for  grease.  Even  the  bole  Armenian  has  not  escaped  the  process  of 
adulteration,  and  is  largely  mixed  with  inferior  earths.  The  fraud  may 
be  suspected,  but  not  satisfactorily  detected,  by  the  colour  of  the  powder, 
which  should  be  a  bright  red. 

Burgundy  Pitch. — See  Resin. 

Calamine. — See  Zinc. 

Calomel. — See  Mercury. 

Camphor  is  the  produce  of  one  of  the  laurus  species,  a  native  of  Japan, 
and  is  imitated  by  passing  a  stream  of  chlorine  through  oil  of  turpentine. 
The  efficacy  of  this  drug  when  used  internally  is  very  doubtful.  The 
camphor  ball  is  a  favourite  with  the  groom,  and  occasionally  administered 
by  the  veterinary  surgeon,  but,  seemingly,  with  no  definite  object,  for  it 
has  not  been  yet  determined  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  a  sedative, 
anti-spasmodic,  or  stimulant.  It  is,  however,  a  stimulant,  when  applied 
externally.  In  the  form  of  camphorated  oil,  it  promotes  the  absorption  of 
fluids  thrown  out  beneath  the  skin,  the  removal  of  old  callus,  and  the 
suppleing  of  joints  stitf  from  labour.  Combined  witii  oil  of  turpentine  it  is 
more  efl'ective,  but  in  that  combination  it  occasionally  blemishes. 

Cantharides  are  the  basis  of  the  most  approved  and  useful  veterinary 
blisters.  The  cantharis  is  a  fly,  the  native  of  Italy,  and  the  south  of 
France,  destroyed  by  sulphur,  dried  and  powdei'ed  and  mixed  with  palm 
oil  and  resin,  in  the  proportions  directed  at  page  186.  Its  action  is 
intense,  and  yet  superficial;  it  plentifully  raises  the  cuticle,  but  never 
injures  the  true  skin,  and  therefore  never  blemishes.  The  application  of 
other  acrid  substances  is  occasionally  followed  by  deep-seated  ulcerations; 
but  a  blister,  composed  of  the  Spanish  fly  alone,  whiie  it  does  it-=  duty,  leaves, 
after  a  few  weeks  have  passed,  scarcely  a  trace  behind.  The  art  of 
blistering  consists  in  cutting,  or  rather  shaving  the  hair  pertoctly  close — 


MEDICINES.  38"? 

ihen  well  rubbing  in  the  ointment,  for  at  least  ten  minutos — and  afterwards 
and  what  is  of  the  greatest  consequence  of  all,  plastering  a  little  more  ot 
the  ointment  lightly  over  the  part,  and  leaving  it.  As  soon  as  the  vesic.er 
have  perfectly  risen,  which  will  be  in  twenty  or  twenty-four  hours,  thf 
torture  of  ths  animal  may  be  somewhat  relieved  by  the  application  of  olive 
or  neat's-foot  oil,  or  any  emolient  ointment. 

When  too  extensive  a  blister  has  been  employed,  or,  from  the  intensity 
of  the  original  inflammation,  the  blister  has  not  risen,  (for  no  two  intense 
inflammations  can  exist  in  neighbouring  parts  at  the  same  time,)  strangury, 
or  great  difficulty  in  passing  urine,  or  even  suppression  of  it,  has  occurred. 
The  careful  washing  off'  of  the  blister,  and  the  administration  of  plenty  of 
warm  water,  with  opium,  and  bleeding,  if  the  symptoms  run  high,  will 
generally  remove  this  unpleasant  effect. 

An  infusion  of  two  ounces  of  the  flies  in  a  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine,  for 
several  days,  is  occasionally  used  as  a  liquid  blister;  and  when  sufficiently 
lowered  with  common  oil,  it  is  called  a  siveat/rig  oil,  for  it  maintains  a  cer- 
tain  degree  of  irritation  and  inflammation  on  the  skin,  but  not  sufficient  to 
blister,  and  thus  gradually  abates  or  removes  some  old  or  deep  inflamma- 
tion, or  cause  of  lameness. 

Cantharides  have  lately  been  recommended  to  be  given  internally,  in 
doses,  daily,  or  twice  in  the  day,  of  five  grains,  and  increasing  the  dose  to 
fifteen  grains,  for  the  cure  of  glanders.  The  experiments  are  yet  too  few 
and  indecisive  to  admit  of  any  satisfactory  conclusion.  In  these  doses  the 
fly  has  not  been  injurious,  and  the  experiments  are  considered  as  well 
worth  prosecuting. 

Carraways. — These  and  ginger  are  retained  as  the  only  cordials  requi- 
site for  the  horse. 

Castor  Oil  is  here  introduced  again  to  warn  the  horse-owner  and  the 
practitioner  against  the  too  frequent  use  of  it.  If  it  is  a  purgative  in  the 
horse,  it  must  be  given  in  the  enormous  and  expensive  doses  of  a  pound  or 
a  pound  and  a  half;  even  then,  it  is  uncertain  in  its  effect — often  gripes, 
and  is  unsafe  and  dangerous. 

Catechu,  Japan  earth,  yet  no  earth,  but  extracted  from  the  wood  of  one 
of  the  acacia  trees,  is  a  very  useful  astringent.  It  is  given  in  super-pur- 
gation,  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drachms,  with  one  or  one  and  a  half  drachm 
of  opium,  as  a  yet  more  powerful  astringent ;  four  drachms  of  chalk,  to 
neutralize  any  acid  in  the  stomach  or  bowels,  and  two  drachms  of  pow- 
dered gum  being  also  added,  to  sheath  the  over-irritated  mucous  coat  of 
the  intestines.  It  is  not  often  adulterated  in  our  country,  but  grossly  so 
abroad — fine  sand  and  aluminous  earth  being  mixed  with  the  extract.  It 
should  not  be  given  with  any  alkali,  yet  the  prescription  just  recommended 
contains  chalk.  But  although  the  chalk,  being  an  alkali,  weakens  the 
astringencyof  the  catechu,  it  probably  neutralizes  some  acid  in  the  stomach 
or  bowels,  which  would  have  diminished  the  power  of  the  catechu  to  a 
greater  degree.  It  must  not  be  given  in  conjunction  with  any  metallic 
salt,  for  the  tannin  or  gallic  acid,  on  which  its  power  chiefly  or  entirely 
depends,  has  an  affmity  for  all  metals,  and  will  unite  with  them,  and  form 
a  gallate  of  them,  possessing  little  astringent  energy.  Common  ink  is  the 
union  of  this  tannin  principle  with  iron. 

A  tincture  of  catechu  is  sometimes  made  by  macerating  three  ounces 
of  the  powder  in  a  quart  of  spirit  for  a  fortnight.  It  is  a  very  excellent 
application  for  healing  wounds;  and,  with  the  aloes,  constitutes  all  that  we 
want  of  a  balsamic  nature  for  the  purpose  of  hastening  the  curative  pro- 
.^ess,  and  establishing  soundness. 

Caustics. — Those  are  sometimes  necessary  to  destroy  fungous  excres- 


3gS  THE  HORSE. 

cences,  or  stiiiiukte  indolent  ulcers,  or  remove  portions  of  cellular  suIk 
stance  or  muscle  infected  by  any  poison.  They  are  the  bulyr  of  antimony 
— blue  vitriol — verdigris — corrosive  sublimate — lunar  caustic,  and  suU 
phuric  acid.     See  these  different  substances. 

Chalk  is  used  only  in  combination  with  catechu  for  suj)erpurgation,  and 
in  the  proportions  directed  under  the  article  Catechu.  The  prepared  or 
levigated  chalk  is  generally  preferred. 

Chamomile — The  powder  of  the  flower  is  a  useful  vegetable  tonic,  and 
the  mildest  in  our  list.  It  is  given  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drachms,  and  is 
exhibited  in  the  early  stage  of  convalescence  to  ascertain  whether  the 
febrile  stage  of  the  disease  is  passed,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  more 
powerful  tonic,  the  gentian.  If  no  acceleration  of  pulse,  or  heat  of  mouth, 
or  indication  of  return  of  fever,  accompanies  the  cautious  use  of  tlie  chamo- 
mile, the  gentian,  with  carbonate  of  iron,  may  be  safely  ventured  on  ;  but 
if  the  gentian  had  been  used  first,  and  a  little  too  soon,  there  might  have 
been  a  considerable,  and,  perhaps,  dangerous  return  of  fever. 

Charcoal  is  a  useful  antiseptic,  and,  mixed  with  a  poultice,  readily 
removes  the  foetid  smell  of  unhealthy  ulcers,  or  cracked  heels. 

Charges  are  thick,  adhesive  plasters,  spread  over  parts  that  have  been 
strained  or  weakened,  and,  being  applied  to  the  skin  warm,  adhere  for  a 
considerable  time.  The  following  mixture  makes  a  good  charge — Bur- 
gundy  or  common  pitch,  five  ounces ;  tar,  six  ounces  ;  yellow  wax,  one 
ounce,  melted  together,  and  when  they  are  becoming  cool,  half  a  drachm 
of  powdered  cantharides  well  stirred  in.  This  must  be  partially  melted 
afresh  when  applied,  and  put  on  the  part  with  a  large  spatula,  as  hot  as  it 
can  be,  without  giving  the  animal  too  much  pain.  Flocks  of  tow  should 
be  scattered  over  it  while  it  is  warm,  and  thus  a  thick  and  adhesive  cover- 
ing  will  be  formed,  which  cannot  be  separated  from  the  skin  for  many 
months.  This  is  applied  for  old  sprains  of  the  loins,  and  also  strains  of 
the  back  sinews.  The  charge  acts  in  three  ways — by  the  slight  stimulant 
power  which  it  possesses,  it  gradually  removes  all  deep-seated  inflamma- 
tion— by  its  stimulus  and  by  its  pressure,  it  promotes  the  absorption  of  any 
callus  or  tliickening  beneath  ;  and,  acting  as  a  constant  bandage,  it  gives 
lone  and  strength  to  the  part. 

Clysters. — These  are  useful  and  too  often  neglected  means  of  liastenmp 
the  evacuation  of  the  bowels,  when  the  disease  requires  their  speedy 
action.  The  old  ox-bladder  and  wooden  pipe  may  still  be  employed,  and 
a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid  may  be  thrown  into  the  intestine  ;  but  the 
patent  stomach  and  clyster-pump  of  Mr.  Reid  is  far  preferable,  as  enabling 
the  practitioner  to  inject  a  greater  quantity  of  fluid,  and  in  a  less  time,  and 
has  lately  been  introduced  into  general  practice. 

Two  ounces  of  soft  or  yellow  soap,  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  warm  water, 
will  form  a  useful  aperient  clyster  ;  it  will  detach  or  dissolve  many  irritat- 
ing substances  tiiat  may  have  adhered  to  the  mucous  coat  of  the  bowels. 
For  a  more  active  aperient,  eight  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  or  even  of  connnon 
salt,  may  be  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of  water;  a  more  active  injec- 
tion, but  not  to  be  used  if  much  purgative  medicine  has  been  previously 
given,  may  be  composed  of  an  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  dissolved  in  two 
or  three  quarts  of  warm  water.  If  nothing  else  can  be  procured,  warm 
water  may  be  employed  ;  it  will  act  as  a  fomentation  to  the  inflamed  and 
•rritable  surface  of  the  bowels,  and  will  have  no  inconsiderable  effect  even 
as  an  aperient. 

In  cases  of  over-purging,  or  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  the  injection 
must  be  of  a  soothing  nature:  it  may  consist  of  gruel  alone;  or  ;f  \he 
uurging   be  great,  and   difficult  to  stop,   the  gruel   must  be  thicker,   low 


MEDICINES.  353 

ounces  of  prepared  or  powdered  chalk  being  well  mixed  with  or  suspondeo 
in  it,  with  two  scruples  or  a  drachm  of  powdered  opium. 

No  oil  should  enter  into  the  composition  of  a  clyster,  except  that  linseed 
oil  may  be  used  for  the  expulsion  of  the  ascarides,  or  needle- worms. 

In  epidemic  catarrh,  when  the  horse  sometimes  obstinately  refuses  to  eal 
or  to  drink,  his  strength  may  be  supported  by  nourishing  clysters  ;  but  they 
should  consist  of  thick  gruel  only,  and  not  more  than  a  quart  should  b^ 
administered  at  once,  for  a  greater  quantity  would  be  returned  soon  aftei 
the  pipe  is  withdrawn.  Strong  broths,  and  more  particularly  ale  ana 
wine,  are  dangerous  ingredients  ;  they  may  rapidly  aggravate  tiie  fever, 
and  should  never  be  administered,  but  under  the  superintendence,  or  by 
the  direction  of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  principal  art  of  administering  a  clyster  consists  in  not  frightening 
the  horse.  The  pipe,  well  oiled,  should  be  very  gently  introduced,  and 
the  fluid  not  too  hastily  thrown  up  ;  and  its  heat  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  that  of  the  intestine,  somewhere  about  ninety-six  degrees  of  Fah- 
renheit's thermometer. 

Copper. — There  are  two  combinations  of  this  metal,  which  are  much 
used  in  veterinary  practice:  the  verdigris  or  subacetate,  and  the  blue  vitriol 
or  sulphate. 

Verdigris  is  the  common  rust  of  copper,  produced  by  vinegar,  or  any 
thing  sour,  or  even  common  salt.  It  is  given  internally  by  some  practi- 
tioners,  in  doses  of  two  or  three  drachms  daily,  as  a  tonic,  and  particularly 
for  the  cure  of  farcy.  It  is,  however,  an  uncertain  and  dangerous  niedi- 
cine.  The  corrosive  sublimate,  with  vegetable  tonics,  as  recommended  at 
page  130,  is  preferable.  Verdigris  is,  however,  usefully  applied  externally 
as  a  mild  caustic.  Either  alone,  in  the  form  of  fine  powder,  or  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  the  sugar  (superacetate)  of  lead,  it  eats  down 
proud  flesh,  or  stimulates  old  ulcers  to  healthy  action  ;  when  boiled  with 
honey  and  vinegar,  it  constitutes  the  farriers'  Egyptiacum,  certainly  of 
benefit  in  cankered  or  ulcerated  mouth,  and  no  bad  application  for  thrushes; 
but  yielding,  as  it  regards  both,  to  better  remedies,  which  have  been  men- 
tioned  under  the  proper  heads.  Some  practitioners  used  alum  and  oil  of 
vitriol  in  making  their  Egyptiacum,  forgetting  the  strange  decomposition 
which  is  produced. 

Blue  Vitriol — Is  the  union  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper ;  it  is  a  very 
favourite  tonic  with  many,  and  has  been  vaunted  as  a  specific  for  glanders, 
while  others,  and  we  think  properly,  have  no  very  good  opinion  of  it  in 
either  respect.  As  a  cure  for  glanders,  its  reputation  is  now  nearly  passed 
by ;  as  a  tonic,  when  the  horse  is  slowly  recovering  from  severe  illness,  ii 
is  dangerous,  and  its  internal  use  should  be  confined  to  cases  of  long  con- 
tinued discharge  from  the  nose,  wher  catarrh  or  fever  have  ceased.  It 
may  then  be  given  with  benefit  in  doses  of  from  one  to  two  drachms  twice 
in  the  day,  but  it  should  be  combined  with  gentian  and  ginger.  It  is 
principally  valuable  as  an  external  application,  dissolved  in  water  in  the 
])roportion  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint,  and  acts  as  a  gentle  stimulant  ;  but 
when  an  ounce  is  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of  water  it  becomes  a 
mild  caustic.  In  the  former  proportion,  it  rouses  old  ulcers  to  a  healthy 
action,  and  disposes  even  recent  wounds  to  heal  more  quickly  than  they 
otherwise  would  do;  and  in  the  latter  it  removes  fungous  granulations  oi 
proud  flesh.  The  blue  vitriol  is  sometimes  reduced  to  powder  and  sprinkled 
upon  the  wound  for  this  purpose,  and  is  a  good  application  for  canker  in 
the  foot. 

Cordials  are  useful  or  injurious  according  to  the  judgment  with  which 
they  ar(    given.      When   a   horse   comes   home  thoroughly  exhausted  and 


3i)0  THE  HORSE. 

refuses  lus  food,  a  cordial  may  be  beneficial ;  it  may  rouse  the  stomacn 
and  the  svstem,  and  may  prevent  cold  and  fever;  but  it  is  poison  to  the 
animal  when  administered  after  the  cold  is  actually  caught  and  fever  begins 
to  appear.  More  to  be  reprobated  is  the  practice  of  giving  frequait  cor- 
dials, that,  by  their  stimulus  on  the  stomach,  (the  skin  sympathising  so 
much  with  the  stomach,)  a  fine  coat  may  be  produced.  Tiie  artificial 
excitement  of  the  cordial  soon  becomes  as  necessary  to  enable  the  horse  to 
do  even  common  work,  as  is  the  excitement  of  the  dram  to  sustain  the  ani- 
mal  spirits  of  the  drunkard. 

To  recall  the  appetite  of  the  horse  slowly  recovering  from  illness,  a  cor- 
dial may  sometimes  be  allowed  ;  or  to  old  horses  that  have  been  worked 
hard  and  used  to  these  excitements  when  young  ;  or  to  draught  horses, 
that  have  exhibited  slight  symptoms  of  staggers,  when  their  labour  has 
been  unusually  protracted,  and  their  stomachs  left  too  long  empty  ;  or 
mixed  with  diuretic  medicine,  to  fine  the  legs  of  the  overworked  and  debili- 
tated  animal  ;  otherwise  they  should  never  find  a  place  in  the  stable,  or  be 
used  at  the  discretion  of  the  carter  or  groom.  The  most  harmless  cordial, 
if  abused,  and  the  best  if  given  with  discretion,  is  composed  of  four  parts 
each  of  carraway  powder  and  bruised  raisins,  and  two  each  of  ginger  and 
palm  oil,  well  beaten  into  a  mass. 

Corrosive  Sublimate. — See  Mercury. 

Cream  of  Tartar. — See  Superacetate  of  Potash. 

Croton  Tiglii. — The  croton-nut  has  not  been  long  introduced  into 
veterinary  practice,  although  it  has  been  used  from  time  immemorial  by 
the  inhabitants  of  India  as  a  powerful  purgative.  An  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  it,  and  used  by  a  surgeon;  the  meal  is  adopted  by  the  veteri- 
narian. It  is  given  in  doses  from  a  scruple  to  a  half  a  drachm,  and,  from 
its  acrid  nature,  in  ball  with  an  ounce  of  linseed  meal.  When  it  does 
operate,  the  eff*ect  is  generally  observed  in  six  or  eight  hours,  and  the  stools 
are  profuse  and  watery,  and  ihe  patient  frequently  griped.  On  account 
of  its  quick  operation,  it. may  be  given  in  locked  jaw  and  staggers;  and 
also  in  dropsy  of  the  chest  or  belly,  from  the  watery  and  profuse  stools  it 
produces  ;  but  it  is  often  uncertain  in  its  operation,  and  its  griping  and  the 
debility  it  occasions  are  serious  objections  to  it  as  common  physic.  A  tur- 
pentine tincture  of  the  powdered  nut  makes  an  active  blister;  but  not  so 
effectual  or  safe  as  the  cantharides. 

Diuphoretics,  are  medicines  that  increase  the  sensible  and  insensible 
perspiration  of  the  animal.  (See  page  373.)  These,  as  it  regards  tlie 
horse,  are  neither  many  nor  powerful.  Antimony  in  its  various  forms 
(see  page  334,)  and  sulphur,  have  some  effect  in  opening  the  pores  of  the 
skin,  and  exciting  its  vessels  to  action,  and  especially  when  assisted  by 
warmtii  of  stable  or  clothing,  and  therefore  useful  in  those  diseases  where 
it  is  desirable  that  some  portion  of  the  blood  should  be  diverted  from  the 
ov(^.rloaded,  and  inflamed,  and  vital  organs  of  the  chest,  to  the  skin  or  the 
extremities  ;  but  the  only  diaphoretics  on  which  much  confidence  can  be 
placed,  and  especially  to  produce  condition,  are  warm  clothing  and  good 
grooming. 

Digestives  are  applications  to  recent  or  old  wounds,  as  mild  stimulants 
to  produce  a  healthy  appearance  and  action  in  them,  and  to  cause  them 
more  speedily  to  heal.  A  weak  solution  of  blue  vitriol  is  an  excellent 
digestive;  so  is  the  tincture  of  aloes,  and  the  tincture  of  myrrh.  The  best 
digestive  ointment  is  one  composed  of  three  parts  of  the  common  calamine 
vintmcnt  (Turner's  cerate)  and  one  of  common  turpentine. 

Digitalis. — The  leaves  of  the  common  fox-glove,  gathered  abou*  the 
flowering  time,  dried  carefully  in   the  dark,  and   powdered,  and  kept  in    « 


MEDICINES.  391 

close  black  bottle,  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  medicines  in  veterinary 
practice.  It  is  a  direct  and  powerful  sedative,  diminishing  the  frequency 
of  the  pulse,  and  the  general  irritability  of  the  system,  and  acting  also  as 
a  mild  diuretic;  it  is  therefore  useful  in  every  inflammatory  and  febrile 
complaint,  and  particularly  in  inflammation  of  the  chest.  It  is  usually 
given  in  combination  with  emetic  tartar  and  nitre.  The  average  dose 
would  be  one  drachm  of  digitalis,  one  and  a  half  of  emetic  tartar,  and 
three  of  nitre,  and  repeated  twice  or  thrice  in  the  day.  Digitalis  seems  to 
have  an  immediate  effect  on  thfe  heart,  lessening  the  number  of  its  pulsa- 
tions; but  lessening  them  in  a  singular  manner,  not  by  causing  it  to  beat 
more  slowly,  but  by  producing  certain  intermissions  or  pauses  in  its  action. 
When  these  become  marked;  when  at  every  sixth  or  seventh  beat,  the 
pulsations  are  suspended,  while  two  or  three  could  be  slowly  counted,  this 
is  precisely  the  effect  which  is  intended  to  be  produced  ;  and  however  ill 
the  horse  may  appear  to  be,  or  however  alarming  this  intermittent  pulse 
may  seem  to  the  standers-by,  from  that  moment  the  animal  will  begin  to 
amend.  The  dose  must  then  be  diminished  one-half,  and  in  a  few  days  it 
may  be  omitted  altogether;  but  the  emetic  tartar  and  the  nitre  should  be 
continued,  even  for  some  days  after  the  practitioner  deems  it  prudent  to  try 
the  effect  of  mild  vegetable  tonics.  There  is  no  danger  in  the  intermit- 
tent pulse  thus  produced  ;  but  there  is  much  danger  when  the  digitalis 
fails  to  produce  any  effect  on  the  circulation.  The  disease  is  then  too 
powerful  to  be  arrested  by  medicine.  Digitalis  requires  watching;  but 
the  only  consequence  to  be  apprehended  from  an  over-dose,  is,  that  the 
patient  may  be  reduced  a  little  too  low,  and  his  convalescence  retarded 
for  a  day  or  two. 

In  the  form  of  Infusion  or  tincture,  digitalis  is  very  useful  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  eyes.  It  is  almost  equal  in  power  to  opium,  and  it  may 
with  great  advantage  be  alternated  with  it,  when  opium  begins  to  lose 
its  power.  The  infusion  is  made  by  pouring  a  quart  of  boiling  water 
on  an  ounce  of  the  powder.  A  portion  of  the  liquid  should  be  introduced 
into  the  eye.  Of  the  tincture,  one  or  two  drops  should  be  introduced. 
To  form  the  tincture,  three  ounces  of  the  digitalis  should  be  added  to 
a  quart  of  spirit. 

The  infusion  has  been  serviceable  in  mange ;  but  there  are  better 
applications. 

Diuretics  constitute  a  useful,  but  much  abused  class  of  medicines. 
They  stimulate  the  kidneys  to  secrete  more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  urine, 
or  to  separate  a  greater  than  ordinary  proportion  of  the  watery  parts  of  the 
blood ;  but  the  deficiency  of  water  in  the  blood  thus  occasioned  must  be 
speedily  supplied,  or  the  healthy  circulation  could  not  be  carried  on,  and  it  is 
generally  supplied  by  the  absorbents  taking  up  the  watery  fluid  in  some 
part  of  the  frame,  and  carrying  it  into  circulation.  Hence  the  evident 
use  of  diuretics  in  every  dropsical  affection,  in  swelled  legs,  and  also  in 
inflammation  and  fever,  by  lessening  the  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid, 
and  therefore  the  quantity  which  is  sent  to  inflamed  parts. 

All  this,  however,  is  produced  by  the  kidneys  being  stimulated  to 
increased  action,  and  if  this  stimulus  is  too  often  or  too  violently  applied, 
the  energy  of  the  kidney  may  be  impaired,  or  inflammation  may  be  pro- 
duced. That  inflammation  may  be  of  an  acute  character,  and  destroy  the 
patient;  or,  although  not  intense  in  its  nature,  it  may  by  frequent  repeti- 
tion assume  a  chronic  character,  and  more  slowly,  but  as  surely,  do  irre- 
parable mischief.  Hence  the  necessity  of  attention  to  that  portion  of  the 
food  which  may  have  a  diuretic  power.  Movvburnt  hay  and  fixy  oata 
•ire    tlie    unsuspected    causes  of   many    a    disease    in    tiie    horse,   at    tir» 


392  THE  HORSE. 

obscure,  but  ultimately  referable  to  injury  or  inflammation  of  the  unna.y 
organs.  Hence,  too,  the  impropriety  of  suffering  medicines  of  a  diuretic 
nature  to  be  at  t!ie  command  of  the  ignorant  carter  or  groom.  In  swelled 
legs,  cracks,  grease,  or  accumulation  of  fluid  in  any  part,  and  in  those 
superficial  eruptions  and  inflammations  which  are  said  to  be  produced  by 
humours  floating  in  the  blood,  diuretics  are  evidently  beneficial;  but  they 
should  be  as  mild  as  possible,  and  should  not  be  oftener  given  or  continued 
longer  thar-  the  case  requires.  For  some  cautions  as  to  the  administration 
of  diuretics,  and  a  list  of  the  safest  and  best,  the  reader  is  referred  to  page 
215.  The  expensive  Castile  soap,  and  camphor,  which  are  so  often  resorted 
to,  are  not  needed;  the  common  liquid  turpentine  is  quite  sufficient  in  all 
ordinary  cases,  and  nitre  and  digitalis  may  be  added  if  fever  is  suspected. 

Drinks. — Many  practitioners  and  horse  proprietors  have  a  great  objec- 
tion to  the  administration  of  medicines  in  the  form  of  drinks.  A  drink  is 
not  so  portable  as  a  ball,  it  is  more  troublesome  to  give,  and  a  portion  of  it 
is  usually  wasted.  If  the  drink  contains  any  acid  substance,  it  is  apt  to 
excoriate  the  mouth,  or  to  irritate  the  throat,  already  sore  from  disease,  or 
the  unpleasant  taste  of  the  drug  may  unnecessarily  nauseate  the  horse. 
There  are  some  medicines,  however,  which  must  be  given  in  the  form  of 
drink,  as  in  cholic,  and  the  time,  perhaps,  is  not  distant  when  purgatives 
will  be  thus  administered,  as  more  speedy  and  safe  in  their  operation.  In 
cases  of  much  debility  and  entire  loss  of  appetite,  all  medicine  should  be 
given  in  solution,  for  the  stomach  may  not  have  sufficient  power  to  dissolve 
the  paper  in  which  the  ball  is  wrapped,  or  the  substance  of  the  ball. 

An  ox's  horn,  the  larger  end  being  cut  slantingly,  is  the  usual  and  best 
instrument  for  administering  drinks.  The  noose  of  a  halter  is  introduced 
into  the  mouth,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  stable  fork,  the  head  is  elevated 
by  an  assistant  considerably  higher  than  for  the  delivery  of  a  ball.  The 
surgeon  stands  on  a  pail  or  stable  basket  on  the  off'-side  of  the  horse,  and 
draws  out  the  tongue  with  the  left  hand ;  he  then  with  the  right  hand 
introduces  the  horn  gently  into  the  mouth,  and  over  the  tongue,  and  by  a 
dexterous  turn  of  the  horn  empties  the  whole  of  the  drink  into  the  back 
part  of  the  mouth;  the  horn  is  now  quickly  withdrawn,  and  the  tongue 
loosened,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  fluid  must  be  swallowed.  A  por- 
tion of  it,  however,  will  often  be  obstinately  held  in  the  mouth  for  a  long 
time,  and  the  head  must  be  kept  up  until  the  whole  is  swallowed,  which 
a  quick,  but  not  violent,  slap  in  the  muzzle  will  generally  compel  the  horse 
to  do.  The  art  of  giving  a  drink,  consists  in  not  putting  too  much  into  the 
horn  at  once;  introducing  the  horn  far  enough  into  the  mouth,  and  quickly 
turning  and  withdrawing  it,  without  bruising  or  wounding  the  mouth,  the 
tongue  being  loosened  at  the  same  moment.  A  bottle  is  a  disgraceful  and 
dangerous  instrument  to  use. 

Elder. — The  elder-leaf,  boiled  in  lard,  forms  an  emollient  ointment, 
usefully  applied  to  inflamed  and  irritated  parts. 

Epsom  Salts. — See  Magnesia. 

Fo3iENTATioNS  open  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  promote  perspiration 
in  the  part,  and  so  abate  local  swelling,  and  relieve  pain,  and  lessen 
inflammation.  They  are  often  used,  and  with  more  effect  when  the 
inflammation  is  somewhat  deeply  seated,  than  when  it  is  superficial.  The 
effect  depends  on  the  warmth  of  the  water,  and  not  any  herb  which  may 
have  bei;n  boiled  in  it.  They  are  best  applied  by  means  of  flannel,  fre- 
quently dipped  in  the  hot  water,  or  on  which  the  water  is  poured,  and  the 
heat  should  be  as  great  as  the  hand  will  bear.  The  benefit  that  might  be 
derived  from  them  is  much  impaired  by  the  absurd  method  in  which  t^e 
fomentations   are    conducted.     They  are    rarely   continued    long    enough 


MEDICINES  395 

and  whe.i  they  are  removed,  the  part  is  left  wet  and  uncovered,  ard  the 
coldness  of  evaporation  succeeds  to  the  heat  of  fomentation.  The  per- 
spiration is  thus  suddenly  checked,  the  animal  suffers  considerable  pain, 
and  more  harm  is  done  by  the  extreme  change  of  temperature  than  if  the 
fomentation  iiad  not  been  attempted. 

Gentian  stands  at  the  head  of  the  vegetable  tonics,  and  it  is  a  stomachic 
as  well  as  a  tonic.  It  is  equally  useful  in  chronic  debility,  and  in  that 
which  is  consequent  on  severe  and  protracted  illness.  It  is  generally 
united  with  cliamomile,  ginger,  and,  when  the  patient  will  bear  it,  carbonate 
of  iron.  Four  drachms  of  gentian,  two  of  chamomile,  one  of  carbonate 
of  iron,  and  one  of  ginger,  will  make  an  excellent  tonic  ball.  An  infusion 
of  gentian  is  one  of  the  best  applications  to  putrid  ulcers. 

Ginger  is  as  valuable  as  a  cordial,  as  gentian  is  as  a  tonic.  It  is  the 
basis  of  the  cordial  ball,  and  it  is  indispensable  in  the  tonic  ball.  Although 
it  is  difficult  to  powder,  the  veterinary  practitioner  should  always  purchase 
it  in  its  solid  form.  If  the  root  be  large,  heavy,  and  not  worm-eaten,  th( 
black  ginger  is  as  good  as  the  white,  and  considerably  cheaper.  The  pow- 
der  is  adulterated  with  bean-meal  and  the  saw-dust  of  boxwood,  and  ren- 
dered warm  and  pungent  by  means  of  capsicum. 

Goulard's  Extract. — See  Lead. 

Hellebore,  White,  is  a  powerful  nauseant,  and  lowers  both  the  force 
and  the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  and  is  therefore  given  with  good  effect  in 
various  intlammations,  and  particularly  that  of  the  lungs;  but  it  requires 
watching.  In  the  hospital  of  the  veterinary  surgeon,  or  in  the  stable  of 
the  gentleman  who  will  superintend  the  giving  and  the  operation  of  every 
medicine,  it  may  be  used  with  safety;  but  with  him  who  has  to  trust  to 
others,  and  who  does  not  see  the  horse  more  than  once  in  twelve  or  twenty- 
four  hours,  it  is  a  dangerous  drug.  If  it  is  pushed  a  little  too  far,  trem- 
bling,  and  giddiness,  and  purging  follow,  and  the  horse  is  sometimes  lost. 
The  hanging  of  the  head,  and  the  frothing  of  the  mouth,  and,  more  particu- 
larly, the  sinking  of  the  pulse,  would  give  warning  of  danger;  but  the 
medical  attendant  may  not  have  the  opportunity  of  observing  this,  and 
when  he  does  observe  it,  it  may  be  too  late.  Its  dose  varies  from  a  scruple 
to  half  a  drachm.  In  doses  of  a  drachm  it  could  not  be  given  with  safety; 
and  yet,  such  is  the  different  effect  of  medicines  given  in  different  doses, 
that  in  the  quantity  of  an  ounce  it  is  said  to  be  a  diuretic  and  a  tonic,  and. 
exhibited  with  advantage  in  chronic  and  obstinate  grease. 

Hemlock  is  used  by  some  practitioners,  instead  of  digitalis  or  hellebore, 
in  affections  of  the  chest,  whether  acute  or  chronic;  but  it  is  inferior  tO' 
both.     The  dose  of  the  powder  of  the  dried  leaves  is  about  a  drachm. 

InfusIons. — The  active  matter  of  some  vegetable  substances  is  partly  or 
entirely  extracted  by  water.  Dried  vegetables  yield  their  properties  more 
readily  and  perfectly  than  when  in  their  green  state.  Boiling  water  is  poured' 
on  the  substance  to  be  infused,  and  which  is  previously  grossly  pounded  or 
powdered;  the  vessel  is  then  covered  and  placed  by  a  fire.  In  five  or  six. 
hours  the  transparent  part  may  be  poured  off,  and  is  ready  for  use.  In  a 
kw  days,  however,  all  infusions  become  thick,  and  lose  their  virtue,  from, 
the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter. 

The  infusion  of  chamomile  is  advantageously  used  instead  of  water  in 
compounding  a  mild  tonic  drench:  the  infusion  of  catechu  is  useful  in. 
astringent  mixtures;  the  infusion  of  linseed  is  used  instead  of  common, 
water  in  catarrh  and  cold;  and  the  infusion  of  tobacco  in  some  injections. 

Iodine. — This  substance  is  but  lately  introduced  into  veterinary  praclico, 
and  has  been  given  with  effect  in  doses  of  five  grains  daily,  to  reduce  the 
enlarged  glands  which  sometimes  remain  after  catarrh.  It  has  likewise 
Cc 


394  THE  HORSE 

power  in  reducing  almost  every  species  of  tumour,  and  rnay  be  tried  where 
it  would  be  dangerous  to  use  the  kniti-. 

Iron. — Of  tiiis  metal  there  are  two  preparations  adopted  by  veterina- 
rians. Tne  rust,  or  Carbonate,  is  a  mild  and  useful  tonic  in  doses  from  two 
to  four  drachms.  The  Sulphate  (green  vitriol  or  copperas)  is  more  power- 
ful, but  siiould  never  be  given  in  early  stages  of  recovery,  and  always 
with  caution.  The  dose  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  carbonate. 
The  sulphate  has  lately  been  recommended  for  the  cure  of  timt  deceitful 
stage  or  form  of  glanders,  in  which  there  is  nothing  to  characterise  the 
disease  but  a  very  slight  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  It  is  to  be  dissolved 
in  the  common  drink  of  the  horse.  It  is  worth  a  trial,  but  too  sanguine 
expectations  must  not  be  encouraged  of  the  power  of  any  drug  over  this 
intractable  malady.  Iron  should  be  given  in  combination  with  gentian 
and  ginger,  but  never  with  any  alkali,  or  nitre,  or  soap,  or  catechu,  or 
astringent  vegetable. 

Forge  water  used  to  be  a  favourite  tonic  with  farriers,  and  also  a  lotion 
for  canker  and  ulcers  in  the  mouth.  It  owes  its  power,  if  it  has  any,  to 
the  iron  with  which  it  is  impregnated. 

Juniper,  Oil  of. — This  essential  oil  is  retained  because  it  has  some  diu- 
retic property,  and  is  a  pleasant  aromatic.  It  may,  therefore,  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  diuretic  ball. 

Lard. — This  or  palm  oil  is  far  preferable  to  honey,  or  treacle,  or  syrups, 
for  making  up  balls,  because  the  ball  more  readily  dissolves  in  the  stomach. 
It  likewise  renders  a  purgative  less  liable  to  gripe.     It  is  the  principal 
basis  of  all  ointments. 
Laudanum. — See  Opium. 

Lead. — Combinations  of  this  metal  are  admitted  into  veterinary  practice. 
The  subacetate  is  common  under  the  name  of  Extract  of  Lead,  or  Goulard's 
Extract.  It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  a  drachm  to  a  pint  of  water  in  the 
early  stages  of  inflammation  of  the  eye;  but  is  inferior  both  to  opium  and 
digitalis,  and  cannot  be  used  in  combination  with  either.  In  double  the 
proportion,  it  is  serviceable  in  superficial  inflammations  of  various  kinds,  or 
in  poultices  for  the  feet  where  there  is  much  inflammation  or  pain  ;  but  in 
cases  of  sprain,  or  deep  injury,  or  inflammations,  it  is  perfectly  useless. 
If  wliite  vitriol  or  alum  are  added  to  the  lead,  the  efficacy  of  all  the  ingre- 
dienls  is  destroyed. 

The  Sugar  of  Lead  is  the  acetate  or  superacetate  of  that  metal.  This, 
dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  two  drachms  to  a  pint,  makes  an 
extemporaneous  Goulard's  Lotion,  but  not  more  valuable  than  the  former. 
WliHe  Lead,  (carbonate  of  lead,)  is  sometimes  sprinkled  in  the  form  of 
fine  powder,  and  with  advantage,  on  swelled  legs,  where  the  skin  is  very 
red  and  irritable,  and  moisture  is  exuding  through  it.  It  is  used  alone  or 
mixed  with  paste,  or  a  bread-and-water  poultice:  but  lead,  although  in  the 
first-mentioned  form  a  great  favourite  with  many  persons,  might,  without 
great  loss,  be  expunged  from  the  Veterinary  PiiarmacopcKia. 

Lime  was  formerly  sprinkled  over  cankered  feet  and  greasy  heels,  but 
there  are  less  painful  caustics,  and  more  effectual  absorbents  of  moisture. 
Lime  water  is  rarely  used,  but  the  Chloride  of  Lime  is  exceedingly 
valuable.  Diluted  with  twenty  times  its  quantity  of  water,  it  should 
help  to  form  the  poultice  applied  to  every  part  from  which  there  is 
tiie  slightest  offensive  discharge.  The  foetid  smell  of  fistulous  withers, 
poll-evil,  canker,  and  ill-conditioned  wounds,  is  immediately  removed, 
and  the  ulcers  are  more  disposed  to  heal.  When  mangy  horses  are 
dismissed  as  cured,  a  washing  with  the  diluted  chloride  wUl  Jemove  pny 
infection   that  might  lurk  about  them,  or  which   they  might   carry  from 


MEDICINES.  35)5 

the  place  -n  which  tliey  have  been  confined.  One  pint  o'  the  chJoria«» 
mixed  with  three  gallons  of  water,  and  brushed  over  the  walls  and  niangei 
and  rack  of  the  foulest  stable,  will  completely  remove  all  uifection.  Aii 
horse  furniture  worn  by  a  glandered  or  mangy  animal  will  be  ellectually 
purified  in  the  same  way.  Internally  administered,  it  seems  to  have  no 
power  whatever. 

Liniments  are  oily  applications  of  the  consistence  of  a  thick  fluid,  and 
designed  either  to  sooth  an  inflamed  surface,  or,  by  gently  stimulating  the 
skin,  to  remove  deeper-seated  pain  or  inflammation.  As  an  emollient  lini- 
ment, one  composed  of  haif  an  ounce  of  extract  of  lead  and  four  ounces  of 
olive  oil  will  be  useful.  For  sprains,  old  swellings,  or  rheumatism,  two 
ounces  of  hartshorn,  tlie  same  quantity  of  camphorated  spirit,  an  ounce  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  half  an  ounce  of  laudanum,  and  a  drachm  of  oil  of  origa- 
num, may  be  mixed  together;  or  an  ounce  of  camphor  may  be  dissolved  in 
four  ounces  of  sweet  oil,  to  which  an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  a 
drachm  of  oil  of  origanum  should  be  afterwards  added.  A  little  powdered 
cantharides,  or  tincture  of  cantharides,  or  mustard  powder,  will  render 
either  of  these  more  powerful,  or  convert  it  into  a  liquid  blister. 

Linseed. — An  infusion  of  linseed  is  often  used  instead  of  water,  for  the 
drink  of  the  horse  with  sore-throat  or  catarrh.  A  pail  containing  it  should 
be  slung  in  the  stable  or  loose  box.  Thin  gruel,  however,  is  preferable; 
it  is  as  bland  and  soothing,  and  it  is  more  nutritious.  Linseed  meal  forms 
the  best  poultice  for  almost  every  purpose. 

The  oil  of  linseed  is  not  a  certain,  but  always  a  safe  purgative.  It  must 
he  given,  however,  in  doses  of  a  pint  or  a  pint  and  a  half. 

Lotions. — Many  of  the  best  lotions  have  been  already  described,  in  the 
chapters  which  treat  of  the  various  diseases  of  the  horse. 

Magnesia. — The  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  Epsom  Salts,  should  be  used 
only  in  promoting  the  purgative  effect  of  clysters,  or,  in  repeated  doses  of 
six  or  eight  ounces,  gently  to  open  the  bowels  at  the  commencement  of 
fever.  Some  doubt,  however,  attends  the  latter  practice  ;  for  the  dose 
must  often  be  thrice  repeated  before  it  will  act,  and  then,  although  safer 
than  aloes,  it  may  produce  too  much  irritation  in  the  intestinal  canal,  espe- 
cially if  the  fever  be  the  precursor  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

Mashes  constitute  a  very  important  part  of  horse  provender,  whether  in 
sickness  or  health.  A  mash  given  occasionally  to  a  horse  that  is  otherwise 
fed  on  dry  meat  prevents  him  from  becoming  dangerously  costive.  To  the 
overworked  and  tired  horse  nothing  is  so  refreshing  as  a  warm  mash  with 
his  usual  allowance  of  corn  in  it.  The  art  of  getting  a  horse  into  apparent 
condition  for  sale,  or  giving  him  a  round  and  plump  appearance,  consists 
principally  in  the  frequent  repetition  of  mashes,  and  from  their  easiness  of 
digestion  and  the  mild  nutriment  which  they  afford,  as  well  as  their  laxative 
effect,  they  form  the  principal  diet  of  the  sick  horse. 

Mashes  are  made  by  pouring  boiling  water  on  bran,  and  stirring  it  well, 
and  then  covering  it  over  until  it  is  sufficiently  cool  for  the  horse  to  eat. 
If  in  the  heat  of  summer,  a  cold  mash  is  preferred,  it  should,  nevertheless, 
be  made  with  hot  water,  and  then  suffered  to  remain  until  it  is  cold.  This 
is  not  always  sufficiently  attended  to  by  the  groom,  who  is  not  aware  that 
he  efficacy  of  the  mash  depends  principally  on  the  change  which  is  effected 
m  the  bran  and  the  other  ingredients  by  the  boiling  water  rendering  thenr. 
more  easy  of  digestion,  as  well  as  aperient.  If  the  horse  refuses  the  mash, 
a  few  oats  may  be  sprinkled  over  it,  in  order  to  tempt  him  to  eat  it;  but  if 
It  is  previously  designed  that  corn  should  be  given  in  the  mash,  it  should 
Se  scalded  with  the  bran,  to  soften  it  and  render  it  more  digestible.  Bran 
mashes  are  v(  ry  useful    preparatives  for   physic,  and   they  are  necessary 


y<}(S  THE  HORSE. 

diirin,^  the  operation  of  the  physic.  They  very  soon  recome  sour,  and  the 
maiiirer  of  tlie  horse  of  whose  diet  they  form  a  principal  part,  should  be 
daily  and  carefully  cleaned  out. 

VVhen  horses  are  weakly  and  iruich  reduced,  nnalt  mashes  will  often  be 
palatable  to  them  and  very  nutritive:  but  the  water  that  is  poured  on  a 
malt  mash  should  be  considerably  below  the  boiling  heat,  or  the  malt  wiU 
be  set,  or  clogged  together.  If  ownei's  were  aware  of  the  value  of  a  malt 
mash,  it  would  be  oitener  given  when  the  horse  is  rapidly  getting  weaker 
from  protracted  disease,  or  when  he  is  beginning  to  recover  from  a  disease 
by  which  he  has  b(>en  much  reduced.  The  only  exception  to  their  use  is 
in  cases  of  ciiest  affection,  in  which  they  must  not  be  given  too  early.  In 
grease,  and  in  mange  accompanied  by  much  emaciation,  malt  mashes  will 
be  peculiarly  useful,  and  especially  if  they  constitute  a  principal  portion  of 
the  food. 

Mercuky. — The  Mercurial  Ointment  is  p'-epared  by  rubbing  quicksilver 
with  lard,  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  mercury  to  three  of  grease,  until 
no  globules  appear  ;  the  practitioner  should,  if  possible,  prepare  it  himself, 
for  he  can  neither  get  it  pure  nor  of  the  proper  strength  from  the  druggist. 
It  is  employed  with  considerable  advantage  in  preparing  splents,  spavins, 
or  other  bony  or  callous  tumours,  for  blistering  or  firing.  One  or  tvvo 
drachms,  according  to  the  nature  and  size  of  the  swelling,  may  be  daily 
well  rubbed  in;  but  it  should  be  watched,  for  it  sometimes  salivates  the 
horse  very  speedily.  The  tumours  more  readily  disperse,  at  the  applica- 
tion of  the  stronger  stimulant,  when  they  have  been  thus  prepared.  Mer- 
curial ointment  in  a  more  diluted  form  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the  cure 
of  mallenders  and  sallenders  ;  and  in  very  obstinate  cases  of  mange,  one- 
eighth  part  of  mercurial  ointment  may  be  added  to  the  ointment  recom- 
mended at  page  379. 

Calomel,  X\\e  submuriate  or  protochloride  of  mercury,  may  be  given,  com- 
bined  with  aloes,  in  mange,  surfeit  or  worms  ;  yet  better  alteratives  and 
more  efficient  vermifuges  have  been  described.  It  is  admissible  in  some 
cases  of  chronic  cough,  in  farcy,  and  in  jaundice,  but  it  is  not  a  medicine 
that  seems  to  agree  with  the  horse.  Alone,  it  has  little  purgative  effect, 
but  it  assists  the  action  of  other  aperients.  It  is  given  in  doses  from  a 
scruple  to  a  drachm,  but  must  not  be  too  often  or  too  long  repeated.  As 
soon  as  the  gums  become  red,  or  the  animal  begins  to  quid  or  drop  his  hay, 
it  must  be  discontinued. 

Corrosive  Suhlimate,  the  oxymuriate,  or  bichloride  of  mercury,  com- 
bined with  chlorine  in  a  double  proportion,  is  a  useful  tonic  in  farcy,  and 
perhaps  the  most  to  be  depended  upon.  It  should  be  given  in  doses  of  ten 
grains  daily,  and  gradually  increased  to  a  scruple,  until  the  horse  is  purged, 
or  the  mouth  becomes  sore,  when  it  may  be  omitted  for  a  few  days,  and 
resumed.  Some  have  recommended  it  as  a  diuretic,  but  it  is  loo  dangerous 
a  medicine  for  this  purpose.  It  is  used  externally  in  solution;  and  in  sub- 
stancf!  in  quiltor,  as  a  stimulant  to  foul  ulcers  ;  and  in  the  proportion  of 
five  grains  to  an  ounce  of  rectified  spirit  in  obstinate  mange  or  to  destroy 
vermin  on  the  skin.  It  is,  however,  too  uncertain  and  too  dangerous  a 
medicine  for  the  horse-proprietor  to  venture  on  its  use  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

.Etii/np's  Mineral,  the  black  sulphuret  of  mercury,  is  not  often  used  in 
horse  practice,  but  it  is  a  good  alterative  for  obstinate  surfeit  or  fculncss 
of  the  skin,  in  doses  of  three  drachms  daily.  Four  drachms  of  cream  of 
tartar  ma-y  be  advantageously  added  to  each  dose. 

Mint. — If  the  use  of  an  infusion  or  decoction  of  this  plant,  or  of  the  oil 
hat  is  extracted  from  it,  can  be  at  any  time  admitted,  it  is  as  a  vrhicle  jn 


MEDICINES.  SQ1 

which  the  oil  of  turpentine  and  laudanum  may  be  administered  in  ca.jes  of 
cholic. 

MvKRH  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  tincture,  or  it  may  be  united  to  the 
tuicture  of  aloes  as  a  stimulating  and  digestive  application  to  wounds. 
Diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  uater,  it  is  a  good  application  for  canker 
in  the  mouth,  but  as  an  internal  medicine  it  seems  to  be  inert. 

NiTKE. — See  Potash. 

Nitrous  ^Etiier,  Simuit  of,  is  a  very  useful  medicine  in  the  advanced 
stages  of  fever,  for  wliile  it  to  a  certain  degree  rouses  the  exhausted  powers 
of  the  animal,  and  may  be  denominated  a  stimulant,  it  never  brings  back 
the  dangerous  febrile  action  which  was  subsiding.  It  is  given  in  doses  of 
three  or  tour  drachms. 

Oils. — The  farrier's  list  contains  many  of  them,  but  the  scientific  prac- 
titioner has  discarded  the  greater  part ;  those  that  are  worth  retaining  will 
be  found  under  the  names  of  the  vegetables  from  which  they  are  extracted. 

Ointments. — These  have  been  fully  described  under  the  accidents  and 
diseases  in  which  their  use  is  required. 

Olives,  Oil  of. — Tiiis  is  sometimes  given  as  a  purgative  when  aloes 
or  other  aperients  cannot  be  obtained.  It  is  useless  to  give  it  in  a  less 
quantity  than  a  pint,  and  then  it  is  uncertain  in  its  operation,  although 
harmless.  In  all  liniments  and  ointments,  spermaceti,  or  even  linseed  oil, 
may  be  substituted  without  detriment,  and  the  peculiar  smell  of  the  latter 
may  be  subdued  by  oil  of  aniseseed  or  origanum. 

Opium. — However  underrated  by  some,  there  is  not  a  more  valuable  drug 
on  our  list.  It  does  not  often  act  as  a  narcotic  except  in  enormous  doses  ; 
but  it  is  a  powerful  antispasmodic,  sedative,  and  astringent.  As  an  anti- 
spasmodic, it  enters  into  the  cholic  drink,  and  it  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  the 
veterinarian  in  the  treatment  of  tetanus  or  locked  jaw.  As  a  sedative,  it 
relaxes  that  universal  spasm  of  the  muscular  system,  which  is  the  charac- 
tkjristic  of  tetanus  ;  and  perhaps  it  is  only  as  a  sedative  that  it  has  such 
admirable  effect  as  an  astringent;  for  when  the  irritation  about  the  mouths 
of  the  vessels  of  the  intestines  and  kidneys  is  allayed  by  the  opium,  undue 
purging  and  profuse  staling  are  necessarily  arrested.  It  should,  however, 
be  given  with  caution.  It  is  its  secondary  effect  which  is  sedative,  and,  if 
given  in  cases  of  fever,  its  primary  effect  in  increasing  the  excitation  of  the 
frame  is  marked  and  injurious.  In  the  early  and  acute  stage  of  fever,  it 
would  be  bad  practice  to  give  it  in  the  smallest  quantity  ;  but  when  the 
fever  has  passed,  or  is  passing,  there  is  nothing  which  so  rapidly  subdues 
the  irritability  that  accompanies  extreme  weakness  ;  and  it  becomes  an 
excellent  tonic,  because  it  is  a  sedative. 

If  the  blue  or  green  vitriol,  or  cantharides,  have  been  pushed  too  far, 
opium  soonest  quiets  the  disorder  they  have  occasioned.  It  is  given  in 
doses  of  one  or  two  drachms  ;  either  the  powdered  opium  being  made  into 
a  ball,  or  the  crude  opium  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  given  with  its  sedi- 
ment. Other  medicines  are  usually  combined  with  it,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case. 

Externally,  it  is  useful  in  opthalmia.  In  the  form  of  decoction  of  the 
poppy  head  it  may  constitute  the  basis  of  an  anodyne  poultice ;  but  it  must 
not  he  given  in  union  with  any  alkali,  with  the  exception  of  chalk,  in  over- 
Durging  ;  nor  with  the  superacetaie  of  lead,  by  which  its  powers  are  mate- 
rially impaired,  nor  witli  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  copper,  or  iron. 

From  its  high  price  it  is  much  adulterated,  and  it  is  rare  to  meet  with  it 
m  a  state  of  purity.  Tiie  best  tests  are  its  smell,  its  taste,  its  toughness 
ami  pliancy,  its  fawn  or  l)rown  colour,  and  its  weight,  for  it  is  the  heaviest 
af  all  the  vegetable  extracts,  except  gum  arable;   yet  its  weight  is  often 


3J>S  THE  HORSE. 

fraudulfUly  increased  by  stones  and  bits  of  lead  being  concealed  In  it. 
Tile  Enjlisli  opium  is  almost  as  good  as  this  Turkish,  and  frequently  sold 
for  it  ;   but  is  distinguishable  by  its  blackness  and  softness. 

Palm  Oil,  when  genuine,  is  the  very  best  substance  that  can  be  used 
for  making  masses  and  balls.  It  has  a  pleasant  smell,  and  it  never  be- 
comes rancid. 

Pitch  is  used  to  give  adhesiveness  and  firmness  to  charges  and  plasters. 
The  common  pitch  is  quite  as  good  as  the  more  expensive  Burgundy  pitch. 
The  best  plaster  for  sandcrack  consists  of  one  pound  of  pitch  and  an  ounce 
of  yellow  bees-wax  melted  together. 

Physic. — Tlie  cases  which  require  physic,  the  composition  of  the  most 
effectual  and  safest  physic  ball,  and  the  mode  of  treatment  under  physic, 
liave  been  already  described  at  page  211. 

Potash. — Two  compounds  of  potash  are  used  in  veterinary  practice. 
The  Nitrate  of  Potash,  Nitre,  is  a  valuable  cooling  medicine,  and  a  mild 
diuretic,  and,  therefore,  it  should  enter  into  the  composition  of  every  fever 
ball.  Its  dose  is  from  two  to  four  drachms.  Grooms  often  dissolve  it  in 
the  water.  There  are  two  objections  to  this  ;  either  the  horse  is  nauseated, 
and  will  not  drink  so  much  water  as  he  ought;  or  the  salt  taste  of  the 
water  causes  considerable  thirst,  and  disinclination  to  solid  food.  Nitre, 
while  dissolving,  materially  lowers  the  temperature  of  water,  and  furnishes 
a  very  cold  and  useful  lotion  for  sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  and  other 
local  inflammations.  The  lotion,  however,  should  be  used  as  soon  as  the 
salt  is  dissolved,  for  it  quickly  becomes  as  warm  as  the  surrounding  air. 
The  Supertartrate  of  Potash,  Cream  of  Tartar,  is  a  mild  diuretic,  and 
combined  with  jEthiop's  mineral,  is  a  useful  alterative  in  obstinate  mange 
or  grease. 

Poultices. — Few  horsemen  are  aware  of  the  value  of  these  simple 
applications  in  abating  inflammation,  relieving  pain,  cleansing  wounds,  and 
disposing  them  to  heal.  They  are  fomentations  of  the  best  kind  continued 
much  longer  than  a  simple  fomentation  can  be.  In  all  inflammations  of 
the  foot  they  are  very  beneficial,  softening  the  horn,  hardened  by  the  heat 
of  the  foot,  and  contracted  and  pressing  on  the  internal  and  highly  sensible 
parts.  The  moisture  and  warmth  are  the  useful  parts  of  the  poultice ;  and 
that  poultice  is  the  best  for  general  purposes  in  which  moisture  and  warmth 
are  longest  retained.  Perspiration  is  most  abundantly  promoted  in  the 
part,  the  pores  are  opened,  swellings  are  relieved,  and  discharges  of  a 
healthy  nature  procured  from  wounds. 

Linseed  meal  forms  the  best  general  poultice,  because  it  longest  retains 
the  moisture.  Bran,  although  frequently  used  for  poultices,  is  objection- 
able, because  it  so  soon  becomes  dry.  To  abate  considerable  inflamma- 
tion, and  especially  in  a  wounded  part,  Goulard  may  be  added,  or  the 
linseed  meal  may  be  made  into  a  paste  with  a  decoction  of  poppy  heads. 
To  promote  a  healthy  discharge  from  an  old  or  foul  ulcer  ;  or  separation 
of  the  dead  from  the  living  parts,  in  the  process  of  what  is  called  coring 
out;  or  to  hasten  the  ripening  of  a  tumour  that  must  be  opened;  or  to 
cleanse  it  when  it  is  opened,  two  ounces  of  common  turpentine  may  be 
added  to  a  pound  of  linseed  meal :  but  nothing  can  be  so  absurd,  or  is  so 
injurious,  as  the  addition  of  turpentine  to  a  poultice  that  is  designed  to  be 
an  emollient.  The  drawing  poultices  and  stoppings  of  farriers  are  often 
highly  injurious,  instead  of  abating  inflammation. 

If  the  ulcer  smells  ofl^ensively,  two  ounces  of  powdered  charcoal  may 
be  added  to  the  linseed  meal,  or  the  poultice  may  be  made  of  water,  to 
which  a  solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  ot 
half  an  ounce  to  a  pound.    As  an  emollient  poultice  for  grease  and  cracKet* 


MEDICINES.  399 

heel?,  and  especially  if  accompanied  by  much  unpleasant  smell,  here  is 
nothing  preferable  to  a  poultice  of  mashed  carrots  with  charcoal.  For  old 
grease,  some  slight  stimulant  must  be  added,  as  a  iittle  yeast  or  the 
grounds  of  table  beer. 

There  are  two  errors  in  the  application  of  a  poultice,  and  particularly 
as  it  regards  the  legs.  It  is  often  put  on  too  tight,  by  which  the  return  ot 
the  blood  from  the  foot  is  prevented,  and  the  disease  is  increased  instead  uf 
lessened;  or  it  is  too  hot,  and  unnecessary  pain  is  given,  and  the  inflamma- 
tion aggravated. 

Powders. — Some  horses  are  very  difficult  to  ball  or  drench,  and  the 
violent  struggle  that  would  accompany  the  attempt  to  conquer  iheni  may 
heighten  the  fever  or  inflammation.  To  such  horses  powder  must  be 
given  in  mashes.  Emetic  tartar  and  digitalis  may  be  generally  uied 
in  cases  of  inflammation  or  fever;  or  emetic  tartar  for  worms;  or  calor»iel, 
and  even  the  farina  of  the  croton-nut  for  physic;  but  powders  are  too 
often  an  excuse  for  the  laziness  or  awksvardness  of  the  carter  or  groom. 
The  horse  frequently  refuses  them,  especially  if  his  appetite  has  otherwise 
begun  to  fail ;  the  powder  and  the  mash  are  wasted,  and  the  animui  is 
unnecessarily  nauseated.  All  medicine  should  be  given  in  the  form  of 
ball  or  drink. 

Raking. — This  consists  in  introducing  the  hand  into  the  horse's  rectum, 
and  drawing  out  any  hardened  dung  that  may  be  tiiere.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  costiveness  or  fever,  if  a  clyster  pipe  cannot  be  obtained;  but  an 
injection  will  better  effect  the  purpose,  and  with  less  inconvenience  to  the 
animal.  The  introduction  of  the  hand  into  the  rectum  is,  however,  useful 
to  ascertain  the  existence  of  a  stone  in  the  bladder,  or  the  degree  of  disten- 
sion  of  the  bladder  in  the  suppression  of  urine,  for  the  bladder  will  be 
easily  felt  below  the  gut;  and  at  the  same  time  by  the  heat  of  the  intestine, 
the  degree  of  inflammation  in  it  or  in  the  bladder  may  be  detected. 

Resin. — The  yellow  resin  is  that  which  remains  after  the  distillation  of 
oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  used  externally  to  give  consistence  to  ointments, 
and  to  render  them  slightly  stimulant. '  Internally  it  is  a  useful  diuretic, 
and  is  given  in  doses  of  five  or  six  drachms  made  into  a  ball  with  soft  soap. 
The  common  liquid  turpentine  is,  however,  preferable. 

Rowels. — The  manner  of  rowelling  has  been  described  at  page  186. 
As  exciting  inflammation  on  the  surface,  and  so  lessening  that  which  had 
previously  existed  in  a  neighbouring,  but  deeper-seated  part,  they  are 
decidedly  inferior  to  blisters,  for  they  do  not  act  so  quickly  nor  so  exten- 
sively;  therefore  they  should  not  be  used  in  acute  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  or  bowels,  or  any  vital  part.  When  the  inflammation,  however, 
although  not  intense,  has  long  continued,  rowels  will  be  serviceable  by  pro- 
ducing an  irritation  and  discharge  which  can  be  better  kept  up  than  by  a 
blister.  As  promoting  a  permanent,  although  not  very  considerable  dis- 
charge and  some  inflammation,  rowels  in  the  thighs  are  useful  in  swelled 
legs,  and  obstinate  grease.  If  fluid  is  thrown  out  under  the  skin  in  any 
other  part,  the  rowel  acts  as  a  permanent  drain.  When  sprain  of  the  joint 
or  the  muscles  of  the  shoulders  is  suspected,  a  rowel  in  the  chest  will  be 
serviceable.  The  wound  caused  by  a  rowel  will  readily  heal,  and  with  little 
blemish,  unless  the  useless  leather  of  the  farrier  has  been  inserted. 

Salt,  common. — See  Soda. 

Sedatives  are  medicines  which  subdue  irritation,  repress  spasmodic 
action,  or  deaden  pain.  We  will  not  inquire  whether  they  act  first  as 
stimulants;  if  they  do,  their  effect  is  exceedingly  transient,  and  is  quickly 
IbPowed  by  depression  and  diminished  action.  Digitalis,  hellebore,  opium, 
turpentine,  are  medicines  of  this  kind.     Their  effect  in  different  diseases. 


400  THE  HORSE. 

or  stages  of  disease,  and  the  circumstances  vvliicli  indicate  thf.  use  of  an\ 
one  of  them  in  preference  to  the  rest,  are  considered  under  their  own 
respective  titles. 

Silver. — One  combination  only  of  this  metal  is  used,  and  that  as  a  man- 
ageable and  excellent  caustic,  viz:  the  Lunar  Caustic.  It  is  far  [)referable 
to  the  liot  iron,  or  to  any  acid,  for  the  destruction  of  the  part,  if  a  horse 
should  have  been  bitten  by  a  rabid  dog;  and  it  stands  next  to  the  bulyr  of 
antimony  for  the  removal  of  fungus  generally. 

Soda. — The  Chloride  of  Soda  is  not  so  efficacious  for  the  removal  of 
unpleasant  smells  and  all  infection  as  the  chloride  of  lime,  but  it  is  exceed- 
ingly useful  in  changing  malignant,  and  corroding,  and  destructive  sores 
into  the  state  of  simple  ulcers,  and  in  ulcers  that  are  not  malignant  it  much 
hastens  the  cure.  Poll-evil,  and  fistulous  withers  are  much  benefited  by 
it,  and  all  farcy  ulcers.  It  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the 
solution  to  twenty-four  of  water. 

Common  Sa/i  (Chloride  of  Sodium)  is  very  extensively  employed  in  vete- 
rinary practice.  It  forms  an  efficacious  aperient  clyster;  a  solution  of  it 
has  even  been  given  as  an  aperient  drink.  Sprinkled  over  the  hay,  or  in  a 
mash,  it  is  very  palatable  to  sick  horses ;  and  in  that  languor  and  disin- 
clination to  food  which  remain  after  severe  illness,  few  things  will  so  soon 
recall  the  appetite  as  a  drink  composed  of  eight  ounces  of  salt  in  solution. 
To  horses  in  health  it  is  more  useful  than  is  generally  imagined,  as  pro- 
motingthe  digestion  of  the  food,  and,  consequently,  condition.  Externally 
applied,  there  are  few  better  lotions  for  inflamed  eyes  than  a  solution  of 
half  a  drachm  of  salt  in  four  ounces  of  water.  In  the  proportion  of  an 
ounce  of  salt  to  the  same  quantity  of  water,  it  is  a  good  embrocation  for 
sore  shoulders  and  backs;  and  if  it  does  not  always  disperse  warbles  and 
tumours,  it  takes  away  much  of  the  tenderness  of  the  skin. 

Soap  is  supposed  to  possess  a  diuretic  quality,  and  therefore  enters  into 
the  composition  of  some  diuretic  masses. — See  Resin.  By  many  practi- 
tioners it  is  made  an  ingredient  in  the  physic  ball,  but  uselessly  or  even 
injuriously  so;  for  if  the  aloes  are  finely  powdered  and  mixed  with  palm 
oil,  they  will  dissolve  readily  enough  in  the  bowels  without  the  aid  of  the 
soap,  while  the  action  of  the  soap  on  the  kidneys  will  impair  the  purgative 
effect  of  the  aloes. 

Starch  may  be  substituted  with  advantage  for  gruel  in  obstinate  cases 
of  purging,  both  as  a  clyster,  and  to  support  the  strength  of  tlie  animal. 

Stoppings  constitute  an  important,  but  too  often  neglected  part  of  stable 
management.  W  a  horse  is  irregularly  or  seldom  worked,  his  feet  are 
deprived  of  moisture;  they  become  hard,  and  unyielding,  and  brittle,  and 
disposed  to  corn,  and  contraction,  and  founder.  The  very  muck  of  a  neg- 
lected and  filthy  stable  would  be  preferable  to  habitual  standing  on  thy 
cleanest  litter  without  stopping.  In  wounds,  and  bruises,  and  corns,  moist- 
lire  is  even  more  necessary  to  supple  the  horn,  and  relieve  its  pressure  on 
the  tender  parts  beneath.  As  a  common  stopping,  nothing  is  better 
than  cow-dung  with  a  fourth  part  of  clay  beaten  well  into  it,  and  confined 
with  splents  from  the  binding  of  the  broom,  or  the  larger  twig  of  the 
broom.  In  cases  of  wounds  a  little  tar  may  be  added ;  but  tar,  as  a 
common  stopping,  is  too  stimulating  and  drying.  Pads  made  of  thick 
felt  have  lately  been  contrived,  which  are  fitted  to  the  sole,  and,  swelling 
on  being  wetted,  are  sufficiently  confined  by  the  shoe.  Having  been 
well  filled  with  water,  they  will  continue  moist  during  the  night  Tiiey 
are  very  useful  in  gentlemen's  stables;  but  the  cow-dung  and  olay  are 
sufficient  for  the  farmer. 

SuLFiu'R    is   the    basis   of   the    most    effectual    application    foi    mange 


MEDICINES.  401 

It  is  an  excellent  alterative,  combined  usually  with  antimony  and  nitres 
ar.d  particularly  for  mange,  surfeit,  grease,  hide-bound  or  want  of  condi- 
tion;  and  it  is  a  useful  ingredient  in  the  cough  and  fever  ball.  When 
given  alone,  it  seems  to  have  little  effect,  except  as  a  laxative  in  doses  of  six 
or  eight  ounces;  but  there  are  much  better  aperients.  The  black  sulphur 
consists  principally  of  the  dross  after  the  pure  sulphur  has  been  separated. 

Tar  melted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  grease  forms  the  usual  stopping 
of  the  farrier.  It  is  a  warm  or  slightly  stimulant,  and  therefore  useful, 
dressing  for  bruised  or  wounded  feet;  but  its  principal  virtue  seems  to 
consist  in  preventing  the  penetration  of  dirt  and  water  to  the  wounded  part. 
As  a  common  stopping  it  has  been  stated  to  be  objectionable.  From  its 
warm  and  drying  properties  it  is  the  usual  and  proper  basis  for  thrush 
ointments;  and  from  its  adhesiveness,  and  slightly  stimulating  power,  it 
often  forms  an  ingredient  in  applications  for  mange;  some  practitioners  give 
it,  and  advantageously,  mixed  with  the  usual  cough  medicine,  and  in  doses 
of  two  or  three  drachms  for  chronic  cough.  The  common  tar  is  as 
effectual  as  the  Barbadoes  for  every  veterinary  purpose.  The  oil,  or  spirit 
^rectified  oil)  of  tar  is  sometimes  used  alone  for  the  cure  of  mange,  but  it 
is  not  to  be  depended  upon.  The  spirit  of  tar,  mixed  with  double  the 
quantity  of  fish  oil,  is,  from  its  peculiar  penetrating  property,  one  of  the 
best  applications  for  hard  and  brittle  feet.  It  should  be  well  rul)bed  with 
1  brush,  both  on  the  crust  and  sole,  every  night. 

Tinctures. — The  medicinal  properties  of  many  substances  are  extracted 
by  spirit  of  wine,  but  in  such  small  quantities  as  to  be  scarcely  available 
in  veterinary  practice  for  internal  use.  So  much  aloes  or  opium  must  be 
given  to  produce  effect  on  the  iiorse,  that  the  quantity  of  spirit  necessary  to 
dissolve  it  would  be  injurious  or  might  be  fatal.  As  applications  to  wounds 
or  inflamed  surfaces,  the  tinctures  of  aloes,  digitalis,  myrrh,  and  opium, 
are  highly  useful. 

Tobacco,  in  the  hands  of  the  skilful  veterinarian,  may  be  advantageously 
employed  in  cases  of  extreme  costiveness,  or  dangerous  cholic;  but 
^hould  never  be  permitted  to  be  used  as  an  external  application  for  the  cure 
of  mange,  or  an.  internal  medicine  to  promote  a  fine  coat. 

Tonics  are  valuable  medicines  when  judiciously  employed;  but,  like 
cordials,  they  have  been  fatally  abused.  Many  a  horse  recovering  from 
severe  disease  has  been  destroyed  by  their  too  early,  or  too  free  use.  The 
veterinary  surgeon  occasionally  administers  them  injuriously,  in  his  anxiety 
to  gratify  the  impatience  of  his  employer.  The  mild  vegetable  tonics, 
chamomile,  gentian,  and  ginger,  and,  perhaps,  the  carbonate  of  iron,  may 
sometimes  be  given  with  benefit,  and  may  hasten  the  perfect  recovery  of  the 
patient;  but  there  are  few  principles  more  truly  founded  on  reason  and 
experience,  than  that  disease  once  removed,  the  powers  of  nature  are  suf- 
ficient to  re-establish  health.  Against  the  more  powerful  mineral  tonics, 
except  for  the  particular  purposes  that  have  been  pointed  out  under  the 
Troper  heads,  the  horse  proprietor  and  the  veterinarian  should  boon  his  guard. 

Turpentine. — The  common  liquid  turpentine  has  been  described  as  one 
tf  the  best  diuretics,  in  doses  of  half  an  ounce,  and  made  into  a  ball  with 
linseed  meal  and  half  a  drachm  of  ginger.  It  is  added  to  the  calamine  or 
any  other  mild  ointment  to  render  it  stimulating  and  digestive,  and  from  its 
adhesiveness  and  slight  stimulating  power,  it  is  an  ingredient  in  mange 
ointments.  Tlie  oil  of  turpentine  is  an  excellent  antispasmodic.  For  the 
renioval  of  cholic  it  stands  unrivalled.  (See  page  206.)  Forming  a  tine- 
ture  with  cantharides,  it  is  the  basis  of  the  "sweating  blister,''  used  for  old 
•trains   and    swellings.      As  a  blister  it  is  far  inferior   to   the   common 


^(j<^  THE  HORSE. 

oiniment,  as  a  stimulant  frequently  applied  it,  must  be  sufficiently  lowered, 
or  it  may  blemish. 

ViNEGjiii  is  a  very  useful  application  for  sprains  and  bruises.  Equal 
parts  of  boiling  water  and  cold  vinegar  will  form  a  good  fomentation. 
Extract  of  lead,  or  bay  salt,  may  be  added  with  some  slight  advantage. 
As  an  internal  remedy,  vinegar  is  rarely  given,  nor  has  it,  except  in  verv 
large  doses,  any  medicinal  power.  The  veterinarian  and  the  horse-owner 
should  manufacture  their  own  vinegar.  That  which  they  buy  may  con- 
tain sulphuric  acid,  and  pungent  spices,  and  irritate  the  inflamed  part  to 
which  it  is  applied. 

Wax. — The  yellow  wax  is  used  in  charges  and  some  plasters  to  render 
them  less  brittle. 

Zinc. — The  impure  carbonate  of  zinc,  under  the  name  of  Calamine 
Powder,  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  valuable  healing  ointment.  Five 
parts  of  lard  and  oae  of  resin  are  melted  together,  and  when  these  begin  to 
get  cool,  two  parts  of  the  calamine,  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  are 
stirred  in.  The  calamine  is  sometimes  sprinkled  with  advantage  on  cracked 
heels,  and  superficial  sores. 

The  sulphate  of  zinc.  White  Vitriol,  in  the  proportion  of  three  grains  to 
an  ounce  of  water,  is  an  excellent  application  in  opthalmia,  when  the 
inflammatory  stage  is  passing  over;  and  quittor  is  most  successfully  treated 
by  a  saturated  solution  of  white  vitriol  being  injected  into  the  sinuses.  A 
solution  of  white  vitriol  of  less  strength  forms  a  wash  for  grease  that  is 
occasjonallv  useful,  when  the  alum  or  blue  vitriol  does  not  appear  to  succeed 


ON   DRAUGHT. 


The  invesliagation  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power,  to  which 
this  treatise  is  devoted,  and  wiiich  will  form  an  appropriate  supplement  to 
an  account  of  the  horse — has  long  and  frequently  occupied  tlie  attention  of 
theoretical  and  practical  men;  so  much  so,  that  our  object  will  be  to  collect 
what  has  been  said  and  done,  and,  by  arranging  it  methodically,  to  show  in 
what  manner  the  information  may  be  applied  and  rendered  useful,  rathei 
than  to  attempt  to  produce  any  thing  absolutely  new  upon  the  subject. 
Notwithstanding,  however,  all  that  has  been  written,  if  we  open  any  of  the 
authors  who  have  treated  the  subject,  in  the  hopes  of  obtaining  direct 
practical  information,  we  shall  be  much  disappointed. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  particular  result  of  every  methoo 
known  and  in  use  for  the  conveyance  of  a  load  from  one  spot  to  another, 
by  animal  power,  whether  by  sledges,  by  wheel-carriages,  or  by  water,  as 
in  canals,  being  so  constantly  and  necessarily  a  matter  of  practical  experi- 
ment, would  have  been  accurately  known  and  recorded ;  but  the  contrary 
is  too  nmch  the  case. 

The  theoretical  investigations  have  been  made  with  too  little  reference  to 
what  really  takes  place  in  practice;  and  the  practical  portion  of  the  subject 
has  not  generally  been  treated  in  that  useful  and  comprehensive  manne> 
which  it  deserves  and  demands. 

In  fact,  there  is  hardly  a  question  in  practical  mechanics  on  which, 
though  much  has  been  written,  opinions  are  apparently  less  fixed  ;  or  on 
which  the  information  we  do  possess  is  in  a  less  defined  and  available  state. 

One  great  object  of  research  has  been  the  average  force  of  traction  or 
power  of  a  horse. 

If  we  consult  the  most  approved  authors  and  experimentalists,  Desa- 
guilliers,  Smeaton,  and  others,  we  find  this  power  variously  stated  as  equal 
to  80  lbs.,  100  lbs.,  150  lbs.,  and  even  200  lbs:  we  are  theret'ore  left  almost 
as  ignorant  as  before;  but  the  knowledge  of  this  average  power  is  for- 
tunately of  little  or  no  use  in  practice.  It  is  the  application  and  efl^ect  of 
that  power  which  alone  is  useful;  and  that  is  governed  by  circumstances 
always  varying  and  dissimilar,  such  as  the  form  and  state  of  the  road,  the 
structure  of  the  carriage,  the  size  and  friction  of  the  wheels,  &c.,  &;c. ;  and 
scarcely  any  two  cases  of  draught  would,  as  regards  the  efTect  of  the  power 
of  the  tiorse,  present  precisely  the  same  result. 

The  difference  of  opinion  here  manifest  is  still  more  remarkable  when 
existing  on  a  purely  practical  question. 

In  the  inquiries  instituted  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
I80e  and  1808,  on  the  subject  of  roads  and  carriages,  two  well-informed 
practical  men,  Mr.  Russel,  of  Exeter,  and  Mr.  Deacon  of  Islington,  the 
most  extensive  carriers  in  England,  were  examined  upon  an  important 
question,  viz;  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  a  particular  form  of  wheel. 
It  was  stated  by  one  that,  having  given  the  wheels  in  question  a  twelve, 
month's  trial,  he  found   that  they  tended  to  injure  the   road   and   increase 


401  ON  DRAUGHT. 

the  tlrauglit  in  the  proportion  of  four  to  five;  while  it  was  stated  by  the 
other,  who  had  also  made  the  experiment  on  a  large  scale,  that  he  found 
tiiey  materially  assisted  in  keeping  the  roads  in  repair,  and  diminished  the 
draught  in  the  proportion  of  five  to  four. 

Amidst  such  conflicting  and  contradictory  opinions,  it  would  appear 
difficult  to  come  to  any  useful  conclusion,  and  we  might  naturally  be  dis- 
posed to  adopt  a  very  common  practice,  that  of  taking  an  average  result. 

A  little  consideration,  however,  will  show  that  these  apparent  discrepan- 
cies and  contradictions  arise,  in  great  measure,  from  attempting  to  gener- 
alise  and  apply  to  practice  the  results  of  experiments  made  in,  and  there- 
fore applicable  only  to,  particular  cases. 

The  results  of  experiments  thus  made  at  various  times  and  places, 
and  without  that  identity  of  condition  and  circumstances  so  necessary 
when  standard  rules  are  to  to  be  detiuced  from  them,  have,  nevertheless, 
been  used  for  that  purpose;  and  this  circumstance,  combined  with  the 
various  and  disiinct  points  to  be  considered  before  we  can  estimate 
accurately  what  even  constitutes  draught,  will  perhaps  account  for  the 
disagreement  amongst  the  practical  and  scientific  authorities  alluded  to  on 
the  subject. 

We  must,  therefore,  examine  severally  all  these  points ;  and  then,  by 
carefully  considering  their  relative  bearing  upon  rach  other,  we  may  hope 
to  reconcile  the  difierent  opinions  advanced,  without  which  we  cannot 
collect  from  them  any  information  which  will  ultimately  lead  us  to  a  prac- 
tical  and  beneficial  result. 

We  shall  proceed  to  divide  the  subject  under  separate  and  distinct 
heads,  and  under  each  head  to  examine  the  methods  or  means  now  in 
use,  or  which  have  been  proposed,  and  endeavour  to  estimate  their  com- 
parative  advantages  by  availing  ourselves  of  what  is  already  written  and 
known  upon  each. 

It  will  be  necessary  first,  however,  to  explain  and  define  clearly  some 
terms  wliich  will  occur  frequently  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  and  especially 
the  word  "draught,"  wliich  is  the  title  itself  of  the  treatise. 

This  word  is  used  in  such  a  very  general  and  vague  sense,  that  it  would 
be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  give  an  explanation  which  should  apply 
equally  to  all  its  different  meanings. 

In  the  expression  draught  by  animal  power,  it  would  seem  to  mean  the 
action  itself  of  drawing,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  frequently  used  to 
signify  the  amount  of  power  employed;  also,  the  degree  of  resistance,  as> 
when  we  say,  the  draught  of  a  horse,  or  the  draught  of  a  carriage.  Draught 
power  is  also  an  expression  used.  We  shall,  however,  in  the  course  of 
this  treatise,  confine  our  use  of  the  word  to  the  two  meanings — draught. 
the  action  of  dragging — and  draught,  the  resistance  to  the  power  employed 
to  drag  any  given  weight. 

Force  of  traction  is  another  expression  requiring  explanation  ;  but  hert; 
we  must  enter  into  more  detail,  and  shall  give  at  once  a  practical  illustra- 
tion of  our  meaning. 

A  force  is  most  conveniently  measured  by  the  weight  which  it  would  be 
capable  of  raising ;  but  it  is  not  therefore  necessarily  applied  vertically,  in 
which  direction  weigh'  or  gravity  acts. 

If  a  weight  of  100  !bs.  be  suspended  to  a  rope,  it  is  clearly  exerting  upon 
this  rope  a  force  of  100  lbs.;  but  if  the  rope  be  passed  over  a  pulley  void 
of  friction,  and  continued  horizontally,  or  in  any  other  direction,  and  then 
attached  to  some  fixed  point,  the  weight  still  acts  upon  all  parts  of  this 
rope,  and  consequently  upon  the  point  to  which  it  is  fixed,  with  a  force 
equal  to  100  lbs. ;  and  so  inversely,  if  a  horse  be  pulling  at  a   rope  A^.'th  a 


ON  DRAUGHT.  40«i 

force  which,  if  the  rope  were  passed  over  a  pulley,  would  raise  100  lbs., 
the  force  of  traction  of  the  horse  is  in  this  case  100  lbs.  Spring  steel- 
yards being  now  commonly  in  use,  we  may  be  permitted  to  refer  to  them 
as  affording  another  clear  exemplification  of  our  meaning.  In  pulling  ai 
a  steelyard  of  this  description,  whether  the  force  be  exerted  horizontally 
or  vertically,  the  index  will,  of  course,  show  the  same  amount;  and  con- 
sequently, if  the  strength  of  the  horse  be  measured  by  attaching  the  traces 
to  on3  of  these  steelyards,  the  number  of  pounds  indicated  on  the  dial  will 
be  the  exact  measure  of  the  strain  the  horse  exerts,  and  the  amount  of 
strain  is  called  his  "force  of  traction." 

Having  fixed  as  nearly  as  possible  the  meaning  of  these  terms,  which 
will  frequently  occur  in  the  course  of  our  progress,  we  shall  proceed  to  the 
division  of  the  subject. 

It  is  evident  that  there  are  three  distinct  agents  and  points  of  considera- 
tion in  the  operation  of  draught,  which  are  quite  independent  of  each 
other.  They  are — First,  the  moving  power  and  the  mode  of  applying  it; 
Secondly,  the  vehicle  for  conveying  the  weight  to  be  moved;  Thirdly,  the 
canal,  road,  or  railway,  or  what  may  be  generally  termed  the  channel  of 
conveyance. 

All  these  individually  influence  the  amount  of  draught,  and  require 
separate  consideration  ;  but  the  mode  of  combining  these  different  agents 
has  also  a  material  effect  upon  the  result:  consequently,  they  must  be 
considered  in  relation  to  each  other;  and  to  obtain  the  maximum  useful 
efiect,  with  the  greatest  economy,  in  the  employment  of  any  given  power, 
it  is  evidently  necessary  that  these  different  agents  should  not  only  each 
be  the  best  adapted  to  its  purpose,  and  perfect  to  the  greatest  possible 
degree,  but  also  that  they  should  all  be  combined  to  the  greatest  possible 
advantage. 

We  shall  proceed  at  once,  then,  to  examine  the  different  agents  now 
employed,  the  modes  of  applying  them,  and  the  proportionate  etfecta 
produced. 

And,  first,  with  regard  to  the  species  of  moving  power: 

This  may  be  of  two  kinds,  animal  and  mechanical. 

By  animal  power  we  mean  the  direct  application  of  the  strength  of  any 
animal  to  dragging  or  pulling,  as  in  the  simple  case  of  a  horse  dragging 
a  cart.  By  mechanical,  the  application  of  any  power  through  the  inter- 
vention of  machinery;  the  source  of  power  in  this  latter  case  may,  how- 
ever, be  animal  strength,  or  a  purely  mechanical  agent,  as,  for  instance, 
a  steam-engine. 

The  latter  is  the  only  species  of  mechanical  power  which  it  has  been 
attempted  to  apply  practically  to  locomotion  ;  and  therefore  that  alone  we 
purpose  to  compare  with  the  animal  power. 

Now,  although  these  two  powers,  viz:  simple  animal  power  and  the 
steam-engine,  may  in  most  instances  be  applied  so  as  to  produce  the  same 
effect,  and  may,  therefore,  to  a  superficial  observer  appear  similar,  yet  there 
do  exist  such  essential  differences  in  the  mode  of  action,  or  the  means  by 
which  the  effect  is  produced,  that  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  one 
may  be  used,  wherein  the  other  may  be  totally  inapplicable. 

In  this  treatise,  draught  by  animal  power  is  indeed  the  principal  object 
of  consideration ;  out  as,  at  the  present  moment,  there  appears  to  be  a 
great  effort  making  to  supersede  animal  power  entirely  by  mechanical — to 
dismiss  our  old  servant,  the  horse,  and  supply  his  place  by  the  steam- 
engme — it  may  be  as  well,  in  justice  to  the  former,  to  say  a  few  words  in 
his  defence,  and  to  take  a  rapid  and  general  view  of  the  distinguisliing 
features  of  the  two  agents. 


406  ^^  DRAUGHT. 

To  enter  into  all  their  respective  merits,  and  to  weigh  their  comparative 
advantages  under  all  circumstances,  would  involve  us  in  many  questions 
foreign  to  our  immediate  point  of  consideration,  and  would  embrace  sub- 
jects which  may  supply  matter  for  future  consideration  well  wortliy  of  our 
attention.  It  is  sufHcient  for  our  present  purpose  to  show  that  there  still 
exist  great  objections  to  the  universal  application  of  machinery  to  draught, 
objections  which  do  not  equally  apply  to  the  use  of  animal  power;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  that  there  are  many  advantages  in  the  latter,  which  are  not 
yet  obtained  by  the  former;  and  that  animal  power  continues,  tor  all  the 
ordinary  purposes  of  traffic  upon  common  roads,  to  be  the  most  simple  in  its 
application,  and  certain  in  its  effect. 

We  shall  confine  ourselves  particularly  to  the  consideration  of  that  part 
of  the  question  which  relates  to  the  slow  transport  of  heavy  goods,  as  being 
the  most  important  branch  of  the  subject,  especially  for  agricultural  pur. 
poses.  Economy  is,  of  course,  the  grand  desideratum  in  the  consideration 
of  this  question  ;  consequently,  the  comparative  expense  of  the  two  powers, 
supposing  them  for  the  moment  equally  convenient  and  applicable,  will 
first  demand  our  attention. 

A  ditficulty  arises  here,  however,  from  the  want  of  a  certain  measure  of 
ooraparison.  The  power  of  a  one-horse  engine  is  by  no  means  exactly 
the  same  thing  as  that  of  a  horse.  As  we  have  before  stated,  the  mode  of 
applying  them  being  different,  the  variations  in  the  results  are  different, 
and  consequently  the  effects  do  not  bear  a  constant  proportion  to  each 
other,  under  different  circumstances;  we  must  therefore  be  careful  not  to 
fall  into  the  mistake  which  we  have  ourselves  pointed  oui  as  a  very  com- 
mon source  of  error,  viz:  the  drawing  general  conclusions  from  data 
obtained  in  a  particular  case.  We  shall  take  the  power  of  the  horse,  and 
that  of  the  steam-engine  as  ascertained  practically  on  railways,  where  the 
effect  of  each  is  less  influenced  by  accidental  circumstances,  and  conse- 
quently can  be  better  ascertained  than  on  a  road.  We  shall  confine  our 
calculations  of  expense  to  this  particular  case,  and  then  endeavour  to 
discover  how  far  the  same  results  are  to  be  expected,  or  what  modifications 
are  likely  to  take  place,  and  what  alterations  are  to  be  made  in  the  results 
under  different  circumstances.  As  regards  the  first,  viz:  the  comparative 
cost  of  animal  and  mechanical  power  on  a  railway,  we  cannot  do  better 
than  quote  the  words  of  the  late  Mr.  Tredgold  upon  this  subject,  and  we 
accordingly  extract  the  following  from  iiis  work  upon  Railways: 

"  The  relative  expense  of  different  moving  powers  for  railways  is  an 
interesting  inquiry,  and  the  same  materials  being  necessary  to  estimate 
the  absolute  expense  for  any  time  or  place,  it  is  desirable  to  give  some 
particulars,  to  aid  the  researches  of  those  who  wish  to  make  such  com- 
parative  estimates.     The  annual  expense  of  a  horse  dependis  on — 

"  1.   The  interest  of  purchase-money. 

"2.   Decrease  of  value- 

"  3.   Hazard  of  loss. 

"4.   Value  of  food. 

''5.   Harness,  shoeing,  and  farriery.  , 

"6.   Rent  of  stabling. 

"7.   Expense  of  attendance. 

"According  to  the  average  duration  of  a  horse  in  a  state  fit  for  labour, 
of  the  description  required  on  a  railway,  the  first  three  items  may  be 
estimated  at  one-fourth  of  the  purchase-money ;  the  food,  harness,  shoo- 
ing, &c.,  included  in  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th,  will  most  likely  not  exceed 
40/.  per  annum,  nor  yet  be  much  short  of  that  amount;  and  supposing 
one  man  to  attend  to  two  horses,  this  would  add  15/.  12*.  iftlie  man's  wages 


ON  DRAUGHT.  *  407 

were  2s.  per  day;  and,  at  this  rate,  the  labour  of  a  horse  of  the  value  of 
20/.  would  cost  60/.  125.  per  year;  or,  since  there  are  312  working  days 
in  the  year,  the  daily  expense  would  be  Ss.  lO^d.,  or  186  farthings.  But 
the  power  of  a  horse  is  about  125  lbs.  when  travelling  at  the  rate  of  three 
miles  per  hour,  and  tlie  day's  work  eighteen  miles. 

"The  annual  expense  of  a  high-pressure  locomotive  engine,  or  steam 
carriage,  consists  of — 

"1.   The  interest  of  the  first  cost. 

"2.   Decrease  of  value. 

"3.   Hazard  of  accidents. 

*'4.   Value  of  coals  and  water. 

"5.   Renewals  and  repairs. 

"6.   Expense  of  attendance. 

"It  is  difficult  to  procure  these  particulars  from  the  experience  of  tnose 
wl  I  employ  engines;  we  will  therefore  annex,  by  way  of  example,  such 
sums  as  we  think  likely  to  cover  the  expense.  The  first  cost  of  the  engine 
and  its  carriage  may  be  stated  at  50/.  per  horse  power,  and  its  decrease  of 
value  and  hazard  will  render  its  annual  expense  about  one-fifth  of  its  first 
cost,  or  10/.  per  annum  per  horse  power.  The  expense  cf  fuel  and  water 
per  day  will  be  not  less  than  one  bushel  and  a  half  of  coals  per  horse 
power,  and  fourteen  cubic  feet  of  water;  and,  taking  the  coals  at  6d.  per 
bushel,  and  the  water  and  loading  with  fuel  at  3d.,  the  annual  expense 
will  be  15/.  125.;  the  renewals  and  repairs,  at  20  per  cent,  on  the  first 
cost,  will  be  10/.,  which  is  as  little  as  can  be  expected  to  cover  them. 
Attendance,  suppose  one  man  and  one  boy  for  each  six-horse  engine,  at 
6s.  per  day,  or  Is.  per  day  for  each  horse  power,  or  15/.  12^.  per  annum; 
therefore  the  total  annual  expense  of  one-horse  power  would  be  51/.  45., 
or  158  farthings  per  day."  This  power  is  equal  to  a  force  of  traction  of 
166|  lbs.  for  the  same  number  of  miles  per  day  as  the  horse;  but  from 
this  gross  amount  of  power  we  must  deduct  that  necessary  to  move  the 
engine  with  its  supply  of  coals:  this  will  reduce  it  at  least  to  155  lbs.; 
consequently,  in  the  one  case  we  have  a  force  of  traction  of  125  lbs.,  at 
an  expense  of  186  farthings,  and,  in  the  other,  a  force  of  155  lbs.  at  an 
expense  of  158  farthings;  and  reducing  them  both  to  one  standard  quantity 
of  work  done,  we  find  the  expense  of  the  horse  is  |||  =  1.4&8,  and  of  the 
locomotive  engine  1.019,  or  about  as  147  is  to  100.  In  this  case,  therefore, 
there  appears  to  be  a  decided  economy  in  the  use  of  the  steam-engine,  and 
accordingly  its  application  has  become  very  general,  and  is  becoming  more 
550  every  day. 

Let  us  now  examine  what  alterations  are  requisite,  before  we  can 
apply  these  calculations  to  the  case  of  draught  upon  common  roads.  Sup- 
posing both  species  of  power  equally  convenient  and  applicable,  and 
confining  our  observations  merely  to  the  amount  of  power  and  propor- 
tionate  expense. 

The  force  of  traction  of  the  horse,  and  the  yearly  cost,  will  remain  so 
nearly  the  same,  that  for  our  present  purpose  we  may  consider  them  quite 
unaltered.     Not  exactly  so  with  the  locomotive  engine. 

All  the  parts  of  the  machine  must  be  made  much  stronger  and  heavier, 
and  consequently  more  expensive  for  road  work  than  for  a  railway,  and, 
therefore,  the  first  cost  will  be  greater — the  wear  and  tear  will  also  be 
greater,  and  as  the  work  will  be  more  variable,  the  consumption  of  fuel 
will  be  increased  as  well  as  the  price,  which,  generally  speaking,  will  be 
much  less  on  a  line  of  raihvay,  than  it  can   possibly  be  elsewhere. 

Still,  all  these  circumstances  will  not  influence  the  result  so  much  as  the 
increased  effect  of  the  weight  of  tlie  engine.     On  a  railway  with  the  car. 


408  ON  DRAUGHT. 

riage  as  now  constructed,  the  force  of  contraction  is  not  nnuch  mere  than 
Tso  "'"  2^i(r  "'"  ^''^  weight  moved;  consequently,  the  power  necessary  to 
move  the  engine  itself  is  not  very  considerable.  On  a  road,  however,  this 
proportion  is  materially  altered;  here  the  average  force  required  to  move  a 
well-constructed  carriage  cannot  be  estimated  in  practice,  at  less,  even 
when  the  roads  are  in  good  repair,  than  ^' ^ ;  the  engine,  according  to  the 
construction  of  the  best  locomotive  engines  now  in  use,  will  weigh,  with 
its  carriage  and  fuel,  at  least  one-lialf  ton,  or  1120  lbs.  per  hoise  power,  and 
^L  of  1120  is  nearly  45  lbs.,  wiiich  we  have  to  deduct  from  the  gross 
power  of  the  engine,  and  which  leaves  only  121|-  lbs.  as  the  available 
power.  The  proportional  expense  of  the  horse  and  the  steam-engine  is 
now  therefore  about  as  115  to  100,  and  this  without  taking  into  account  the 
causes  of  increased  expenditure  already  alluded  to  as  regards  the  prime 
cost,  the  repairs,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel.  From  these  calculations  it 
would  appear,  that  even  if  mechanical  power  was  found  as  convenient  and 
as  applicable  in  practice  as  horse  power,  still  no  great  economy  can  be 
expected  from  the  employment,  upon  common  roads,  of  small  locomotive 
engines,  such  as  the  best  of  those  now  in  use,  and  known  to  tlie  public, 
unless  it  be  in  cases  where  other  means  may  fail  to  produce  some  particu- 
lar effect  which  may  be  required;  if,  for  instance,  a  considerable  velocity 
is  necessary,  the  power  of  a  horse  is  very  nearly  exhausted  in  moving  his 
own  body,  and  then  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  mechanical  agent,  in 
which  power  may  always  be  exchanged  for  a  proportional  velocity,  will 
have  some  advantages  on  a  very  good  road,  which  in  fact  approaches  very 
nearly  to  a  railway.  But  in  every  case  in  which  velocity  is  not  a  princi- 
pal object,  as  in  the  one  now  under  consideration,  and  where,  consequently, 
little  momentum  is  acquired,  and  frequent  though  slight  obstructions  occur, 
as  on  an  ordinary  road,  an  animal  appears  to  possess  decided  advantages. 
He  adapts  himself  admirably  to  the  work,  increasing  or  diminishing  his 
efforts  according  to  the  variations  of  the  draught,  resting  himself,  as  it  were, 
and  acquiring  vigour  where  his  utmost  strength  is  not  called  for,  and  thus 
becomes  enabled  to  make  exertions  far  beyond  his  average  strength  where 
any  impediment  or  obstruction  is  to  be  overcome.  Indeed,  he  appears 
rather  to  increase  the  average  effect  of  his  powers  by  these  alternations  of 
exertion  and  comparative  relaxation :  and  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  draught  will,  in  an  ordinary  road,  frequently  vary  in  the  proportion  of 
six  or  eight  to  one,  and  that  these  changes  may  succeed  each  other 
suddenly,  the  importance  of  such  an  accommodating  faculty  will  be  imme- 
diately appreciated. 

By  mechanical  power,  such  as  a  steam-engine  affords,  these  advantages 
are  not  easily  obtained.  Without  great  weight  or  rapid  motion  no  momen- 
tum can  be  acquired;  and  the  carriage  itself,  not  being  in  rapid  motion, 
and  the  necessary  economy  in  weight  precluding  the  use  of  a  fly-wheel, 
any  small  obstruction  will  check,  and,  perhaps,  totally  stop  the  machine. 
For  instance,  supposing  the  carriage  to  be  advancing  steadily  under  the 
effect  of  a  force  of  traction  of  500  lbs.,  and  that  a  stone  or  rut  suddenly 
causes  a  resistance,  which  it  would  require  000  or  800  lbs.  to  overcome,  a 
case  by  no  means  rare  even  on  tolerable  roads;  if  the  impetus  or  momen- 
tum of  the  mass  be  not  sufficient  to  carry  it  over  this  obstruction,  the 
machine  must  stop  until  some  increased  power  be  given  to  it. 

It  is  also  to  be  remembered,  that  what  we  are  accustomed,  in  practice, 
to  consider  as  the  average  power  of  a  horse,  is  the  average  excess  remain- 
ing over  and  above  that  necessary  to  carry  his  own  body ;  and  that  in  all 
ordiqary  cases  he  is  able  to  maintain  and  continue  nearly  the  same  excr- 
tions,  although   the  comparative  draught  of  the   carriage  be  considerably 


ON  DRAUGHT.  40'J 

increased.  Thus,  if  the  road  he  slightly  muddy  or  sandy,  or  newly  j; rav- 
elled, the  draught,  as  we  shall  see  more  accurately  laid  down  when  wn 
come  to  the  subject  of  wheeled-carriages,  will  be  double  and  even  treble 
what  it  is  on  the  same  road  when  freed  tVom  dust  or  dirt;  l)iit  the  average 
power  of  the  horse  remains  nearly  the  same,  and,  practically  speaking, 
equal  under  both  circumstances;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  power  necessarv 
to  move  the  weight  of  the  horse's  body,  which  forms  no  inconsiderable  por 
tion  of  his  whole  power,  is  not  materially  increased  by  a  state  of  road 
which  will  even  treble  the  draught  of  the  carriage;  consequently,  the 
excess,  or  available  portion  of  his  power,  remains  unimpaired,  and  the  full 
benefit  of  it,  as  well  as  of  any  increased  exertions  of  the  animal,  is  felt  and 
is  applied  solely  to  dragging  the  load. 

Not  so  with  a  locomotive  steam-engine,  because  beyond  the  power  neces- 
sary to  perform  the  work  of  dragging  the  load,  an  additional  power  must  be 
provided  to  move  the  engine  itself.  In  other  words,  if  an  engine  of  ten- 
horse  power  be  capable  of  dragging  a  certain  load,  the  weight  of  this 
engine  forming  a  portion  of  the  load  to  be  moved,  a  corresponding  portion 
of  the  power  is  unprofitably  absorbed  in  moving  it,  and  the  excess,  oi 
remaining  power,  is  alone  available  for  useful  purposes,  and  can  alone  be 
compared  to  the  animal  or  horse  power.  Now,  if  the  draught  is  augmented, 
as  we  have  just  supposed,  by  any  sand,  dirt,  or  roughness  of  the  road,  or 
any  other  impediment,  the  fjrce  required  to  move  the  useless  weigjit 
(of  the  engine)  is  proportionably  increased ;  it  may  even,  as  we  have 
stated,  be  doubled  or  trebled  :  and  the  whole  power  of  the  engine  remaining 
the  same,  the  surplus  or  remaining  portion  is  considerably  diminished,  and 
that  at  the  very  moment  when,  as  before  stated,  it  produces  only  one-half 
or  one-third  tiie  effect. 

Moreover,  if  at  any  part  of  the  road  a  power  equal  to  twenty  horses  is 
required,  the  engine,  as  regards  its  construction,  must  be  a  twenty-horse 
engine.  It  is  erroneous  to  suppose  that  a  steam-engine,  because  it  is  a  high- 
pressure  engine,  can  therefore,  as  occasion  requires,  be  worked  ibr  any 
length  of  time  beyond  its  nominal  power,  by  merely  raising  the  steam. 
Every  part  of  a  machine  is  calculated  and  arranged  for  a  certain  pressure 
and  corresponding  power,  and  that  is  the  real  power  of  it.  It  is  optional 
to  work  at  or  below  that  power,  but,  if  below,  it  will  be  to  a  disadvantage, 
and  the  bulk  and  weight  of  the  machine  will  be  as  great  as  if  it  were 
always  worked  to  its  full  extent,  and  both  have  to  be  carried  over  all  those 
parts  of  the  road  where  a  far  less  power  would  be  sufficient.  The  velocity 
of  the  carriage  might  indeed  be  increased,  while  travelling  on  the  good  and 
level  portion  of  the  road,  but  these  alternations  in  the  speed  and  power  can- 
not be  effected  without  a  considerable  degree  of  complexity,  weight,  and 
expense  in  the  machinery,  and  as  we  are  confining  ourselves  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  case  where  velocity  is  not  required,  and  might  even  be  an. 
inconvenience,  the  excess  of  power  will  be  wasted. 

These  objections  to  the  use  of  mechanical  power,  in  certain  cases,  are 
pointed  out,  not  as  being  insurmountable  obstacles  to  the  use  of  machinery,, 
but  as  serious  difficulties,  which,  in  practice,  have  not  yet  been  overcome 
In  fact,  there  is  not  at  present  any  practical  substitute  for  horse  power  ot?- 
common  roads,  and  as  far  as  the  public  is  concerned  nothing  has  yet  beep 
done.  We,  therefore,  must  consider  them  as  objections  remaining  to  be' 
overcome ;  and  we  are  compelled  to  draw  the  conclusion,  that,  at  the  present 
moment,  animal  power  (always  confining  ourselves  to  the  question  of  the 
economical  transport  of  heavy  goods  upon  common  roads)  is  superior  to 
any  mechanical  agent,  and  that  beasts  of  draught,  and  particularly  the 
Dd 


JIO 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


hor.'ie,  are  not  onlv  the  mosi  ancient,  but  still  remain  the  most  advantageous 
source  of  power. 

L'jng  experience  has  pointed  out  the  various  modes  of  applying  animal 
power;  but  it  is  tVequently  ill-directed,  owing  to  the  want  of  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  the  mechanical  structure  of  the  animal,  and  the  manner  in 
which  he  exerts  his  strength. 

In  the  most  powerful  steam-engine,  if  too  great  a  resistance  be  applied, 
or.  practically  speaking,  if  we  attempt  to  make  it  do  more  work  than  it  is 
calculated  for,  there  is  an  immediate  loss  of  power,  in  consequence  of  the 
diminution  of  velocity  caused  thereby;  and  if  we  continue  to  oppose  a  still 
greater  resistance,  we  reach  the  point  at  which  it  is  unable  to  overcome  it. 
and  it  ceases  to  produce  any  effect.  Again,  a  very  small  obstacle  may  be 
so  applied  as  greatly  to  impede  an  engine  of  considerable  power,  or  even 
to  stop  it  altogether.  The  power  of  an  engine  is  limited,  and  resistance 
must  always  be  proportioned  to  it;  and  there  is  a  proportion  beyond  which 
it  is  useless  to  go,  and  less  than  which  would  not  absorb  tlie  whole  force. 

An  animal  is  but  a  beautiful  piece  of  machinery,  and  although  perflsct  in 
Us  construction,  and  wonderfully  accommodating  in  its  movements,  it  still, 
like  the  engine,  has  a  limited  power,  and  has  its  peculiar  modes  of  action, 
its  strong  and  its  feeble  parts;  and  we  must  well  consider  its  structure,  to 
be  able  to  apply  the  resistance  in  that  degree,  and  in  that  manner  which 
shall  enable  it  to  produce  the  greatest  effect.  The  consideration  of  the 
comparative  effects,  of  the  exertions  of  a  man  and  a  horse  will  at  once 
eserf-plify  this,  and  lead  us  more  clearly  to  the  knowledge  of  the  peculiar 
qualities  or  faculties  of  the  horse. 

If  a  horse  be  made  to  carry  a  heavy  weight  rapidly  up  a  steep  ascent,  or 
if  a  man  be  employed  to  drag  slowly  a  heavy  carriage  along  a  rough  road, 
the  strength  of  both  will  be  soon  exhausted,  and  little  effect  produced; 
but  if  a  man  be  made  to  carry  a  weight  up  a  ladder,  and  if  a  horse  draw  a 
heavy  carriage  along  a  road,  they  will  each  produce  a  considerable  effect : 
yet,  in  the  former  case,  the  horse  and  the  man  are  as  strong  as  in  the  latter, 
but  the  power  is  not  properly  applied,  and  is  consequently  wasted. 

These  different  results  are  easily  explained,  by  considering  the  mechdn- 
ical  structure  of  the  two  bodies,  and  the  mode  in  which  their  muscular 
strength  is  exerted. 


The  action  of  pulling  is  effected  in  either  case  by  throwing  the  body 
forward  beyond  the  feet,  which  form  the  fulcrum,  and  allowing  the  weight 
of  the  body,  iti  its  tendency  to  descend,  to  act  against  the  resistance  applied 
horizontally,  and  drag  it  forward ;  as  the  resistance  yields,  the  feet  are  car- 
ried forward,  and  the  action  renewed,  or  rather  continued 

Let  A  {fg  i.)  be  ihe  centre  of  gravity,  or  the  point  in  .viiich  the  whole  of 


ON  DRAUGHT.  4H 

the  weight  of  ,he  body  may  be  supposed  to  be   iccumulated,  and  B  the  ful 
crum,  or  pohit  of  resistance  ;  AC  the  direction  of  the  power  to  be  overcome. 

If  the  legs  are  inflexible,  tiie  body,  acting  by  its  gravity,  tends  in  its 
descent  to  describe  a  circle  around  the  point  B,  but  is  opposed  by  the  resist- 
ance AC;  and  it  is  proved  by  the  law  of  the  resolution  of  forces,  that  if 
BU  be  drawn  parallel  to  AC,  the  lengths  of  the  lines  AD,  AB,  and  DB 
represent  respectively  the  proportions  between  the  weight  of  the  body,  the 
strain  upon  the  point  of  support,  and  the  etfect  produced  ;  that  is,  if  AD  be 
taken  as  the  measure  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  then  AB  is  the  measure 
of  llie  strain  upon  the  legs,  and  BD  or  AE  the  power  pulling  in  the  dircp 
tion  of  AC. 

Consequently,  the  effect  increases  with  the  weight  of  the  body  and  the 
distance  which  it  is  thrown  beyond  the  feet,  and  is  limited  only  by  the 
capability  of  resistance  at  B,  or  the  muscular  strength  of  the  legs.  This 
is  evidently  the  case  in  practice;  for  even  if  the  body  were  brought 
nearly  horizontal,  when  its  weight  would  act  to  the  greatest  advantage, 
still,  if  the  legs  are  incapable  of  resisting  the  strain,  they  would  yield,  and 
no  etfect  would  be  produced.  In  a  man,  this  muscular  strength  of  the 
limbs  is  very  gi'eat,  and  he  can  lift  or  carry  immense  weights,  and  can 
ascend  easily,  even  loaded,  a  ladder ;  but  he  is  not  well  adapted  to  the 
ourpose  of  dragging:  as  his  own  weight  is  small  proportionably  to  his 
strength  ;  and  the  centre  of  gravity  is  low,  and  by  the  construction  of 
his  body,  cannot  be  thrown  far  beyond  the  fulcrum  at  his  feet;  conse- 
quently, however  capable  his  legs  may  be  of  resisting  a  great  strain,  AE 
remains  small,  and  his  muscular  force  is  not,  therefore,  advantageously 
brought  into  action. 

A  horse,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  formation  of  the  body,  can  relieve  his 
weight  partly  from  his  fore-legs ;  and,  extending  his  hind  legs  as  in  Jig.  2, 
throw  the  centre  of  gravity  a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  his  feet  B. 
AE  is  here  proportionably  much  greater  than  in  the  former  case,  and  the 
whole  of  his  force  is,  therefore,  advantageously  employed.  He  is  in  fact, 
by  his  mechanical  construction,  a  beast  of  draught. 

The  same  train  of  reasoning  which  has  here  pointed  out  the  species  of 
work  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  different  structure  of  the  man  and  horse,  if 
continued  further,  will  now  serve  to  show  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  power  of  the  latter  is  best  applied,  and  the  greatest  effect  produced. 

VVe  shall  here  consider  both  the  quality  of  the  draught  and  the  degree. 

And  first,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  although  the  weight  of  the  animal's 
body  is  the  immediate  cause  in  the  action  of  pulling,  yet,  as  before  stated, 
it  is  by  the  action  of  the  muscles  in  advancing  the  legs  and  raising  the 
body,  that  this  cause  is  constantly  renewed,  and  the  effort  continued. 
The  manner,  and  the  order  of  succession  in  which  a  horse  thus  lifts  and 
advances  his  legs  may,  of  course,  influence  the  movement  of  his  body, 
and  ought  therefore  to  be  examined  into  :  accordingly  we  find  that  many 
writers  upon  draught  have  frequently  touched  upon  this  part  of  the  subject, 
but  they  appear,  however,  to  have  contented  the;rselves  with  inventing  in 
their  closet  the  manner  in  which  they  conceived  a  horse  must  have  moved 
lis  legs,  rather  than  to  have  taken  the  trouble  to  go  out  of  doors  to  see 
A'hat  really  did  take  place,  and,  consequently,  many  have  arrived  at  very 
erroneous  conclusions.  The  ancient  sculptors,  who  generally  studied 
nature  so  faithfully,  either  neglected  this  point,  or  otherwise  our  modern 
horses,  by  constant  artificial  training,  have  altered  their  step  ;  for  we  find 
in  the  celebrated  frieze,  from  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  a  portion  of  which, 
!:ow  in  England,  is  more  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  the  Elgin 
marbles,  the  only   horsps  which  are  represented  trotting,  have  both  tljell 


4}ii 


THE  HORSE. 


legs  on  the  same  sirfe  of  the  body  raised  at  once,  the  other  two  being  firm 
upon  the  ground — a  position  which  horses  of  the  present  day  never  assume 
while  trotting. 

In  the  case  of  these  relievos,  it  is  true  that  there  are  only  four  horses, 
out  of  more  tlian  two  hundred,  which  are  in  the  action  of  trotting,  all  the 
otiiers  heing  represented  in  a  canter  or  gallop ;  and  only  two  of  these  four 
are  entirely  in  the  foreground,  and  distinct  from  the  other  figures.  It 
would  not  be  sate,  therefore,  to  draw  too  general  a  conclusion  from  this 
example  alone;  but  we  have  another  very  decided  proof  of  the  remark  that 
we  have  already  made,  in  the  case  of  the  huv  horses  of  the  church  of  St. 
Marc  at  Venice. 

Whether  this  was  then  the  mode  of  trotting  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  it  is 
never  seen  to  occur  in  nature  in  the  present  day  ;  and  indeed  it  appeals 
quite  inconsistent  with  the  necessary  balancing  of  the  body,  and  was,  tliere- 
fore,  more  probably  an  error  of  the  arlist. 

It  perhaps  may  have  been  found  difficult  or  troublesome  to  watch  the 
movement  of  a  horse's  legs  ;  but  a  very  little  practice  will  enable  any  body 
to  verify  what  we  are  about  to  state:  by  keeping  near  the  side  of  a  horse 
that  is  walking,  it  will  be  easily  seen  that,  immediately  after  the  raising  of 
either  of  the  hind  legs  from  the  ground,  the  fore  leg  of  the  corresponding 
side  is  also  raised,  so  that  the  latter  leaves  the  ground  just  before  the  for 
mer  touches  it.  If  the  fore  legs  be  then  watched,  it  will  be  seen  tha., 
immediately  after  the  movement  of  either  of  these,  the  hind  leg  upon  the 
opposite  side  is  put  in  action,  so  that  the  order  of  succession  appears  to  be 
in  walking,  as  numbered  in  Jig.  3. 


If  the  horse  be  now  examined  from  a  short  distance,  it  will  be  seen  that, 
when  he  is  walking  freely,  the  successive  movements  of  the  legs  are  at 
equal  intervals  of  time,  .nd  that  the  muscular  force  of  one  limb  only  is 
brought  into  action  at  t' m  same  moment.  But  if  a  horse,  which  is  drag- 
ging  a  load  with  some  considerable  exertion,  be  watched,  it  will  be  seen 
that  he  then  acts  longer  upon  his  legs,  and  allows  a  less  interval  of  time 
for  raising  and  advancing  them  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  regularity  of 
tl;o  movement  is  generally  destroyed  ;  the  limbs  on  the  same  side  jrener- 
ally  being  moved  more  simultaneously,  or  at  nearer  intervals  of  time 
than  those  at  the  opposite  corners:  thus,  the  muscular  forces  of  two  limbg 
are  always  acting  together,  the  movement  of  the  whole  body  is  less  con- 
tinued and  uniform  than  in  the  former  case  ;  but  each  impulse  is  more 
powerful,  and  a  resistance,  which  would   be  too  great  for  the   muscles  of 


ON   DRAUGHT.  413 

one  leu,  is  overcome  by  the  united  exertion  of  two.  We  shall  point  out, 
hereafter,  the  necessity  of  attending  to  this  in  the  application  ot  his  power 
to  draught. 

In  trotting,  the  action  is  of  course  quicker,  and  a  less  resistance  will,  as 
might  be  expected,  cause  the  hoise  to  move  his  legs  at  two  intervals  in- 
stead  of  at  four  equal  intervals  of  time  :  indeed,  a  horse  accustomed  to  go 
in  harness  generally  acquires  the  habit  of  that  action.  There  is  this  strik- 
ing difference  between  trotting  and  walking:  in  walking,  we  have  seen 
tiiat  the  interval  between  the  movement  of  the  legs  on  the  same  side  was 
less  than  the  other  interval  of  time  :  in  trotting,  on  the  contrary,  the  legs 
situated  diagonally,  or  at  opposite  corners,  move  almost  simultaneously. 
Owing  to  the  velocity  and  the  momentum  which  the  body  acquires  in  con- 
sequence of  that  velocity,  in  trotting  fast,  the  successive  impulses  are  less 
distinctly  perceptible,  and  the  movement  more  continued  and  uniform  than 
in  a  slow  trot,  or  in  walking. 

In  gaJlopmg,  the  movement  is  totally  different  :  the  fore  legs  are  thrown 
forward  nearly  simultaneously,  and  the  hind  legs  brought  up  quickly,  and 
nearly  together;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  succession  of  leaps,  by  far  the  greatest 
interval  of  time  elapsing  while  the  legs  are  extended  after  the  leap  is 
taken :  this  is  the  position,  therefore,  which  catches  the  eye,  and  which 
must  be  represented  in  a  drawing  to  produce  the  effect  of  a  horse  in  a  gal- 
lop, although  it  is  well  known  to  be  the  moment  when  the  animal  is  making 
no  exertion. 

The  canter  is  to  the  gallop  very  much  what  the  walk  is  to  the  trot, 
though  probably  a  more  artificial  pace.  The  exertion  is  much  less,  the 
spring  less  distant,  and  the  feet  come  to  the  ground  in  more  regular  suc- 
cession:  it  is  a  pace  of  ease,  and  evidently  quite  inconsistent  with  any 
exertion  of  draught. 

The  consequence  of  these  peculiar  movements  in  the  limbs  of  the  animal 
is,  that  a  succession  of  impulses  is  conveyed  to  the  body  ;  and  when  the 
movement  is  slow,  and  the  body  of  the  horse  does  not  acquire  any  consid- 
erable impetus  or  momentum,  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  resistance 
should  be  such  as  lo  reccioe  each  of  these  impulses,  and  leave  the  horse  unre- 
strained in  the  intervals. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  a  rigid  resistance,  void  of  elasticity. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  a  constant,  unremitted  resistance. 

For  it  i'^  a  well-known  fact,  that,  however  powerful  may  be  the  muscles 
of  a  limb,  they  must  not  be  kept  constantly  on  the  stretch.  Thus  we  feel 
even  more  fatigue  by  standing  than  by  walking,  because  one  particular 
set  of  muscles  is  then  kept  constantly  exerted.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  the  resistance  or  draught  must  not  be  perfectly  constant,  but  should 
afford  frequent  opportunities  of  relaxing  the  efforts.  Neither  must  it  be  a 
yielding  resistance,  as  in  that  case  the  animal  could  not  make  any  great 
exertion  ;  for  if  he  applied  too  much  power,  he  would  be  liable  to  fall  for- 
ward, and  should  he  at  any  time  fall  short  of  the  necessary  exertion,  he 
would  be  drawn  back  by  the  strain,  and  it  would  require  a  considerable 
effort  ♦o  restore  the  motion. 

If  a  horse  be  made  to  drag  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley  and  descending 
into  a  well  with  a  certain  weight,  say  of  200  lbs.  attached  to  it,  it  is  obvious 
that  he  could  not  make  an  effort  greater  than  200  lbs.  without  instantly 
considerably  increasing  his  velocity,  which  would  be  a  waste  of  power  ; 
•lor  must  he  for  an  instant  relax  his  efforts,  or  fall  below  that  mark,  for  he 
would  theu  be  unable  even  to  resist  <he  pull,  and  would  be  overcome  by 
ihe  W(!ight.  Such  an  extreme  case  as  this,  of  course,  is  not  likely  to  occur 
often  in  practic  e,  but  the  disadvantage  of  the  princiole  is  obvious. 


\]\  ON  DRAUGHT. 

An  arrangement  of  this  sort  is,  indeed,  sometimes  made  use  >f,  for  rais 
inf;^  ihe  earth  from  excavations,  or  the  materials  of  a  building  ;  but  the 
exeriion  is  continued  only  for  a  few  seconds,  or  for  a  distance  of  not  more 
than  ten  or  twenty  yards  ;  if  prolonged,  the  inconvenience  would  be  seri- 
ously ielt,  as  it  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  in  towing  canal  boats;  the  lenglh 
and  curve  of  the  rope  give  an  elasticity  to  the  strain,  and  the  necessity  of 
keeping  the  rope  out  of  the  water,  or  from  dragging  ahjng  the  towing-path, 
compels  the  animal  to  keep  up  a  constant,  unremitted  pull,  and  that,  too,  in 
an  oblique  direction,  so  as  to  throw  him  into  an  unfavourable  position  We 
accordingly  find  that,  under  these  circumstances,  the  average  work  of  a 
horse  is  equivalent  only  to  about  four-fifths  of  that  given  by  Smeaton,  De- 
saguilliers,  and  others,  who  estimated  the  power  of  a  horse  from  the  work 
done  in  a  horse-mill,  where  the  resistance  is  inelastic,  and  all  circumstances 
favourable,  with  the  exception  of  the  circular  path. 

The  disadvantage  of  this  kind  of  resistance  is  well  known  to  cartmen, 
though  of  course  without  consideration  of  the  reason.  A  horse  is  said  to 
pull  better  when  he  is  close  to  his  work,  that  is  to  say,  when  he  is  attached 
at  once  to  the  body  to  be  moved,  because  every  exertion  he  makes  is  then 
communicated  at  once  to  the  mass  :  but  the  leader  of  a  team,  unless  he 
keeps  the  traces  constantly  on  the  stretch,  may  frequently  waste  a  power- 
ful effort  without  producing  much  effect  upon  the  carriage. 

Another  inconvenience  resulting  from  harnessing  horses  in  a  team,  or 
one  before  the  other,  is,  that  the  leader,  by  tightening  the  traces,  is  con- 
tinually relieving  the  strain  from  the  body  horse,  and  reciprocally  the  body 
horse  from  the  leader;  so  that  these  horses  labour  under  all  the  disadvan- 
tages  of  a  long,  elastic,  and  constantly  yielding  connexion  with  the  load, 
which  is  not  only  fatiguing  to  them,  but,  in  cases  where  the  resistance  is 
variable,  prevents  the  full  and  united  effect  of  their  exertions  being  pro- 
perly communicated  to  the  carriage.  For,  if  a  slight  obstacle,  as  a  rut  or 
stone  in  a  road,  checks  the  progress  of  the  vehicle,  the  shaft-horse  can 
immediately  throw  his  whole  weight  into  the  collar,  and  the  united  effect 
of  his  strength  and  impetus  is  conveyed  unimpared  to  the  vehicle,  and 
forces  it  over  the  obstacle  ;  but  if  any  elasticity  is  interposed  between  the 
power  and  the  resistance,  as  in  the  case  of  the  traces  of  the  leader  of  a 
team,  the  whole,  or  the  greater  part  of  the  effect  of  impetus  is  lost,  and  that 
force,  which,  if  concentrated  in  one  effort,  would  effect  the  object,  being 
lengthened  into  a  continued  and  comparatively  feeble  pull,  is  insufficient. 

If  we  wish  to  destroy  the  impetus  of  a  body  moving  with  violence,  we 
receive  it  with  a  yielding  resistance  ;  the  action  of  catching  a  cricket-ball 
exemplifies  this  perfectly  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  full  effect  of  momentum  is 
wanted,  all  elasticity  in  the  direction  of  the  movement  should  be  avoided. 

We  have  entered  rather  fully  into  the  consideration  of  this  particulai 
point,  because  the  principle  is  not  only  applicable  to  the  mode  of  commu- 
nicating  the  immediate  action  of  the  moving  power,  but  will  be  found  also 
of  considerable  importance  when  we  arrive  at  the  subject  of  wheel-carriages. 

A  consideration  of  these  various  points  brings  us  to  this  conclusion,  that 
the  draught  ought  neither  to  be  constantly  uniform  or  without  remission, 
nor  yet  yielding  or  elastic:  sudden  shocks  or  violent  changes  in  the  velo- 
city must  also  evidently  be  disadvantageous,  as  tending  to  distress  and 
injure  the  animal. 

Having  determined  upon  the  necessary  quality  of  the  resistance,  we  will 
proceed  to  examine  into  the  quantity  or  the  degree  of  resistance  or  draught, 
and  the  speed  best  adapted  to  the  exertion  of  the  animal  The  useful  effec* 
of  a  horse,  or  the  work  done,  must  evidently  depend  upon  three  things,  viz* 
the  rale  at  which   he  is  made  to  travel,  the  power  of  traction  he  can  exerl. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  41 3 

and  the  nuinhet  of'  hours  he  :an  continue  to  work  daily  at  that  sj-ied ;  and 
where  there  is  no  fixed  conJition  which  determines  any  one  of  tliese,  such 
as  a  particular  load  to  be  moved,  or  a  certain  velocity  which  it  is  desirable 
to  attain,  or  a  limited  time  to  perform  the  work  in,  tl)en  the  object  nmst  be 
to  search  for  those  proportions  of  the  three  by  which,  at  the  end  of  the  daj 
the  greatest  quantity  of  work  shall  have  been  produced. 

Witli  respect  to  the  first  two,  viz:  the  speed  and  power  exerted,  it  will  b< 
obvious  that  where  a  horse  travels  unloaded,  the  greatest  distance  he  can 
go  in  any  given  time  for  several  days  in  succession  without  injurious  fatigue, 
is  the  limit  oj"  his  velocity:  on  the  other  hand,  the  load  may  be  so  great, 
that  he  can  scarcely  put  it  in  motion — this  is  the  limit  of  his  power:  in 
both  cases,  tbe  useful  etfect  is  nothing.  But  between  these  limits  of  velocity 
and  power,  there  is  a  proportion  which  affords  the  maximum  quantity  of 
effect,  and  which,  therefore,  must  be  the  most  advantageous  for  the  applica- 
tion of  horse-power. 

It  has  been  asserted  by  theorists,  and  the  theory  appears  to  be  supported 
by  experience,  that  the  velocity  corresponding  to  this  maximum,  or  that  at 
which  a  horse  working  continually  a  certain  number  of  hours  per  day  will 
do  the  most  work,  is  equal  to  half  the  extreme  or  limit  of  velocity  of  the 
same  horse  working  the  same  number  of  hours  unloaded;  and  that  the 
force  of  traction  corresponding  to  this  speed,  is  equal  to  half  the  limit  of 
his  power.  For  instance,  if  six  hours  be  the  length  of  a  day's  work 
decided  upon,  and  if  a  horse  working  that  time  can  go  six  miles  per  hour 
unloaded,  and  therefore  producing  no  useful  effect,  and  supposing  the  limit 
of  power  of  the  same  hor^e  be  equal  to  250  lbs.,  it  is  found  that  lie  will  do 
the  most  work  in  the  same  number  of  hours  when  drawing  a  load  at  the 
rate  of  half  six,  or  three  miles  per  hour;  and  half  of  250  or  125  lbs.  will 
be  the  strain  corresponding  to  this  speed  Our  next  step,  then,  must  be  to 
find  \.\\esii  limits:  now,  the  limit  of  -vlocity  depends  upon  the  length  of 
tifne  during  which  the  speed  is  Kept  up;  we  subjoin  therefore  a  table 
deduced  from  experiments,  and  which  represents  the  proportion  of  the 
duration  of  labour  and  maximum  velocity  of  the  average  of  horses  accus- 
tomed to  their  respective  velocities. 

Duration  of  labour     . 
Maximum  velocity  unload- 
ed in  miles  per  hour. 

This  within  the  range  here  given  may  be  considered  as  very  nearly  the 
law  of  decrease  of  speed  by  increased  duration  of  labour;  and  at  the  first 
glance  we  see  the  great  advantage  of  reducing  the  speed  and  prolonging 
the  exertion.  There  are,  however,  many  causes  to  limit  the  duration  of  a 
day's  work  of  a  horse.  Tredgold,  in  his  work  on  Railways,  before  quoted, 
says:  "The  time  assigned  for  the  day's  work  of  a  horse  is  usually  eight 
hours:  but  it  is  certain,  from  experience,  that  some  advantage  is  gained  by 
shortening  the  hours  of  labour;  and  we  have  observed,  that  a  horse  is  least 
injured  by  his  labour,  where  his  day's  work  is  performed  in  about  six 
hours;  where  the  same  quantity  of  labour  is  performed  in  less  than  six 
hours,  the  over-exertion  in  time  shows  itself  in  slifTened  joints,  while  tiie 
wearying  effects  of  long-continued  action  become  apparent,  if  the  duration 
of  the  day's  work  be  prolonged  much  beyond  eight  hours.  Indeed,  under 
the  management  of  a  good  driver,  a  full  day's  work  may  be  completed  in 
the  time  before  mentioned — six  hours — with  benefit  to  the  health  and 
vigour  of  the  animal." 

We  may  be  permitted,  however,  to  abandon  the  idea  of  improving  the 


Hours. 

1       2 

3 

4 

5 

5 

7 

8 

10 

143   101 

H 

n 

6| 

6 

H 

5i 

4| 

jj[6  f>j>f   DRAUGHT. 

health  of  the  animal  or  of  rendering  his  busnicss  a  pleasure  to  him — an 
attempt,  the  success  of  which  is,  we  should  think,  very  questionuLde,  and 
content  ourselves  with  endeavouring  to  check  tlie  barbarous  practice  of 
working  horses  to  death  either  by  overdriving  or  overloading  them  ;  and 
we  shall,  as  is  generally  the  case,  consult  our  own  interests  and  follow  the 
dictates  of  humanity  at  the  same  time,  by  not  injuring  so  useful  an  animal: 
and  we  think  that  experience  proves  there  will  be  no  danger  of  doing  this  by 
working  eight  or  nine  hours  a  day.  By  referring  to  the  Table  above,  we 
see  that  the  maximum  velocity  of  the  average  of  horses  corresponding  to 
eight  hours'  work  is  five  miles  and  a  half  per  hour,  consequently,  the  rate 
at  which  he  would  travel  when  loaded  is  a  little  more  than  two  miles  and 
a  half  per  hour.  There  is  no  doubt  that  some  horses  could  conveniently 
travel  faster;  but  as  the  speed  must  generally  be  governed  by  that  of  other 
horses,  the  average  is,  in  this  case,  the  rate  to  be  adopted.  The  force 
exerted  under  these  circun:stances  depending  upon  the  quality  of  the  horse, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  attain  even  an  approximate  value  of  it,  unless  the 
experiment  be  made  upon  each  individual  horse:  it  is  fortunately,  however, 
of  no  great  consequence  in  practice,  because  if  we  feel  sure  tliat  we  are 
employing  all  the  j)Ower  v/e  can  command  to  the  greatest  advantage,  it  is 
not  of  any  very  great  importance  that  we  should  know  the  exact  amount  of 
that  power. 

In  comparing  animal  horse-power  with  that  of  the  steam-engine,  we 
estimated  it  at  about  125  lbs.,  but  we  believe  that,  with  tolerably  good 
horses,  it  may  generally  be  taken  at  more  than  that. 

We  have  thus  far  confined  our  attention  to  the  cases  where  velocity,  as 
well  as  duration  of  labour,  was  left  to  choice ;  this  is  far  from  being  always 
the  case.  In  stage-coaches,  or  other  conveyance  for  passengers,  speed  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  it  only  remains  to  learn  how  that  speed  can  be 
obtained  with  the  greatest  economy.  The  following  Table  extracted  from 
Tredgold,  will  show  the  great  reduction  in  the  effect  produced  by  increasing 
the  velocity. 

The  first  column  being  the  velocity  or  rate  per  hour,  continued  for  six 
hours  per  day ;  the  second  represents  the  force  of  traction  of  which  the 
animal  is  capable ;  and  the  third,  the  comparative  effects  produced.  A 
force  of  traction  of  125  lbs.  continued  for  six  hours  at  the  rate  of  three 
miles  per  hour  being  taken  as  the  standard,  and  considered  equal  to  the 
arbitrary  number  1000. 


Miles  per  hour. 

Force  of  traction  in  lbs. 

Eflcct  produced. 

2 

.     .            166 

. 

888 

3            .      . 

.     .            125 

. 

1000 

H       •    • 

.     .            104 

. 

972 

4            .     . 

.     .              83 

888 

4^          •      • 

.     .              621 

750 

5            .      . 

•     .              41| 

. 

555 

5i          .      . 

.     .              361 

.     .     . 

500 

ir,  however,  the  hours  of  labour  be  lessened,  taking  the  velocity  corres- 
ponding  to  the  greatest  useful  effect,  the  results  will  be  much  greater,  and 
the  velocity  may  be  raised  much  higher,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
Tal.l.-. 

Here  the  first  column  is  the  length  of  days'  work,  the  second  the  best 
ve.ocny  corresponding  to  that  time",  or  half  the  limit  of  velocity  shown  in 
Table  (I),  and  the  thiVd  column  the  comparative  effect  produced,  tho  force 
uf  traction  being  in  each  case  125  lbs. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  417 

LurvUon  of  labour  in  hours.  Velocity,  miles  per  hour.  Eflect  prod'iced. 

2  5|-         578 

3  4}         709 

4  3f         813 

5  .  ...         3i         909 

6  3  1000 

7  2f  1063 

8  2f         1110 

To  attain  hiirher  velocity,  it  is  necessary  still  further  to  reduce  the  load, 
and  the  next  Table  is  calculated  upon  the  supposition  of  the  strain  being 
oniy  one  half  the  last,  viz:  62^  lbs.;  this  is  about  the  average  exertion  of 
eu.;h  horse  in  a  four-horse  heavy  stage-coach. 

Eflect  produced. 

....  613 

....  534 

....  434 

....  307 


Duration  of 

Infwur. 

Ho. 

irs  per 

day. 

Velocity. 

4 

. 

.     .          51 

3 

.      .          6| 

2 

1 

.       .       . 

:  :  1? 

In  mails  or  light  coaches,  where  ten,  eleven,  and  even  eleven  and  a  half 
3r  twelve  miles  an  hour  is  attained,  the  average  strain  of  each  horse  is 
barely  40  lbs.,  and  the  effect  produced,  or  value  of  work  done,  not  much 
more  than  one-half  the  above. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  these  Tables  are  all  calculated  upon  the 
supposition  of  the  road  being  good,  and  the  work  not  such  as  to  cause  any 
immediate  injury  to  the  animal,  and  is  adapted  only  to  the  average  quality 
of  horses.  They  are  not  therefore,  at  once  applicable  as  data  for  calcula- 
tions  in  all  ordinary  cases,  but  only  serve  to  show  the  comparative  forces 
which  may  be  exerted  under  difl^erent  degi-ees  of  speed.  The  results  or 
effects  of  this  force  will  always  be  influenced  by  the  quality  of  the  resist- 
ance, as  we  have  already  observed  in  the  cases  of  slow  travelling;  but  in 
rapid  travelling,  the  power  is  much  more  expensive,  owing  to  the  great 
loss  which  we  see,  by  the  Tables,  is  sustained  by  increased  velocity  ;  and 
it  is,  therefore,  the  more  important  to  study  well  the  means  of  applying  the 
power  in  question. 

In  this  rapid  travelling,  the  bad  consequences  of  a  uniform  and  constant 
strain  is  still  more  felt  by  the  horses,  and  the  necessity  of  occasional  relief 
is  still  more  urgent  than  at  low  velocities.  It  is  universally  admitted  by 
horse  proprietors  and  postmasters,  whose  interests  make  them  peculiarly 
sensible  on  this  point,  that  a  flat  piece  of  road  is  more  destructive  of  horses 
than  the  same  length  of  road  where  gentle  rises  and  alternate  flat  and 
swelling  ground  occur;  and  that  a  long  hill  is  easier  surmounted  where 
there  are  occasional  short  levels,  and  even  descents,  than  when  the  whole 
is  one  uniform  descent. 

It  only  remains  for  us,  before  we  dismiss  the  subject  of  the  moving 
power,  to  consider  the  particular  mode  of  applying  it,  or  the  manner  of 
harnessing  the  horses. 

Under  this  head,  comes  the  question  of  the  best  direction  of  the  traces, 
'.)r,  as  it  has  generally,  but  less  clearly,  been  called,  the  angle  of  inclina- 
•ion  of  the  line  of  traction.  This  question  appears  to  have  been  always 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  importance :  the  point  has  been  frequently 
discussed,  and  various  opinions  have  been  advanced  ;  some  having  reconi. 
mended  it  to  be  horizontal,  and  others  inclined;   and,  as  they  have  each  ir 


418 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


iheir  lurn,  in  den"^nstrating  the  correctness  of  their  own  theory,  proved 
the  error  of  others,  there  can  be  no  presumption  in  laying  them  all  aside, 
and  in  taking  a  different,  but  at  the  same  time  a  more  simple  and  pr^ictical 
view  of  the  case.  By  referring  to  a  figure,  similar  to  that  by  which  we 
showed  the  mode  of  action  of  the  horse  in  pulling,  we  see  that  if  AD 
represent  that  portion  of  his  whole  weight  which  is  relieved  from  his  fore- 
legs,  and  AE  the  direction  of  the  traces,  then  AF  is  the  measure  of  the 
horizontal  pull  upon  the  carriage.  Now,  AF  bears  a  constant  proportion 
to  AB,  which  represents  the  strain  upon  the  legs;  and  AD  being  constant, 
AB,  and,  consequently,  AF,  increase  or  diminish  according  as  the  angle 
ADB  is  increased  or  diminished :  that  is  to  say,  the  horizontal  pull  applied 
to  the  carriage  is  proportionate  to  the  strain  upon  the  legs;  but  they  are 
both  dependent  upon  the  angle  formed  by  the  traces,  increasing  or  dimin- 
ishing as  the  latter  are 
Fig-  4.  inclined    downwards    or 

upwards  from  the  collar ; 
so  that  whether  the  traces 
be  inclined  upwards,  aa 
jig.  4,  or  downwards,  at 
Jig.  6,  or  whether  the) 
be  horizontal,  as  jig.  5, 
makes  no  difference  in 
the  manner  of  pulling. 
In  the  first  case,  a  por- 
tion of  the  animal's 
weight  is  borne  by  the 
traces,  and  is  transferred 
by  them  to  the  carriage. 
AF  is  here  small,  but  the 
strain  upon  the  legs,  AB, 
is  also  proportionably 
less  than  in  the  second 
case,  where  the  traces  are 
horizontal.  In  jgure  6, 
where  the  traces  incline 
downwards,  we  see  thai 
the  horizontal  force,  AE, 
is  much  more  consider- 
able; but,  at  the  same 
time,  AB  is  increased, 
and,  consequently,  the 
muscular  exertion  re- 
quired  in  the  legs  is  pro 
portionably  great.  In 
fact,  here  a  portion  of  the 
weight  of  the  load  is 
transferred  to  his  shoul- 
ders. 

The  comparative  ad- 
vantages therefore  of  the 
three  do  not  follow  any 
general  rule,  but  depend 
simply  upon  the  peculiai 
qualities  of  the  particu- 
lar animal  employed,  and  his  relative  capabilities  for  lifting  and  pulling, 


PN  DRAUGHT.  419 

or  the  proportion  existing  between  the  weight  oi  his  body  and  his  inuscula) 
strength.  To  render  this  more  clear  to  our  own  feelings,  we  will  put  the- 
case  of  a  man  : — We  have  already  seen  that  an  able-bodied  man  is  more 
adapted  for  lifting  than  pulling;  consequently,  in  his  case,  it  would  be  ad- 
vantageous  to  throw  a  certain  portion  of  the  weight  upon  him,  by  making 


him  pull  upwards,  as  in  fig.  7;  or,  what  we  are  more  accustomed  to  see 
and  which  amounts  to  tlie  same  thing,  applying  his  strength  to  a  wheel 
barrow,  jig.  8 ;  and  we  have  frequently  seen  an  ordinary  man  wheel  800 
lbs.  in  this  manner. 

If,  however,  we  take  a  person  accustomed  to  hard  work,  and  conse 
quently  not  so  strong  in  the  legs,  althougli  he  may  be  unable  even  to  lift 
the  wheelbarrow  which  the  other  moved  with  ease,  still  he  may,  by  push- 
ing horizontally,  put  in  motion  a  considerable  load  ;  and,  lastly,  in  the  case 
of  an  invalid  who  can  barely  carry  his  own  weight,  if  he  lean  on  the  back 
of  a  garden-chair,  he  will  not  only  walk  himself,  but  push  on  the  chair;  or 
a  child  who  is  yet  too  weak  to  stand,  can,  if  pari  of  his  weight  be  supported 
in  a  go-cart,  not  only  move  himself,  but  also  the  frame  which  supports  him. 
These  are  very  familiar  and  homely  comparisons,  but  they  are  cases  exactly 
similar  to  the  three  positions  of  the  traces;  and  the  argument  will  equally 
apply  to  horses  as  to  men.  It  is  true,  v/e  rarely  use  for  draught  a  horse 
that  cannot  stand ;  but  the  case  is  very  possible  that  a  large,  heavy  horse, 
otherwise  not  strong,  or  one  which  it  was  not  desirable  to  fatigue,  might 
pull  better  and  longer,  if  part  of  the  weight  was  thrown  upon  the  carriage, 
or  if,  in  other  words,  the  traces  pulled  upwards.  And  we  know  by  expe- 
rience that,  in  the  case  of  stage-coaches,  where,  owing  to  the  speed,  the 
weight  of  the  horse's  body  is  already  generally  a  burden  to  him,  it  is  dis- 
advantageous to  increase  that  weight  by  inclining  the  traces  much  down- 
wards ;  on  the  contrary,  where  we  wish  to  obtain  the  utmost  effect  of  a 
powerful  horse,  or  of  a  horse  that  is  muscular,  but  without  much  weight 
forward,  it  is  highly  advantageous  to  augment  the  effect  of  his  gravity  by 
inclining  the  traces  even  as  much  as  fifteen  degrees,  or  about  one  upon 
three;  the  strain  upon  the  traces  will  be  then  considerably  increased,  and 
the  effect  augmented,  provided  always  that  he  is  able  to  exert  the  necessary 
strength  in  his  legs. 

As  far,  therefore,  as  the  mere  force  of  traction  is  concerned,  there  is  no 
particular  angle  which  will  always  produce  the  greatest  effect ;  but  it  must 
dupend  upon  the  particular  capability  of  the  horse  ;  and  this  in  its  turn  varies, 
and  is  affected  by  circumstances;  for  the  same  horse  that  upon  a  level  road 
requires  no  addition  to  his  weight,  might  be  materially  assisted  by  a  slicht 
addition  when  ascending  a  hill,  if  not  continued  too  long;  and  most  horses 
would  be  benefited  considerably  by  the  opposite  arrangement  in  a  descent: 
that  is,  by  a  portion  of  their  weight  being  borne  up;  they  should,  at  least, 
have  no  additional  load  thrown  on  them  while  descendinix  a  hill. 


120 


ON   DRAUGHT, 


There  is  also  &  time  when  incliiiinn;  the  traces  downwards  is  almost 
indispensable:  it  is  when  dragging  a  four-wheeled  waggon  over  a  rough, 
broken  road.  If  the  front  wheel,  which  is  generally  small,  meets  with  aii 
obstacle  by  falling  into  a  hole,  or  stopping  against  a  stone,  it  requires  nc 
profound  reasoning  to  show,  that  a  force  pulhng  upwards,  in  the  direction 
AB,  Jig.  9,  will  raise  the  whole  wheel  over  the  ob- 
stacle with  much  greater  facility  than  if  applied 
horizontally,  as  AC;  this  is  the  only  circumstance, 
unconnected  with  the  horse,  that  ouglu  to  govern 
the  direction  of  the  traces,  and  the  degree  of  the 
inclination  here  must  of  course  still  be  proportioned 
to  the  power  of  the  horse.  We  see  therefore  that, 
in  proportion  as  the  horse  is  stronger,  or  that  we  arc 
disposed  to  make  him  exert  a  greater  effort,  the  traces  should  be  inclined 
downwards  from  the  collar:  with  a  good  average  horse,  perhaps  one-sixth 
or  one-seventh  of  the  distance  from  the  collar  to  the  extremity  ;  with  a  horse 
of  inferior  capabilities,  arising  from  weakness  in  the  limbs,  and  not  want 
of  weight,  or  with  an  ordinary  horse,  when  travelling  above  six  miles  an 
hour,  the  traces  should  be  nearer  the  horizontal  line,  except  when  the  cir- 
cumstance of  a  rough  road,  before  alluded  to,  requires  some  modification  of 
this.  To  be  able  to  apply  these  rules  generally  in  practice,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  have  some  means  of  altering  the  traces  while  on  the  road ;  as 
we  have  stated  that  they  should  be  ditlerently  arranged,  according  as  the 
road  is  level  or  rough,  or  ascending  or  descending,  this  would  not  be  diffi- 
cult to  contrive,  and  has,  indeed,  been  suggested  by  some  writers  upon  this 
subject;  but  it  is  probable  that,  except  in  stage- waggons,  where  the  same 
carriage  goes  along  a  great  extent,  and  consequent  variety  of  road,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  adjust  the  traces  according  to  the  average  state  of  the  roads 
in  the  neigiibourhood ;  and  we  cannot  greatly  err,  if  we  bear  in  mind  that, 
inclining  the  traces  downwards  from  the  collar  to  the  carriage,  amounts  to 
the  same  thing  as  throwing  part  of  the  weight  of  the  load  on  to  the  shafts,  a 
thing  frequently  done  in  two-wheeled  carts,  and  a  manoeuvre  which  all  gooa 
cartmen  know  how  to  put  in  practice.  The  impossibility  of  inclining  the 
traces  of  the  leaders,  owing  to  their  distance  from  the  carriage,  is  an  addi- 
iional  reason  to  those  given  before,  why  they  (the  leaders)  cannot,  when 
required,  exert  such  an  eflbrt  m-  the  shaft-horse  or  wheeler;  and  on  rough 
cross-roads,  is  a  great  argumcn;    n  favour  of  harnessing  horses  abreast. 


Fig.  10. 


Yet  what  can  be  more  contrary  to  the  rules  here  laid  down  than  tiift 
injudicious   mode   frequently   adopted    in    harnessing  horses?     Hcav   coi) 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


421 


Fig.  11. 


Btantly  do  we  see  the  efforts  of  horses  paralyzed  by  misapplication  of  their 
respective  qualities!  In  the  preceding  cut,  {fg.  10,)  for  instance,  whic>- 
represents  a  very  common  specimen  of  this,  the  light,  muscular,  little  horse 
which  is  capable  of  considerable  exertion,  is  nearly  lifted  from  the  ground, 
and  prevented  from  making  any  exertion,  by  the  traces  leading  upwards; 
while  the  feeble  old  horse,  scarcely  capable  of  carrying  his  own  body,  is 
nearly  dragged  to  tiie  ground,  and  compelled  to  employ  his  whole  strength 
'n  carrying  himself,  and  even  part  of  the  weight  of  the  leader;  so  that  the 
strength  of  the  one  willing  to  work  is  not  employed,  and  the  other  is  so  over, 
loaded  as  to  be  useless. 

The  mode  of  attaching  the  traces  does  not  admit  of  much  variety.    The 
shoulders  have  always  been  made  use  of  for  tiiis  purpose. 

Homer,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
nine  hundred  years  before  Christ,  describes 
very  minutely,  in  the  twenty-fourth  book  of 
the  Iliad,  the  mode  of  harnessing  horses  at  the 
time  of  the  siege  of  Troy,  nearly  3,000  years 
ago;  but  if  we  suppose  that  his  description  was 
taken  from  the  harness  in  use  in  his  own  time, 
it  is  still  referring  to  a  period  about  twenty- 
seven  centuries  back. 

A  simple  strap,  formed  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  leather,  so  as  to  be  very  stiff,  and 
fitted  well  to  the  neck  and  shoulders,  served 
as  a  collar,  as  seen  at  A  A,  {figs.  11  and  12.) 
A  second  strap,  B  P>,  passed  round  the  body, 
and  was  attached  to  the  shoulder-strap  at  the 
withers.     At  this  point  was  fixed  the  yoke,  C  C,  which  was  fixed  to  the  pole. 


Fig.  12. 


A  pair  of  horses  were  thus  yoked  together,  without  traces  or  breechings, 
as  oxen  are  seen  at  the  present  time  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

This  was  a  simple  arrangement,  but  by  no  means  a  bad  one  ;  and  it 
would  appear  that  they  performed  all  the  manoeuvres  of  cavalry  with  cha- 
riots and  horses  thus  harnessed.  The  pair  yoked  to  the  pole  were  called 
yoked  horses;  abreast  o'i  these  was  frequently  placed  what  was  called  an 
outer  horse,  with  a  simple  shoulder-strap  or  collar,  FF,  and  a  single  trace, 
GG,  passing  inside,  as  in  fig.  18.  Sometimes  there  were  two  of  thes»< 
borses,  one  on  each  side,  each  furnisiied  with  his  strap  or  collar  and  trace. 


422 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


These  straps,  if  well  fitted,  were  not  bad  ;  but  as  they  must  have  pressftd 
in  some  degree  upon  the  throat,  they  could  not  be  equal  to  the  collar  o* 
llie  yoked  horses;  still  less  to  the  collar  at  present  used. 


In  more  modern  times,  these  shoulder-straps  gave  place  to  the  breast- 
si  rap.  A  horse  can  no  doubt  exert  a  considerable  strain  against  such  a  strap, 
but  in  action  it  must  impede  the  movement  of  the  shoulder. 

In  some  parts  of  South  America  the  trace  is  fixed  to  the  pommel  of  the 
saddle,  which  in  its  turn  is  well  secured  to  the  horse  by  saddle-girths, 
breast-straps,  and  breechings  ;  and  we  are  informed  that  horses  in  this 
manner  drag  very  considerable  loads.  It  resembles  completely  the  harness 
of  the  ancients,  with  the  addition  of  the  breechings.  It  is,  of  course,  a 
mere  temporary  arrangement,  convenient  only  as  requiring  no  preparation. 
The  trace  is,  in  fact,  the  lasso  of  the  rider,  which  is  always  fastened  to  the 
saddle;  and,  when  he  has  entangled  it  around  the' horns  of  a  bull,  or 
attached  it  to  any  thing  he  may  have  occasion  to  transport,  he  takes  one  or 
two  turns  of  the  thong  around  the  pommel  of  the  saddle,  and  the  horse  will 
at  full  gallop  drag  the  load  after  him.  Here  the  load  being  generally  upon 
the  ground,  the  trace  must  incline  considerably  downward;  and  this,  added 
to  the  weight  of  the  rider,  will  perhaps  account  in  some  degree  for  the  extra- 
ordinary effects  of  a  young  powerful  horse,  goaded  to  the  utmost,  and  con- 
tinuing the  exertion  only  for  a  short  time. 

A  gentleman  who  travelled  some  time  in  this  part  of  America,  and  fre- 
quently witnessed  the  practical  effects  of  this  arrangement,  has  suggested 
the  propriety  of  introducing  it  into  the  artillery,  by  means  of  which  any 
number  of  horses  might  in  an  instant  be  attached  to  a  gun,  to  extricate  it 
from  any  heavy  or  broken  ground  in  which  it  might  be  entangled.  Cer- 
tainly,  the  length  of  these  traces  would  enable  these  additional  horses  to 
secure  a  good  footing;  and  any  number  of  horses  might  thus  be  made  to 
lend  their  assistance  in  time  of  need.  VVe  do  not  pretend,  however,  to 
judge  of  the  practical  utility  of  this  measure,  but  merely  record  the  sug- 
gestion of  another. 

The  collar  now  generally  used  is  an  improvement  upon  the  ancient 
shoulder-strap  described  by  Homer ;   ani  it  is  probably  the  bes:   possible 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


423 


mode  of  attaching  the  traces  to  the  horses.  If  the  connection  is  nnade  at 
the  proper  place  on  the  collar,  the  latter  bears  flat  and  evenly  upon  the 
muscles  which  cover  the  collar-bone,  and  the  shoulders-  of  the  horse  are 
left  almost  as  free  in  their  action  as  if  the  collar  were  not  there.  Abouv 
A,  {jigs.  14  and  15,)  is  the  point  of  the  shoulder  where  the  trace  should 
come ;  and  a  little  inclination  downward,  which  can  very  easily  be  effected 
in  the  case  of  the  sliaft-horse  by  the  shafts,  and  in  the  others  by  the  belly- 
Dand,  will,  if  necessary,  prevent  the  collar  rising  up,  and  inconveniencing 
Jie  throat  of  the  i)orse. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


Reflecting  upon  the  various  circumstances  which  we  have  shown  to  occur 
in  the  application  of  animal  power,  and  the  various  conclusions  we  have 
drawn  while  considering  the  best  and  most  advantageous  application  of  this 
power — and  we  must  be  excused  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  terms,  for 
the  sake  of  the  clearness  gained  by  it — it  would  appear  that  the  resistance 
should  be,  as  much  as  possible,  rigid  and  inelastic,  so  as  to  receive  imme- 
diately and  unimpaired  the  direct  effects  of  the  slightly  irregular  exertions 
of  the  animal ;  that  this  resistance  should  not  be  such  as  to  yield  directly 
to  a  sudden  impulse ;  that  it  should  be  so  far  uniform  as  to  be  free  from 
violent  changes  or  sudden  shocks,  but  not  so  constant  as  to  allow  of  no 
remission,  nor  of  those  alternations  of  exertion  and  comparative  relaxation 
which  we  have  stated  to  be  advantageous  to  the  perfect  development  of 
animal  power. 

That,  as  regards  the  degree  of  resistance,  where  velocity  is  not  required, 
a  force  of  traction  of  from  100  lbs.  to  125  lbs.,  or  even  150  lbs.,*  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  horse,  continued  for  eight  hours  a-day,  at  about  two 

*  The  load  which  will  produce  this  amount  of  draught  will  be  determined  when  we 
consider  the  subject  of  the  roads,  on  the  quality  of  which  it  will  be  seen  that  ihia  mual 
mainly  depent.. 


424  ON   DRAUGHT. 

and  a  half  to  three  miles  per  hour,  is  the  hest  proportion  of  quantity  and 
duration  of  labour;  that  where  six  or  eight  miles  per  hour  is  required,  the 
durition  of  the  day's  work  should  be  shortened  to  five  or  six  hours,  and 
the  draught  reduced  to  80  lbs.  or  100  lbs.  At  still  higher  velocities,  the 
draught  must  not  exceed  50  lbs.  or  60  lbs.,  and  the  time  of  working  two  or 
three  hours.  But  this  speed  can  only  be  attained  by  the  sacrifice  of  the 
horse ;  and  consequently  the  question  will  rather  be  what  the  horse  is 
capable  of  doing,  than  what  can  be  done  with  economy  ;  and  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  calculation  depending  altogether  upon  the  first  cost  of  the  horse, 
and  the  profits  arising  from  his  employment. 

With  respect  to  the  mode  of  harnessing  the  horse,  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say  that  great  care  should  be  taken  in  fitting  the  collar  and  in  attaching 
the  traces  to  the  proper  point.  As  to  the  direction  of  the  traces,  it  must, 
as  we  have  shown,  entirely  depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
Where  the  draught  is  heavy  and  slow,  if  the  road  be  good,  the  traces  should 
be  nearly  horizontal,  unless  the  journey  be  short,  or  the  traffic  be  only  in 
one  direction,  and  the  cart  return  empty,  or  unless  any  other  reason  render 
it  desirable  to  compel  the  horse  to  exert  himself  more  than  he  would  natu- 
rally do;  the  traces  should  then  be  inclined  downward  toward  the  carriage 
with  an  inclination,  perhaps,  of  one  upon  four  or  five,  provided  always  thai 
the  horse  is  capable  of  continuing  the  exertion,  which,  by  the  additional  load 
thrown  upon  his  shoulders,  lie  is  Vhus  called  upon  to  make.  If,  in  the  same 
case  of  low  speed,  the  road  be  very  heavy,  or  broken  and  rough,  the  pro- 
portion of  draught  upon  each  horse  must  be  lessened,  but  the  traces  sliould 
be  attached  still  lower  to  the  carriage,  at  a  slope  of  one  upon  three  or  four, 
by  which  much  greater  power  is  given  to  the  animal  to  drag  the  load  over 
any  obstruction. 

At  all  high  velocities  the  traces  should  generally  be  horizontal.  The 
cases  of  rough  roads  or  powerful  horses  may  slightly  afiect  this  arrangement, 
as  at  low  velocities,  but  not  in  so  great  a  degree. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  examine  the  mode  in  which  these  conditions 
are  practically  to  be  fulfilled,  and  the  result  of  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  we  have  laid  down,  by  considering  the  subject  of  the  vehicles 
for  convejjing  the  rceight  to  be  moved. 

Those  in  present  use  are  boats,  (as  canal-boats,)  sledges,  and  wheeled- 
carriages,  which  last  of  course  include  every  species  of  carriage,  whethei 
waggon  or  cart,  heavy  or  light. 

Canal-boats  and  canals,  we  suspect,  are  going  fast  out  of  use,  and  will 
very  shortly  give  place  entirely  to  railways ;  but  still,  it  must  be  many 
years  before  this  can  be  effected ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  the  produce  of 
the  most  extensive  manufactures  in  the  world,  and  the  supply  of  immense 
masses  of  people,  will  be  transported  over  these  beautifully  smooth,  level, 
noiseless  roads;  and,  even  if  their  beds  were  dry,  and  become  the  course 
of  railways  (an  event  which  may  perhaps  befall  some  of  them),  we  must, 
out  of  respect  for  the  extraordinary  benefits  we  have  derived  from  their 
assistance,  and  the  almost  incredible  effect  they  have  produced  upon  the 
commerce  and  riches  of  tiie  country,  have  devoted  a  few  lines  to  that  part 
of  their  consideration  which  bears  upon  our  subject,  viz:  the  draught  of 
canal-boats. 

The  great  advantage  in  the  transport  of  goods  by  water-conveyance,  is 
the  smallncss  of  the  power  required.  A  body  floating  in  water  is  left  sc 
very  free  in  its  movements,  that  motion  may  be  gradually  communicated  to 
it  by  any  power,  however  small :  at  least  the  limit  is  very  far  removed  ;  but 
although  a  very  slight  movement  may  thus  easily  be  obtained,  the  slightest 
increase  of  speed  causes  a  very  great  increase  of  resistance. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  425 

The  resistance  to  a  body  moving  in  a  fluid  arises  princii)ally  from  th** 
striking  of  the  particles  of  the  fluid  against  tlie  front  of  the  moving  body. 
so  that  if  the  speed  of  the  vessel  be  increased,  not  only  does  it  encounter  a 
proportionably  greater  number  of  particles,  but  also  it  is  struck  by  each, 
with  a  force  proportionate  to  the  velocity,  and  consequently  tlie  resistance 
is  found  to  increase  as  the  square  of  the  velocity;  thus,  if  the  speed  of  the 
vessel  be  trebled,  the  number  of  particles,  or  the  quantity  of  water  which  it 
.neets  in  its  progress  for  a  certain  space  of  time,  is  trebled,  and  the  resist- 
ance of  each  particle  being  also  three  times  as  great,  owing  to  the  boat's 
striking  it  with  treble  the  velocity,  the  united  elTect  is  nine  times  as  great; 
therefore,  if  in  the  first  instance  it  required  one  pound  to  draw  tlie  vessel, 
it  would  now  require  nine  ;  but  nine  times  the  weight  or  resistance,  moved 
at  three  times  the  velocity,  will  require  twenty-seven  times  the  quantity  of 
power  in  action;  consequently,  we  see  that  the  resis'.ance  increases  as  the 
square  of  the  velocity,  and  the  power  required  to  be  exerted  for  a  given 
time  increases  as  the  cube  of  that  velocity. 

There  are  some  other  causes  of  resistance,  which  do  not  vary  in  this 
proportion,  but  at  moderate  velocities  ;  and,  in  all  ordinary  cases,  this  may 
be  considered  as  a  tolerable  approximation  to  the  real  law  of  the  increase, 
and  shows  at  once  the  impossibility  of  using  water  conveyance  where  speed 
is  I'equired.  The  draught  of  an  ordinary  canal-boat,  at  the  velocity  of  2\ 
miles  per  hour,  is  about  „ i^  of  its  weight ;  that  is  to  say,  a  canal-boat,  with 
its  load  weighing  33  tons,  or  73,920  lbs.,  is  moved  at  tiie  rate  mentioned, 
by  a  force  equivalent  to  60  lbs.,  being  -^ig-  part  of  the  load.  This  is  found 
by  Mr.  Bevan  to  be  the  result  upon  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  and  a  force 
of  traction  of  80  lbs.  is  here  found  to  be  equivalent  to  a  horse-power.  The 
average  power  of  an  ordinary  horse  is  certainly  rather  more ;  and  in  the 
commencement  of  this  paper  we  mentioned  this  as  an  instance  of  a  small 
effect  being  produced,  most  probably  owing  to  the  peculiar  application  of 
the  power.  We  believe  it  to  be  the  case,  and  think  it  likely  that,  if  the 
disadvantages  before  alluded  to,  arising  from  the  mode  of  applying  the 
power,  could  be  removed,  the  effect  might  be  raised  to  100  lbs.  or  120  lbs. 
of  traction,  and  consequently  the  load  moved  would  then  be  40  or  50  tons; 
this  is  an  increase  well  worthy  of  consideration. 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  means  of  transport  employed 
on  land.  These  are  sledges,  rollers,  and  wheel-carriages.  The  order  in 
which  they  are  here  mentioned,  is,  probably,  that  in  which  they  were 
invented  or  first  employed.  A  sledge  is  certainly  the  rudest  and  most 
primitive  form  of  vehicle  ;  the  wheeled-carriage,,  and  even  the  placing  the 
load  itself  upon  rollers,  is  the  effect  of  a  much  more  advanced  state  of  the 
mechanical  arts,  and  is,  probably,  of  much  later  date  than  the  sledge. 

When  mat!  first  felt  the  necessity,  or  the  desire,  of  transporting  any 
article  from  one  spot  to  another,  he  doubtless  endeavoured  to  lift  or  carry  it: 
if  it  proved  too  heavy  for  him  to  carry,  he  would  naturally  endeavour  to 
drag  it.  Here  frequent  experiments  would  soon  show  him  how  nmch  less 
labour  was  required  to  drag  a  body  with  a  smooth  surface  in  contact  withi 
the  ground,  than  when  the  contrary  was  the  case;  and  if  the  body  to  be 
moved  did  not  itself  present  a  smooth  surf^ice  on  any  of  its  sides,  but  was, 
on  the  contrary,  rough  and  angular  in  all  directions,  he  would  naturally 
be  led  to  interpose  between  it  and  the  ground  some  plane  surflxce,  which 
should  prevent  the  angles  and  projections  of  the  body  from  entering  the 
ground  and  impeding  the  progress;  and  we  may  presume  that  sledges  were 
thtis  very  early  brought  into  use.  When  attempting  to  transport  still  heavier 
masses,  the  accidental  pressure  of  round  stones,  or  a  piece  of  a  timbc,  may 
Eb 


i2C> 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


Iiave  sliown  the  advantage  of  interposincr  rolling  bodies,  and  thus  rollers 
may  have  been  in\ented  and  first  brought  into  use. 

Tliese  steps  appear  natural,  and  likely  to  have  led  to  these  results:  they 
aie,  at  any  rate,  sufficient  to  account  for  tiie  first  introduction  of  these  two 
means  of  facilitating  transport,  but  no  steps  of  this  kind  appear  capable  of 
leading  to  the  ijeautiful  yet  simple  contrivance  of  a  wheel. 

A  roller  is  by  no  means  an  imperfect  wheel,  as  it  may  at  first  appear  to 
be;  tiicy  have  nothing  in  common  but  their  rotatory  or  revolving  action,  but 
the  effect  of  this  motion  is  totally  different  in  the  two.  In  a  roller,  friction 
is  avoided  altogether  by  it :  ma  wheel,  it  exists  as  completely  as  in  a  sledge  ; 
but  the  sliding  surfaces  being  at  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  instead  of  on  the 
ground,  are  always  the  same,  and  being  under  control,  may  be  kept  in 
tiiat  state  which  shall  cause  as  little  friction  as  possible :  moreover,  the 
friction  is  at  a  point  where  we  have  the  means  of  overcoming  it,  by  acting 
with  the  power  of  a  considerable  lever,  as  we  shall  hereafter  show. 

Tiiei'e  is,  indeed,  a  kind  of  roller,  which  partakes  somewhat  of  the  char- 
acter  of  the  wheel,  but  without  possessing  the  advantages  of  it. 

Tliis  species  of  roller  may  have  been  an  intermediate  step  between  the 
two,  and  we  shall  therefore  describe  it  when  we  have  dismissed  the  subject 
of  sledges  and  rollers. 

In  England  sledges  are  at  the  present  time  very  little  in  use.  In  some 
commercial  towns  the  facility  with  which  bulky  and  heavy  articles  can  be 
placed  upon  them,  without  being  raised  to  the  height  of  a  cart,  has  caused 
them  still  to  be  employed ;  but  even  in  these  cases,  they  are  in  general  used 
only  upon  the  pavement,  where  the  friction  is  not  considerable,  and  for 
sliort  distances,  in  which  case  the  saving  of  labour,  in  loading  and  unload- 
ing, more  than  compensates  for  the  increase  of  power  absorbed  by  the 
draught.  Low-wheeled  trucks  would,  however,  in  these  cases,  possess  the 
same  advantage,  and  might  easily  be  substituted  for  them,  if  this  advantage 
is  so  indispensable  :  for  agricultural  purposes,  .hey  are  almost  become  obso- 
lete ;  and  for  all  purposes  of  traffic  between  distant  points,  they  are  quite 
abandoned. 

It  is  only  in  the  north  of  England,  and  in  some  parts  of  Cornwall,  that 
'.hey  are  sometimes  used  in  farming;  but  wherever  good  roads  exist,  and 
mechanical  arts  keep  pace  with  the  improvements  of  the  age,  they  have 
given  place  to  wheel-carriages.  An  examination  into  their  nature  and 
action  will  immediately  account  for  this. 

A  sledge  is  merely  a  frame,  generally  of  wood,  upon  wliich  the  load  is 
placed;  and,  resting  at  once  upon  the  ground,  the  friction  between  the 
under  surface  of  the  sledge  and  the  ground  bears  a  considerable  proportion 
to  the  load  ;  but  if  the  ground  be  very  uneven  and  full  of  holes,  the  sledge, 
by  extending  over  a  great  surface,  avoids  the  holes,  and  slides  only  upon 
the  eminences,  which  being  naturally  the  stones  or  the  hard  portions  of  the 
ground,  cause  less  friction  ;  on  such  a  road,  a  wheel  would  be  continually 
sinking  into  those  holes,  thus  opposing  considerable  resistance,  and  would 
also  expose  the  load  to  frequent  danger  of  upsetting. 

It  would  appear,  tiierefore,  that  over  broken  ground,  or  even  upon  a  very 
bad,  uneven  road,  a  sledge  may  be  more  advantageous  than  wheels,  and  its 
extreme  simplicity  of  construction  renders  it  very  economical,  as  regards 
first  cost  ;  but  the  ground  must  indeed  be  very  bad,  or  the  country  be  very 
poor,  and  little  cultivated,  where  the  formation  of  roads  would  not  amply 
repay  themselves  by  allowing  the  use  of  wiieels ;  for  the  power  required 
to  draw  a  loaded  sledge  will  be  at  least  four  or  five  times  greater  than  that 
required  for  an  equally  loaded  cart  upon  a  tolerably  good  road. 


ox  DRAUGHT.  427 

The  draught  of  a  sledge,  even  upon  the  pavement,  is  about  one-fifth  of 
the  load,  so  that  to  draw  a  ton  weight  requires  a  force  of  traction  of  about 
four  hundred  weight;  upon  roads,  the  friction  will  be  much  greater;  it  is 
difficult  to  state  its  amount,  as  it  must  depend  so  much  upon  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  but  with  the  load  before  mentioned,  viz:  one  ton,  the  force  of 
traction  will,  probably,  vary  from  five  to  seven  hundred  weight:  over  a 
strong  rocky  surface,  the  resistance  of  a  sledge  will  be  much  the  same  as 
on  pavement.  Its  use,  therefore,  must  be  confined  to  very  particular 
cases,  where  the  absence  of  roads,  or  the  want  of  means,  prevents  the 
adoption  of  more  improved  vehicles;  and  these  cases  are,  fortunately,  too 
rare  in  England  to  render  it  worth  our  while  to  bestow  much  time  upon 
its  description. 

Sledges  are  generally  formed  of  two  longitudinal  pieces  of  timber,  four 
or  five  feet  apart,  with  their  lower  edges  shod  with  iron;  and  transverse 
planks,  bolted  to  these,  form  the  floor,  and  they  are  thus  easily  constructed. 
The  traces  should  be  more  inclined  than  with  wheeled  carriages,  because 
the  friction  bearing  a  greater  proportion  to  the  load,  it  is  more  advantageous 
to  throw  a  portion  of  that  loud  upon  the  horse;  and,  being  used  upon  uneven 
ground,  it  is  more  important  to  be  able  to  lift  the  front  of  the  sledge 
over  obstacles. 

Although  in  this  country  the  use  of  sledges  is  very  limited,  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  they  constitute  the  best,  and,  indeed,  the  only  means  of 
conveyance.  Upon  ice,  the  friction  is  so  trifling,  that  they  oppose  less 
resistance  even  than  wheels,  for  the  reasons  before  stated  of  their  covering 
a  larger  surface,  and  thereby  s.liding  over  those  asperities  which  would 
impede  the  progress  of  a  wheel;  upon  snow,  the  advantage  is  still  more 
decided  : — where  a  wheel  would  sink  a  considerable  deptii,  and  become 
almost  immoveable,  a  sledge  will  glide  upon  the  thin  frozen  crust  without 
leaving  a  trace,  and  with  an  ease  truly  wonderful.  In  all  cold  climates, 
they  are  consequently  in  general  use;  and  the  depth  of  winter  is  there  the 
season  for  the  transport  of  merchandise. 

The  Esquimaux  with  their  dogs,  the  Laplanders  with  their  rein-deer,  and 
the  Russians  with  horses,  use  the  sledge  to  a  great  extent  in  the  winter, 
over  the  frozen  rivers  or  the  hard  snow. 

In  tiie  warm  climates,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  are  they  now  almost  un- 
known, but  the  records  which  refer  to  periods  so  far  removed  as  3000  years 
make  no  mention  of  such  conveyance. 

Rollers  come  next  under  consideration ;  they  certainly  afford  the  means 
of  transporting  a  heavy  weight  upon  land  with  much  less  power  than  any 
other  means  with  which  we  are  acquainted;  their  motion  is  not  necessarily 
attended  with  any  friction.  A  cylinder,  or  a  sphere,  can  roll  upon  a  plane 
without  any  rubbing  of  the  surfaces  whatever,  and  consequently  without 
friction ;  and,  in  the  same  manner,  a  plane  will  roll  upon  this  roller  without 
friction :  in  practice,  this  is  always  more  or  less  the  case,  according  to  the 
perfection  of  workmanship  in  the  formation  of  the  rollers,  and  if  the  cylin- 
drical,  the  care  with  which  they  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
at  which  they  are  to  move.  There  is,  it  is  well  known,  only  one  source  of 
resistance  which  is  inseparable  from  the  use  of  rollers,  viz:  the  unevennesa 
of  tliC  surfaces,  or  the  yieldings  of  the  material,  which  amounts  to  nearly 
the  same  thing. 

A  circle  resting  upon  a  straight  line  can  only  touch  it  in  a  single  point, 
and  the  contact  of  a  cylinder  with  a  plane  is  merely  a  line:  consequently, 
.r  the  material  of  the  roller,  and  the  surface  on  which  it  rolled,  were  per- 
fectly hard  and  inelastic,  such  would  be  their  contact,  whatever  weight 
might  be  placed  upon  the  roller. 


499 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


But  in  practice  no  such  material  can  be 
obtained,  and  rollers,  on  the  contrary,  aie  gen. 
erally  made  of  wood,  and,  when  loaded,  thej 
must  yield  until  the  surface  A  B,fg.  16,  is  pro- 
portionate to  the  pressure.  Still,  if  the  sub- 
stance were  perfectly  elastic — that  is  to  say,  if 
it  would  return  to  its  original  form  with  the 
same  force  and  velocity  wiiich  were  required 
to  distort  it — this  alteration  would  not  cause 
any  resistance ;  the  elasticity  at  E  would  tend 
to  raise  the  back  of  the  roller  with  a  force 
D  E,  fig.  17,  equal  to  and  exaptly  similar,  but 
opposite  to  C  B,  and  would  consequently  bal- 
ance it. 

Although  perfect  elasticity  is  unattainable, 
yet  most  hard  substances  possess  this  quality  to 
some  extent;  consequently,  when  the  load  is  not 
sufficient  to  crush  the  materials,  the  resistance 
is  not  much  increased  by  even  a  considerable 
yielding;  provided  this  yielding,  as  we  before  said,  arises  from  elasticity. 
Thus,  if  a  bladder  be  filled  with  air,  and  used  as  a  roller,  the  resistance 
will  not  be  greater  than  if  a  perfect  and  hard  cylinder  were  employed, 
although  the  bladder  may  be  nearly  flattened  under  the  weight ;  but  the 
permanent  compression  of  the  roller,  and  the  crushing  of  dust  or  other 
extraneous  substances  lying  in  the  way  are  the  great  impediments  to  its 
movement;  these  constitute  a  resistance  in  the  direction  B  C,  which  is  not 
counterbalanced  by  any  force  arising  from  elasticity  on  the  opposite  side. 
The  eflect  of  this  resistance  is  dependt^nt  upon  the  dian)eter  of  the  roller, 
diminishing  when  the  latter  is  increased,  though  not  in  so  rapid  a  proportion. 
If  A  B  C  be  a  circle,  let  a  horizontal  force  P  be  applied  at  G,fg.  18;  if 
an  obstacle  be  placed  at  E,  the  force  P  will 
tend  to  push  the  roller  over  the  obstacle, 
and  will  act  with  a  lever  equal  to  G  F, 
and  for  all  small  obstacles,  G  F  may  be 
considered  equal  to  G  D  the  diameter.  The 
weight  upon  the  roller  pressing  it  down, 
acts  with  a  lever  equa.  to  EF;  but  E  F 
is  equal  to  V  G  F,  X  V'  F  D ;  therefore 
E  r,  which  is  equal  to  F  D,  remaining  con- 
stant,  and  the  diameter  being  increased, 
E  F  increases  only  as  the  square  root  of 
diameter,  and  consequently  the  force  neces- 
sary to  advance  the  roller  is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  diameter; 
that  is  to  say,  if  a  roller  be  increased  four  times  in  diameter,  the  resistance 

1 

arising  from  the  causes  now  under  consideration  will  be  reduced  to 

V4 
or  1,  and  if  increased  nine  times  in  diameter,  the  resistance  will  be  only 
1 

equal  to or  i 

V9. 

This  being  the  only  source  of  resistance  to  the  action  of  a  roller,  it  will 

easily  be  conceived  that,  in  practice,  by  laying  a  plank,  or  any  other  plane 

surface  upon  the  ground,  and  preparing  in  like  manner  the  lower  surface 

of  the  body  to  be  moved,  and  interposing  rollers   between  the  two,  a  very 


JTij-IS. 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


429 


great  weight  may  be  moved  with  comparatively  small  power  ;  but,  on  tlio 
otiier  hand,  there  is  a  serious  practical  inconvenience  attending  the  use  of 
a  roller,  which  prevents  its  adoption  except  in  very  particular  cases. 

A  weight  moved  upon  rollers  proceeds  at  twice  the  rate  of  the  roller,  for 
U'Cfg.  19,  be  the  centre  of  the  roller,  D  the  point 
of  contact  with  the  ground,  and  E  that  with  the 
weight  to  be  moved,  and  VV  tiie  weight,  if  this 
weight  be  put  in  motion,  the  point  D  is  for  an  in- 
stant stationary,  since  it  is  in  close  contact  with  the 
ground.  The  diameter  E  C  D  moves,  therefore, 
round  the  point  D  as  a  centre,  and,  consequently, 
E  being  twice  as  far  from  D  as  C  is,  describes  E  e 
twice  as  great  a  distance  as  C  cy  fresh  points  are 
now  brought  to  the  summit  and  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  and  again  the  latter  is  stationary,  while  the 
former  moves  twice  the  distance  which  the  point  C 
does.  The  summit,  therefore,  or  that  point  which 
IS  in  immediate  contact  with  the  weight,  always  moves  with  twice  the 
velocity  of  the  centre  of  the  roller;  but  the  velocity  of  the  centre  is,  of 
course,  that  of  the  roller,  and  the  velocity  of  the  point  E,  which  is  in  con- 
tact with,  and  is  moved  by,  the  weight,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  weight 
moved  ;  therefore,  as  the  weight  is  forced  forward,  it  moves  at  twice  the 
rate  of  the  roller,  it  will  gain  upon  the  rollers,  and  others  must  be  continu- 
ally supplied  in  front — an  inconvenience  much  felt  in  practice. 

This  confines  the  use  of  the  roller  to  cases  where  the  distance  is  very 
short,  or  where  the  weight  conveyed  is  exceedingly  great,  and  reduction  in 
the  resistance  of  more  importance  than  the  inconvenience  alluded  to. 

The  most  remarkable  instance  of  the  application  of  rollers  is  the  trans- 
port of  the  rock  which  now  serves  as  the  pedestal  of  the  equestrian  statute 
of  Peter  the  Great  at  St.  Petersburgh. 


Pirr,  20. 


Fig.  21. 


This  rock,  a  single  block  of  granite,  was  discovered  in  the  centre  of  a 
bog,  four  miles  from  the  waterside;  it  weighed,  after  being  cut  into  a 
it-mvenient  shape,  1217  tons.  Notwithstanding  its  enormous  weight,  it 
was  raised  and  turned  upon  its  side,  and  placed  upon  a  frame.  A  road 
was  made  across  tlie  bog,  and  a  timber  railway  laid  down  ;  the  whole  was 
then  left  till  the  depth  of   winter,   wiien  the    boggy  ground    was  trozen 


i&O 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


a/ivl  the  o;«;rations  then  commenced.     The  railways  consisted  of  two  line? 
of  limbei   a  a  a  a,  (figs.  20,  21,  22,)  furnished  with  hard  metal  grooves 


similar  and  corresponding  metal  grooves  were  fixed  to  the  under  sideof  tlie 
sledge,  and  between  these  grooves  were  placed  the  rollers,  which  were 
spheres  of  hard  brass,  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  The  impossibility  of 
confinmg  cylindrical  rollers  to  a  perfectly  parrallel  direction,  and  without 
which  the  friction  would  have  been  considerable,  rendered  the  adoption  of 
spherical  rollers  or  balls  running  in  a  groove  a  matter  of  necessity,  as 
otherwise  the  small  surface  upon  which  they  can  bear,  and  the  consequent 
danger  of  crushing,  or  at  least  flattening  tiiat  surface,  is  a  serious  objection 
to  spheres:  once  placed  upon  the  rollers,  it  was  drawn  by  means  of  cap- 
stans. The  resistance  does  not  appear  to  have  been  great,  considering  the 
enormous  weight,  since  sixty  men  at  the  capstans  with  treble  purchase 
blocks  moved  it  with  ease. 

The  transport  of  this  enormous  rock  under  such  disadvantageous  cir. 
cumstances  of  country,  over  a  distance  of  four  miles,  and  its  subsequent 
passage  of  thirteen  miles  by  water  in  a  vast  cassoon  or  vessel  constructed 
for  the  purpose,  was  a  work  surpassing  any  thing  of  the  sort  attempted  by 
the  ancients ;  and,  indeed,  in  modern  limes  the  only  thing  which  can  be 
compared  to  it  is  the  dragging  a  ship-of-the-line  up  a  slip  ;  the  weight  is 
*n  this  case  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  rock,  but  the  distance  traversed 
is  short,  and  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  much  less.  A  plane  of  inclined 
timber  is  prepared  and  well  greased  ;  a  frame  of  wood,  technically  called 
a  cradle,  is  fixed  under  the  vessel,  it  is  floated  on  to  the  inclined  plane,  and 
drawn  up  by  the  united  eflforts  of  a  number  of  well-manned  capstans,  with 
powerful  tackle  :  in  this  case  no  rollers  are  used  ;  it  is  a  sledge,  the  sur. 
lace  being  well  covered  with  grease  to  lessen  the  friction. 

We  have  stated  that  there  was  a  particular  construction  of  roller  which 
might  be  considered,  as  regards   its  form,  merely,  an    intermediate  step 

between  the  roller  and  the  wheel. 
It  consists  of  a  roller  with  the 
diameter  of  the  extremities  increased 
as  in  fg.  23  ;  the  only  advantage 
of  this  roller  is  that  the  body  rests 
upon  the  small  part  of  the  roller, 
see  Jig.  24,  and  when  put  in  motion. 


n^.  23. 


ON    DRAUGHT. 


431 


t'ig.  24. 


will  not  gam  so  rapidly  on  the  roll 
ers ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  roller 
will  move  with  more  than  half  the 
velocity  of  the  body.  A  mere  in 
speclion  of  fg.  25,  is  sufficien. 
to  show  that  the  velocity  of  the 
centre,  C,  will  be  to  that  of  the 
body  resting  on  the  point  B,  as 
C  D  to  B  i),  so  that  if  the  ends  of 
the  rollers  are  twice  the  size  of 
the  intermediate  part,  C  D  will  be 
equal  to  two-thirds  of  B  D,  and 
the  roller  will  move  at  two-thirds 
of  the  rate  of  the  body  ;  a  less 
number  of  rollers  are  therefore 
required,  and  the  resistance  is 
somewhat  diminished  by  having 
larger  rollers  in  contact  with  the 
ground. 

In  using  a  roller  of  this  sort,  the 
idea  may  have  struck  the  workman,  or  it  may  have  occurred  accidentally, 
to  confine  the  spindle  of  the  roller,  and  compel  it  to  move  with  the  body; 
and  thus  a  clumsy  pair  of  wheels,  fixed  to  a  spindle,  would  have  resulted 
from  his  experiment.  Such  a  supposition  is  quite  gratuitous,  as  we  have 
no  record  of  any  such  contrivance  having  existed  before  wheels  were 
made  ;  indeed  it  is  inferior  botli  to  the  roller  and  the  wheel :  the  only  argu- 
ment  in  favour  of  such  a  theory  is,  that  rollers  of  this  sort  have  been  em- 
ployed in  comparatively  modern  times. 

At  Rome,  in  1588,  an  obelisk,  90  feet  high,  of  a  single  block  of  stone, 
weighing  upwards  of  160  tons,  and  which  had  originally  been  brought 
from  Egypt,  was  removed  from  one  square,  in  which  it  stood,  to  another  in 
the  Vatican,  and  there  again  erected  in  the  spot  where  it  now  is. 

In  dragging  this  through  the  streets  of  Rome,  it  was  fixed  in  a  strong 
frame  of  wood,  which  rested  upon  a  smaller  frame,  which  were  furnished 
each  with  a  pair  of  rollers,  or  spindles,  of  the  form  above  referred  to;  they 
were  turned  by  capstan  bars:  indeed,  they  cannot  be  better  described  than 
by  stating  that  they  resembled  exactly  the  naves  of  a  pair  of  cart  wheels 
(all  the  spokes  being  removed),  and  fixed  to  a  wooden  axle.  If  a  heavy 
waggon  lay  upon  a  pair  of  these,  we  can  conceive  that  by  putting  bars  into 
the  mortices  of  the  nave,  we  could  force  them  round,  and  thus  advance  the 
waggon  ;  but  the  resistance  would  evidently  be  greater  than  if  either  roll- 
ers  or  wheels  were  employed. 

All  the  difficulties  incidental  to  the  use  of  the  roller  appear  to  be  sur- 
mounted, and  all  objections  met,  by  the  contrivance  of  the  wheel. 

The  wheel  being  attached  to  the  load,  or  to  the  carriage  which  contains 
It,  moves  with  it,  is  pari  of  the  machine,  and  consequently  as  we  require 
only  the  number  of  wheels  immediately  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
load,  we  can  afford  to  construct  them  of  those  dimensions  and  materials 
best  suited  to  the  purpose.  By  increasing  their  diameter,  we  are  enabled 
to  surmount  impediments  with  much  greater  facility,  as  we  have  shown  in 
the  case  of  the  roller  ;  and  although  there  is  a  resistance  arising  from 
friction  at  the  axle,  which  does  not  exist  in  the  roller,  yet  this  may  be  so 
reduced,  by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  as  to  form  an  inconsider- 
able part  of  the  whole  resistance,  or  draught  of  the  carriage. 

Of  the  first  introduction  of  the  wheel  we  have  no  record  whatever 


432  O^    DRAUGHT 

The  principle  appears  to  us  so  simple  as  to  have  been  necessarily  the  re- 
sult of  pure  invention,  almost  inspiration  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  so 
exceedingly  effective  and  perfect,  as  hardly  to  admit  of  improvement. 

The  great  antiquity  o^"  wheeled-carriages  or  cliariots  precludes  all  hopes 
of  discovering  their  o'Jj;in.  About  fifteen  hundred  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian  era  they  appear  m  hftve  been  in  very  common  use  amongst  the  Egyp- 
tians in  their  warfar.-.  Pharaoh  despatched  six  hundred  chosen  chariots 
in  pursuit  of  the  I-  aelites,  immediately  that  he  was  informed  of  their 
escape,  while  the  re  .t  of  the  army  followed  with  all  the  chariots  of  Egy[)t ; 
here,  therefore,  they  were  in  constant  use,  and  serving  as  the  cavalry  of 
the  present  day. 

Moreover,  the  oldest  records  which  enter  into  any  detail  of  their  con- 
struction  described  them  in  a  very  forward  and  perfect  state. 

At  the  siege  of  Troy,  nearly  three  thousand  years  ago,  they  formed, 
according  to  Homer,  the  cavalry  of  the  Greeks  and  Trojans  ;  and  every 
officer  or  hero  of  good  blood  possessed,  at  least,  a  pair  of  horses  and  a 
charioteer. 

These  chariots  being  built  to  run  over  broken  ground,  where  no  roads 
existed,  were  made  very  low  and  broad,  and  they  were  by  no  means  badly 
contrived  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended  ;  the  wheels  were 
constructed  with  a  nave  and  spokes,  felloes  and  tires ;  and  the  pole,  a, 
appears  to  have  been  fixed  on  the  axle-tree,  h,  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig. 
2G.     The  body  of  the  chariot  was  placed  upon  this  frame.    The  team  most 


generally  consisted,  as  we  have  before  stated,  of  a  pair  of  horses,  attached 
to  the  pole  ;  six  and  even  a  greater  number  of  horses  were,  however,  very 
frequently  harnessed  abreast,  but  in  that  case  a  second  pole  was  generally 
affixed  to  the  axle-tree,  so  as  to  have  a  pair  of  horses  attached  to  each 
pole,  and  the  axle-trees  themselves  were  always  made  nearly  as  long  as 
the  whole  width  occupied  by  the  horses. 

They  appear  to  have  had  light  chariots  for  more  domestic  purposes,  and 
four-wheeled  carriages  for  conveyance  of  heavy  goods;  and  certainly  King 
Priam,  when  he  went  to  the  Grecian  camp  to  ransom  the  body  of  his  sor. 
Hector,  travelled  with  some  degree  of  comfort  and  luxury:  he  rode  himself 
in  a  heautlful  new-huih  travelling  carriage,  drawn  by  favourite  horses,  while 
the  treasures,  which  he  intended  as  a  ransom,  were  conveyed  in  a  four- 
wheeled  waggon  drawn  by  mules.  All  these  details,  as  well  as  the  mode 
of  harnessing  the  horses,  which  operation,  it  must  be  confessed,  was  per- 
formed by  Priam  himself  and  his  sons,  are  fully  described  in  the  twenty, 
fourth  book  of  the  Iliad. 

That  Homer  was  well  acquainted  with  the  construction  of  the  spoked 
wheel  running  freely  upon  the  axle-tree,  and,  perhaps,  even  with  the  mode 
of  hanging  the  body  of  the  carriages  upon  straps  for  springs,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  public  coaches  are  to  this  day  in  many  parts  of  France-,  and 
•sven  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  is  evident  from  the  passage  in  vvhich 


ON   DRAUGHT.  433 

he  Jescribes  Juno's  chariot.  He  there  says,  while  Juno  was  putting  the 
golden  bits  to  tiie  horses,  Hebe  fastened  on  the  wheels  to  tlie  iron  axles. 
"  These  wheels  had  eight  brazen  spokes,  and  the  felloes  were  of  gold, 
and  the  tires  of  brass." — "The  seal  was  fastened  with  gold  and  silver 
cords." 

Tins,  of  course,  gives  us  Homer's  ideas  of  perfection  in  a  chariot. 

All  the  epithets  which  could  convey  ideas  of  swiftness,  were  applied 
to  these  chariots  and  to  the  horses,  but  we  have  no  positive  information 
as  regards  the  real  velocity  with  whicii  they  would  travel :  as  roads 
were  scarce,  and  probably  at  best  merely  tracks,  much  could  not  be 
expected  from  vehicles  constructed  under  such  circumstances;  the  wheels 
were  small,  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  and  all  tiie  parts  of 
the  chariots  were  excessively  heavy,  so  as  to  resist  the  repeated  siiocks  to 
which  they  were  sui)ject. 

The  chariots  represented  upon  the  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  before 
alluded  to,  and  which  is  probably  upwards  of  2200  years  old,  are  very 
light  in  their  construction,  and  only  want  springs  to  be  called  gigs. 

The  advancement  of  all  the  branches  of  the  mechanical  arts  has 
necessarily  introduced  many  improvements  in  the  details  of  the  construction 
of  the  wheel  itself,  as  well  as  that  of  the  axle  and  the  rest  of  the  carriage, 
and  l)y  this  means  no  doubt  increased  very  greatly  the  use  and  advantage 
of  it;  but  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  tiiese  improvements  have  been  con- 
fined exclusively  to  the  workmanship  and  mechanical  detail,  and  that  the 
principle  has  remained  exactly  the  same,  and  has  not  even  received  any 
addition  during  this  immense  lapse  ol"  time. 

Upwards  of  3000  years  ago,  the  wheels  appear  to  liave  been  independent 
of  each  other,  and  running  upon  fixed  axles;  we  can  say  no  more  of  the 
most  improved  wheel  of  the  most  finished  carriage  of  the  present  day. 

We  are  far  from  intending  to  cast  any  slight  upon  modern  invention,  or 
to  compare  the  groaning  axletrees  and  creaking  wheels  of  the  ancients  with 
the  noiseless  Collinge's  axles  of  the  nineteenth  century;  but  truth  compels 
us  to  acknowledge  that  a  period  of  thirty  centuries,  more  than  half  the 
lime  which  is  supposed  to  have  elapsed  since  the  creation  of  the  world,  has 
produced  no  radical  change  nor  brought  into  action  any  new  principle  in 
che  use  of  the  wheel  as  applied  to  carriages. 

The  particular  form  and  construction  of  the  wheel,  as  well  as  of  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  carriage,  however,  admit  of  great  variety,  and  the 
draught  is  materially  affected  by  their  variation.  We  shall,  therefore, 
after  examining  the  action  of  wheels  in  general,  describe  the  mode  of 
construction  now  adopted,  and  then  endeavour  to  point  out  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  various  forms  which  have  been  given  to  the 
different  parts  of  it. 

First,  let  us  examine  the  theory  of  it,  and  suppose  it  acting  on  a  level 
plane. 

The  wheel  being  a  circle,  the  centre  will  remain  always  at  the  same 
height,  and  consequently  will  move  parallel  to  the  plane  in  a  perfectly 
*evel  line:  if  any  weight  be  attached  to  or  suspended  from  its  centre,  this 
will  also  move  in  a  continued  straight  line  without  rising  or  falling,  and 
consequently  when  once  put  in  movement,  there  is  nothing  to  check  its 
progress  (neglecting  for  the  moment  the  slight  resistance  of  the  air),  and  it 
will  require  no  force  to  keep  in  motion  so  long  as  the  wheels  continue  to  turn. 

We  have  therefore  in  this  case  only  to  examine  into  the  force  necessary 
to  turn  the  wheels.  The  wheels,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  roll  on  with 
perfect  freedom,  whatever  might  be  their  weight,  or  whatever  weight  might 
Ije  attached  to  them,  provid  d  nothing  in  the  mode  of  attaching  that  weight 


434  ON   DRAUGHT. 

iihneded  iheir  revolution;  but  in  practice  we  cannot  aamit  of  tlie  load 
revolving  with  the  wheel,  and  we  have  no  means  of  suspending  it  to  the 
wheel,  except  by  means  of  an  axle  fixed  to  the  load,  and  passing  through 
the  centre  of  the  wheel.  This  axle  presses  upon  the  lower  surface  of  the 
hole,  and  consequently,  when  the  wheel  revolves,  causes  a  friction  propor- 
tionate to  the  load  upon  the  axle.  This  friction  is  then  the  only  source 
of  resistance  to  the  motion  of  a  wheel,  under  the  circumstances  here  sup- 
posed ;  and  it  is  the  action  of  this  friction,  the  degree  in  which  it  affects  the 
draught,  and  by  what  means  this  effect  is  increased  and  diminished,  that 
we  are  now  about  to  consider. 

Let  C,fg.  27,  be  the  centre  of  a  wheel, 
of  which  C  D  is  the  radius,  and  C  A  that 
of  the  axle  passing  through  the  wheel, 
and  which  being  fixed  to  the  load  does  not 
revolve  with  the  wheel. 

If  a  force  C  B  be  applied  to  the  cen- 
tre of  the  wheel,  tending  to  advance  it  in 
the  direction  B,  the  point  D  being  in 
contact  with  the  ground,  the  wheel  is 
compelled  to  turn  or  roll,  and  the  force 
C  B  in  turning  the  wheel  acts  with  a 
leverage  equal  to  C  D,  but  the  friction  between  the  axle  and  the  wheel  is  at 
the  point  A,  and  in  preventing  the  turning  of  the  wheel  it  acts  only  at  the 
extremity  of  the  lever  C  A ;  consequently,  if  C  D  be  ten  times  as  great  as 
C  A,  the  force  C  B  need  only  be  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the  amount  of  the 
friction,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  radius  of  the  axle,  and  the  friction 
remaining  the  same,  the  force  necessary  to  overcome  the  resistance,  arising 
from  this  friction,  will  be  inversely  as  the  radius  or  the  diameter  of  the  wheel_ 
or,  in  other  words,  the  draught  will,  in  this  case,  diminish  exactly  in  pio- 
portion  as  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  increased. 

The  exact  amount  of  resistance  occasioned  by  friction  will  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  substances  in  contact  at  the  axle,  as  well  as  upon  the  pro- 
portionate dimensions  of  the  wheel  and  axle. 

The  friction  between  polished  surfaces  bears  a  certain  proportion  to  tne 
pressure:  if  the  pressure  is  doubled,  the  friction  will,  within  certain  limits, 
be  also  doubled ;  but  the  proportion  between  the  friction  and  the  pressure 
is  only  constant  so  long  as  the  same  substances  are  employed:  it  varies 
very  much  with  different  substances.  Thus,  with  soft  wood  sliding  upon 
soft  wood  the  friction  amounts  to  one-fourth  or  one-third  of  the  pressu.'e, 
while  between  hard  brass  and  iron,  the  surfaces  smooth  and  oiled,  the 
resistance  may  be  as  low  as  3'^  of  the  pressure.  The  relative  advantages, 
therefore,  of  different  materials,  as  applied  to  the  axle  and  box  of  a  wheel, 
is  a  point  of  much  consequence. 

Metals,  generally  speaking,  are  the  best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 
Owing  to  their  hardness,  the  friction  between  them  is  small,  and  they 
will  bear  without  injury  a  greater  pressure,  proportionably  to  the  sur- 
face  ;  and  from  their  strength,  the  axle  may  be  of  much  smaller  dimen- 
sions than  if  made  of  wood  ;  and  we  have  proved  that  a  reduction  in  the 
diameter  of  the  axle  causes  a  proportionate  reduction  in  the  resistance 
caused  by  friction.  In  consequence  of  these  advantages,  iron  or  steel 
axles,  working  in  iron  boxes,  are  now  almost  universally  adopted.  The 
friction  in  this  case,  when  the  parts  are  in  proper  order,  greased,  and  the 
pressure  upon  them  not  excessive,  amounts  to  about  one-eighth,  or,  at  the 
most,  one-fifth  of  the  pressure  or  weight;  suppose  it  one-sixth,  and  if 
the  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  to  that  of  the  axle  as  18  or  20  to   1,  which  is 


ON  DRAUGHT.  435 

about  the  proportion  in  a  large  two-wheeled  cart,  the  whole  rcsistanco 
arising  from  friction  at  the  axl'^  will  be  equalled  to  i  of  Jj,  or  of  3"^)  wiiicl: 
is  equal  to  yig  and  j^^  respectively.  So  that  to  move  one  ton  wjuld  not, 
in  the  latter  case,  require  a  force  of  traction  greater  than  181  lbs.;  ana 
having  overcome  this  resistance,  the  force  of  traction  required  remains 
nearly  the  same  at  all  velocities;  that  is  to  say,  friction  is  not  materially 
affected  by  velocity:  therefore  the  resistance  arising  from  it  is  not  sensibly 
augmented  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the  speed.  In  practice,  however, 
the  friction  at  the  axle  is  far  from  being  the  greatest  impediment  to  the 
motion  of  a  carriage.  We  have  hitherto,  for  thp  purpose  of  considering 
friction  alone,  supposed  the  surface  upon  which  the  wlieel  moved  as  per- 
fectly hard,  smooth,  level,  and  plane:  we  need  hardly  say  that  such  can 
never  be  the  case  in  a  road.  The  friction,  however,  remains,  practically 
speaking,  the  same,  and  the  laws  which  govern  the  amount  and  the  effects 
of  it  remain  unaltered;  and  we  have  only  to  ascertain  what  is  the  addi- 
tional resistance,  arising  from  other  sources,  to  obtain  the  whole  draught  of 
the  carriage.  We  have  already  stated,  when  pointing  out  the  difference 
between  the  roller  and  the  v/heel,  that  the  movement  of  the  latter  was 
attended  with  two  sources  of  resistance,  viz :  friction  at  the  centre,  which  we 
have  considered,  and  another,  which  is  common  both  to  the  wheel  and  the 
roller,  arising  from  impediments  in  the  road,  or  the  yielding  of  the  materials. 

The  laws  which  affect  the  amount  of  this  latter  are,  of  course,  the  same 
in  a  wheel  as  in  a  roller. 

We  have  found  that  the  power  required  to  overcome  it  is  inversely  as  the 
square  root  of  the  diameter;  therefore,  by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel,  the  effect  of  friction,  which  is  inversely  as  the  diameter,  diminishes 
much  more  rapidly  than  that  caused  by  impediments  in  the  roads;  and  on 
ordinary  roads,  with  common  carts,  the  amount  of  the  latter  is  about  three 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  foriner,  and  when  the  roads  are  at  all  injured 
by  weather  or  by  neglect,  or  if  they  are  naturally  heavy  or  sandy,  it  bears 
a  much  greater  proportion.  A  light  four-wheeled  cart,  weighing,  with  its 
load,  1000  lbs.*  was  repeatedly  drawn  upon  ditferent  sorts  of  roads,  the 
average  of  a  number  of  experiments  gave  the  following  results: 

--         ...         r  T,     A  Force  of  Traction  required 

Descnption  of  Road.  ^^  ^^^.^  1,^^  carriage. 

Turnpike  road — hard,  dry, 301  lbs. 

Ditto  dirty,     " 39 

Hard,  compact  loam, 53 

Ordinary  by-road,  106 

Turnpike  road — new  gravelled,     ....  143 

Loose,  sandy  road, 204 

The  friction  at  the  axles,  which  were  of  wood,  was,  of  course,  nearly 
constant,  and  probably  absorbed  at  least  -g\  of  the  weight,  or  12i  lbs.  of  the 
force  of  traction,  leaving,  therefore,  for  the  resistance  caused  by  the  road  in 
♦he  different  cases,  as  under: 

„         ...         „„      ,  Force  of  Traction  required  to  rr.ovf  tlie 

Description  of  Road.  Carriage,  independent  of  tlie  Friction  at  tlie  Axles. 

Turnpike  road — hard,  dry,  about       ...        18  lbs. 

Ditto  dirty,     ^ 261 

Ditto  new  gravelled,     ....  130^ 

Loose,  sandy  road, 191 J 

*  The  experiment  was  not  marie  with  a  load  of  exactly  1000  ll>s.,  l)ut  the  proportic^ns  ol 
the  results  are  calculated  to  this  standard.  The  public  are  iiidcbtod  to  Mr.  Hevan  foi 
those  as  well  as  a  ijreat  number  of  other  highly  useful  and  practical  experinfienta  upon 
the  effects  of  power  in  various  cases. 


436 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


SO  that  in  ihe  last  case,  one  by  no  means  of  rare  occurrence  in  many  parts  of 
the  country,  the  portion  of  draught  immediately  caused  by  the  state  of  the 
roads  was  ten  times  as  great  as  on  a  good  turnpike  road,  and  about  fdteen 
times  as  great  as  that  which  arose  from  the  friction  at  the  axles.  It  would 
be  hopeless  to  attempt  to  remedy  this  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  wheel: 
the  experiment  was  made  with  wlieels  of  tlie  ordinary  size.  To  double 
their  diameter  would  evidently  be  attended,  in  practice,  with  insurmounla- 
ble  difficulties;  and  yet,  even  if  this  were  elFected,  it  would  barely  reduce 
the  total  amount  of  the  draught  by  one- fourth  ;  but  as  the  form  of  the  wheel 
may  materially  influence  the  state  of  the  road,  we  shall,  therefore,  proceed 
to  consider  the  various  forms  employed. 

Some  years  ago,  when  the  principal  turnpike  roads  of  the  kingdom  were 
at  many  parts,  at  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  in  little  better  condition 
than  that  on  which  the  last  experiment  was  tried,  various  attempts  were 
made  to  reduce  the  resistance,  by  using  narrow  wheels.  These  attempts, 
and  the  laws  which  it  was  found  necessary  to  enact  to  prevent  the  entire 
destruction  of  the  roads,  led,  at  last,  to  curious  results,  having  gradually 
caused  the  introduction  of  the  worst-formed  wheel  which  could  probably 
be  invented,  either  as  regards  mcreasing  the  draught  or  the  destruction  of 
the  road. 

To  understand  these  alterations  clearly,  we  must  describe  the  principal 
features  of  the  wheel  now  in  use. 

The  general  construction  of  it  presents  a  striking  instance  of  strength 
arising  from  the  judicious  union  of  substances  of  very  different  qualities — 
wood  and  iron. 

A  strong  circular  frame  of  wood,  composed  of  different  segments,  called 
felloes,  is  bound  together  by  a  hoop,  or  several  hoops  of  iron,  called  tires, 
which  thus,  at  the  same  time  that  it  gives  great  strength,  protects  the  outei 
surface  from  wear. 

The  nave,  a  circular  block  of  wood,  is  sustained  in  the  centre  of  this 
frame  by  the  spokes,  which,  instead  of  being  in  the  plane  of  the  felloes_. 
form  a  cone:  this  is  called  the  dishing  of  the  wheel.  The  object  of  it  is 
to  give  slifFness,  to  resist  lateral  shocks,  as  when  the  wheel  slips  sideways, 
into  a  rut  or  hole.  A  reference  to  a  comparative  view  of  the  wheel,  with 
and  without  dishing,  will  more  clearly  explain  our  meaning.  Fig.  28,  is 
a  wheel  witii  the  spokes  all  in  one  place;  jig.  29,  a  wheel  with  a  consider. 
able  degree  of  dialling. 


J.^.a^ilillli 

Fig.  29. 


Here  it  J«  evident  that  a  small  pressure  on  the  nave  in   fig.  29,    would 
jave  a  tendency  to  push  it  through,  and  would  ^eet  with  but  little  resistan';e 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


437 


Firj.  30, 


In  jig.  30,  on  the  contrary,  this  force  would  be  opposed  at  once  by  the 
direction  of  the  spokes,  which  form  an  arch,  or  dome,  that  cannot  be  flat- 
tened without  bursting  the  felloes,  or  tires.  The  dishing,  therefore,  givt'si 
the  wheel  a  great  degree  of  stiffness  and  strength,  which  it  would  noi 
otherwise  possess. 

In  consequence  of  this  conical  form,  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  lower 
spokes  which  support  the  weight  as  vertical 
as  possible,  has  required  that  the  whole 
wheel  should  be  placed  oblique,  and  the 
axle  bent  downwards,  as  m  jg.  .30:  this,  as 
we  shall  hereafter  show,  is  attended  with 
very  serious  evils.  As  a  wheel  is  intended 
to  roll  upon  the  ground,  without  friction,  it 
is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  outer  surface 
of  the  tires  should  be  cylindrical,  as  it  is  the 
only  form  which  admits  of  the  wheel  rolling 
freely  in  a  straight  line;  but  it  is  never- 
theless the  form  of  this  surfoce,  its  breadth, 
and  the  degree  of  dishing  which  have  varied 
so  much  from  the  causes  before  mentioned, 
viz:  the  state  of  the  roads,  and  to  the  consideration  of  which  it  may  be 
proper  we  should  now  return. 

A  road,  however  much  neglected  and  out  of  repair,  will  generally  have., 
at  a  certain  depth,  a  hard  bottom;  above  this  will  be  a  coat  of  mud  of  loose 
stuff,  more  or  less  deep,  according  to  the  material  used,  and  the  frequency 
of  repair  or  the  quantity  of  wet  to  which  it  may  be  exposed.  It  is  sinking 
through  this,  until  it  reaches  the  hard  bottom,  that  causes  the  resistance  to 
the  progress  of  the  wheel:  whether  the  wheel  be  wide  or  narrow,  it  must 
squeeze  or  grind  its  way  to  the  bottom  of  this  mud;  a  narrow  wheel 
evidently  displaces  less,  and  therefore  offers  less  resistance.  The  great 
object  of  carriers,  then,  was  very  naturally  to  place  as  great  a  load  as  they 
could  upon  wheels,  which  were  as  narrow  as  possible,  consistent  with  the 
necessary  strength. 

It  was  soon  perceived  that  the  entire  destruction  of  the  roads  would  be  the 
consequence  of  this  very  system,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  bad  state  of 
the  roads.  A  certain  width  of  tire  proportionate  to  the  load  was  therefore 
required  by  law.  The  endeavour  to  evade  this  law  was  the  cause  of  the 
absurd  form  of  wheel  we  are  about  to  describe  and  to  condemn. 

In  apparent  obedience  to  the  law,  the  felloes  of  the  wheels  were  made  of  an 
excessive  breadth ;  but  to  retain  the  advantages 
of  the  narrow  wheel,  the  middle  tire  was  made 
to  project  so  far  beyond  the  others,  [see  Jig.  31,) 
that  it  in  fact  constituted  the  wheel,  the  others 
''•^  ^  ^  ^  ^  being  merely  to  give  a  nominal,  and   not  a  real 

width.  The  enormous  loads  which  it  was  found 
advantageous  to  place  on  these  wheels  rendered  it 
necessary  to  give  them  a  considerable  degree  of 
dishing,  to  resist  lateral  shocks,  and,  besides,  the 
carriers  were  by  this  means  enabled  to  give  a 
creat  width  of  floor  to  the  carriage,  still  keeping 
the  vehicle  in  the  common  tracks  or  ruts,  so  that  the  wheels  ultimately 
assumed  the  form  represented.  Jig.  32. 

If  such  a  machine  had  been  constructed,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
giinding  the  materials  of  the  road  to  powder,  or  of  serving  as  a  check, 
or   drag,  to  the   waggon,  it   might,   indeed,  iiave    been  judicious,   but  as 


43S 


ON  DRAUGHT 


wheel,  it  was  monstrous.  Yet  iliis  is  the 
form  of  wheel  upon  which  the  contradic- 
tory opinions  referred  to  in  the  first  page 
of  this  treatise,  were  given  before  a  com- 
mittce  of  the  House  of  Commons.  A  car- 
rier  of  Exeter  advocated  these  wlieels, 
and,  in  support  of  his  opinion,  adopts  them 
to  this  day.  But  a  kw  days  ago  we  saw 
one  of  his  Vv'aggons  with  wheels  which, 
although  only  about  twelve  inches  wide, 
were  six  inches  smaller  at  the  outside  than 
than  at  the  inside.  Such  a  cone,  if  set  a 
rolling  and  left  to  itself,  would  run  round 
in  a  circle  of  litUe  more  than  twenty  feet 
diameter.  What  must  be  the  grinding  and  the  friction,  then,  when  it  in 
constantly  compelled  to  go  on  a  straight  line?  yet  enough  has  been  written 
and  said  upon  this  subject  to  convince,  we  should  imagine,  the  most  preju- 
diced of  the  absurdity  of  the  system. 

We  shall  reoeat  the  principal  arguments  which  were  made  use  of  at  the 
time  of  the  mquiry  mentioned. 

Mr.  Gumming  took  great  pains,  by  constructing  models,  to  show  that 
conical  wheels  were  not  adapted  for 
rolling  in  a  straight  line,  by  making 
a  small  conical  wheel  run  over  longi- 
tudinal bars,  as  in  f.g.  33.  It  was 
seen  that  if  the  middle  part  of  the  tire 
rolled  upon  the  centre  bar  without 
moving  it,  the  bar  A  was  pushed 
backwards,  while  the  bar  C  was 
pushed  forwards;  clearly  showing  if, 
instead  of  sliding  bars,  the  wheel  had 
moved  upon  a  road,  how  much  it 
must  have  ground  the  road,  and  what 
a  small  portion  of  the  tire  was  truly 
roJJivg. 

That  such  must  have  been  the  case 
is,  indeed,  easily  proved  without  a 
model.  We  will  take  on!)'  three  dif- 
ferent parts  of  he  wheel,  and  consider  them  as  independent  hoops  of  differ- 
ent diametp'-;  if  these  hoops  are  compelled  to  go  the  same  number  of  revo- 
lutions, the  larger  one  will  evidently  gain  upon  the  second,  while  the  third 
will  be  left  far  behind.  Now,  if,  instead  of  being  independent  of  each 
other,  they  are  fixed  to  the  same  axle,  and  compelled  to  revolve  together, 
the  large  one  not  being  able  to  advance  faster  than  the  others,  must  tear  up 
the  ground.  The  smaller  one,  on  the  contrary,  being  dragged  forward 
faster  than  it  would  naturally  roll,  must  drag  up  the  ground;  and  this  is 
what  must  take  place,  and  does,  with  any  but  a  cylindrical  wheel,  and  that 
to  a  very  considerable  extent. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  a  conical  wheel,  of  an  average  diameter  of  five 
feet;  that  is  to  say,  that  the  centre  advances  about  fifteen  feet  to  every 
revolution  of  the  wheel.  If  the  inner  tire  be  six  inches  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  outer  tire,  the  circumference  of  it  will  be  about  eighteen  inches 
greater;  therefore,  at  each  revolution  of  the  wheel,  the  inner  tire  would 
naturally  advance  eighteen  inches  more  than  the  outer  tire:  but  thoy  are 
compelled  to  go  over  the  same  distance  of  ground.     The  one  or  the  other 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


439 


therefore,  must  nave  disturbed  the  ground,  or,  what  is  nearer  the  truth, 
upon  every  fifteen  feet  run  of  road,  the  former  has  passed  over  nine  inches 
less  ground  than  the  development  of  its  circumference ;  the  latter,  nine 
inches  more — the  one  continually  pushing  back  the  ground,  the  other  drag^ 
ging  it  forward. 

Every  child  knows  that  the  front  ivheel  of  a  carriage  goes  oftener  round 
than  the  hind  wheel.  If,  then,  the  front  wheel  were  obliged  to  make  only 
one  revolution  to  every  revolution  of  the  other,  but  still  impelled  at  the 
same  rate,  it  must  be  partly  dragged  over  the  road.  If  these  wheels  be 
placed  side  by  side,  instead  of  one  being  in  front  of  the  other,  the  effect 
must  be  the  same.  Now,  suppose  them  to  be  the  outer  and  inner  tire  of 
the  same  wheel,  the  circumstances  are  not  thereby  altered  :  the  smaller 
circle  and  the  larger  circle  cannot  both  roll  upon  the  ground.  A  conical 
wheel  is  then  constantly  twisting  the  surface  upon  which  it  rests,  and  hence 
arises  a  very  considerable  resistance,  as  well  as  destruction  to  the  roads. 

If  these  arguments  are  not  sufficient  to  decide  the  point  completely,  let 
the  reader  bear  in  mind  simply,  that  a  cone,  when  left  to  itself,  will  always 
roll  in  a  circle.    The  frustrum  of  a  cone,  AB,fg.  JM,  is  only  a  portion  of  the 

entire    cone,    ABC,    which    will 
Fii/.  34.  roll   round  the  point  C  ;    if  this 

entire  cone  be  completely 
severed  at  the  point  B,  the 
two  parts  will  still  continue  to 
roll  round  the  same  point,  and  if 
the  portion  BC  be  now  abstracted, 
the  motion  of  the  remainder  will 
not  be  altered.  If  a  wine-glass  or  decanter,  any  thing  which  is  not  of  the 
same  size  at  the  two  parts  which  are  in  contact  with  the  surface  on  which 
it  rests,  be  rolled  upon  a  table,  those  who  are  not  already  too  familiar  with 
the  fact  to  require  an  illustrstion  of  it,  will  immediately  see  the  truth  of 
this  statement.     If,  then,  a   wheel   thus  formed    would  naturally  quit   the 

straight  line,  when  compelled  to  follow 

it,  it  is  clear  that  exactly  tlie  same  ef- 

Ij        I  /^^^^^ahl  feet  must  be  produced  as  when  a  cylin- 

[|       \j  f^Bm  drical  mill-stone,  as  in  fg.  35,  which 

would  proceed  in  a  straight  line,  is 
compelled  to  follow  a  curved  line,  and 
is  constantly  twisted  round  the  centre 
C,  it  would  grind  every  thinff  beneath 
it  to  powder.  Yet  these  travelling 
grindstones  have  been  in  use  upwards 
of  twenty  years,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  roads,  and  at  a  great  expense  of  power  to  those  who  have  persisted  in 
employing  them. 

The  increased  strain  upon  the  axles,  from  this  constant  tendency  of  the 
u^eel  to  be  twisted  outwards,  with  the  consequent  friction,  is  a  .source  of 
resistance  absorbed  and  rendered  comparatively  inconsiderable,  by  the  fl\r 
greater  friction  on  the  ground  ;  but  it  is  not  the  less  a  cause  "of  great 
increase  of  draught,  and  the  union  of  all  these  serious  disadvantages  justi- 
fies,  we  think,  our  assertion,  that  such  a  wheel  is  as  injudicious  a  contriv- 
ance as  could  po.ssibly  be  invented.  We  trust  they  will  not  long  continue 
to  di.sgrace  our  wheelwrights,  and  injure  our  roads. 

We  hope  that  none  of  our  readers  will  consider  that  we  have  wasted  our 
arguments  upon  a  point  too  self-evident  to  require  proof.  In  reply  to  this, 
however,  we  will  state  that,  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  parlies  interested  ir 


Fi^.35. 


440  ^^  DRAUGHT. 

the  management  of  a  considerable  portion  of  a  principal  road  in  the  middle 
of  England,  the  question  was  considered,  and  it  was  agreed  to  encourage 
the  use  of  conical  wheels,  as  at  least  equal  to,  if  not  superior  to  cylindrical 
ones,  by  allowing  them  to  run  at  a  less  toll,  than  that  required  by  act  of 
parliament. 

The  cylindrical  form  is  the  only  one  which  ought  to  be 
admitted.  As  a  wheel  must,  however,  always  be  liable  to 
sink  a  little  into  the  road,  and  cannot  be  expected  always  to 
bear  perfectly  flat  upon  the  ground,  the  surface  of  the  tires 
should  be  slightly  curved,  and  the  edges  rounded  off,  as  in 
Jig.  36.  As  tJie  rounding  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  yield- 
iiig  of  the  road,  its  degree  must  depend  upon  the  state  of  the 
road,  and  tiie  form  of  the  wheel  may  approach  more  nearly 
to  the  true  cylinder,  in  proportion  as  the  roads  approach 
nearer  to  perfection  in  point  of  hardness  and  flatness.  When 
the  roads  are  good,  a  very  little  dishing  will  be  sufficient,  and 
a  slight  inclination  of  the  wheel  from  the  vertical,  will  make 
it  correspond  with  the  barrel  or  curve  of  the  road,  which  is 
now  generally  very  trifling. 

Next   to  the  form,  the   breadth  of  the  wheel  is  the   point 
requiring  most  consideration:  it  is  one,  however,  which  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  state  of  the  road. 

We  have  seen,  that  tbe  displacement  or  crushing  of  the  materials  form- 
ing  the  upper  surface  of  the  road  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  resist- 
ance. If  the  whole  mass  of  the  road  were  formed  of  a  yielding  substance, 
into  whicii  the  wheel  would  sink  to  a  depth  exactly  proportionate  to  tiie 
weight  bearing  upon  it,  it  is  probable  that  great  breadth  would  be  advan- 
tageous, so  that  the  wheel  might  form  a  roller,  tending  to  consolidate  the 
materials,  rather  than  cause  any  permanent  displacement ;  but,  in  the 
improved  state  of  modern  roads,  it  may  safely  be  considered  that  such  is 
never  the  case. 

A  road,  as  we  have  before  stated,  always  consists  of  a  hard  bottom,  cov- 
ered with  a  stratum,  more  or  less  thick,  of  soft  yielding  material.  A 
wheel,  even  moderately  loaded,  will  force  its  way  through,  and  form  a  rut 
in  this  upper  coating.  The  resistance  will  be  nearly  pro[)ortionale  to  the 
breadth  of  this  rut;  the  depth  of  it  will  not  increase  in  the  ratio  of  the  pres- 
sure. In  considering,  then,  simply,  the  case  of  a  single  wheel  or  a  pair  of 
wheels  forming  two  distinct  ruts,  it  is  evident  that  it  should  form  as  narrow 
a  rut  as  possible,  but  that  it  should  not  in  any  degree  crush  or  derange  the 
core  or  hard  basis  of  the  road.  When  a  rut  is  thus  formed,  a  small  track 
or  portion  of  the  road  is  for  a  time  rendered  clean  and  hard,  and  conse- 
quently capable  of  bearing  a  greater  load  than  before,  and  with  less  injury. 
It  is,  then,  highly  important  in  a  four-wheel  carriage  that  the  hind  wheels 
should  follow  exactly  in  the  track  of  the  front  wneels.  If  rollers  were 
necessary  for  the  road,  as  if,  for  instance,  it  was  merely  a  bed  of  clay, 
then  indeed,  but  only  in  such  a  case,  would  it  be  judicious  to  cause  the 
wheels  to  run  in  different  tracks,  as  has  been  proposed,  and  was  carried 
into  effect  under  the  encouragement  of  an  act  of  parliament.  Such  wheels 
were  called  straddlers  :  they  might  have  been  necessary  tools  for  the  pre- 
servation of  such  roads  as  then  existed,  but  the  increased  draught  soon 
taught  the  public  to  evade  the  law  which  encouraged  them. 

Mr.  Deacon,  one  of  the  principal  carriers  in  England,  in  an  excellent 
practical  work  on  wheel-carriages,  published  in  1310,  describing  these 
wheels,  says:  "  If  the  axle  of  a  six-inch  wheel  is  of  that  length  to  cause 
the  hind-wheels  to  make  tracks  five  inches  outside  the  tracks  of  the  fore- 


ON  DRAUGHT.  441 

wheels,  and  nine-inch  wheels  seven  inches  outside,  tjey  are  then  called 
straddlers,  and  are  allowed  to  carry  a  greater  weight  than  if  not  so.  The 
original  intent  of  these  was  most  excellent  ;  but  the  effect  has  been  defeateQ 
Dy  the  carrier  or  other  person  not  only  making  the  bed  or  axle  contrary  tc 
what  was  intended,  but  also  by  carrying  with  them  a  false  collar,  with  a 
joint  therein,  to  put  on  and  take  off  at  pleasure  ;  so  that  they  have  no  great 
difficulty  in  making  the  wheels  straddlers  a  little  while  before  they  como 
to  a  weighing  machine,  and  making  them  not  so  when  they  have  passed 
the  same." 

On  modern  roads  such  an  arrangement  would  hardly  be  beneficial  even 
to  the  road  itself,  and  would  nearly  double  the  amount  of  draught. 

Too  great  care  and  precaution  cannot  be  taken  to  insure  the  wheels  run- 
ning in'the  same  track.  Let  it  be  remembered  that,  on  a  good  road,  the 
forming  the  rut  is  the  cause  of  three-fourths  and  oftener  five-sixths  of  the 
whole  resistance.  Narrow  wheels,  therefore,  running  in  the  same  track, 
without  doubt  offer  the  least  resistance,  provided  there  is  surface  sufficient 
to  sustain  the  weight  borne  upon  them,  without  material  destruction  to  the 
foundation  of  the  road. 

Six  inches  in  breadth  of  the  flat  or  cylindrical  part,  a,  b,  fig.  3G,  inde- 
pendent  of  the  rounded  edges,  will  be  quite  sufficient,  in  a  wlieel  of  ordi. 
nary  size,  to  bear  a  ton  without  injury  to  the  roads,  if  in  good  condition ; 
and"^according  as  the  weight  upon  each  wheel  is  more  or  less  than  this,  tho 
breadth  should  be  proportionably  increased  or  diminished. 

While  upon  the  subject  of  wheels,  it  may  be  as  well  to  state  the  several 
new  modes  of  constructing  wheels  lately  introduced,  which  severally  pos- 
sess their  merits  and  disadvantages.  The  last  improvement  is  that  known, 
under  the  name  of  "Jones's  patent  wheels." 

It  consists  in  making  the  felloe  of  a  single  ring  of  cast  iron.  The  nave, 
which  is  also  of  cast  iron,  is  suspended  in  the  centre  by  eight  wrought  iron 
rods :  these  rods  are  crossed  or  alternately  dished  inwards  and  outwards, 
to  give  stiffness,  which  is  thus  obtained  without  affecting  the  cylindrical 
form  of  the  whole. 

Figs.  37  and  33  (see  next  page)  represent  different  views  of  this  wheel, 
F  F   being  the  cast  iron  felloe,  S  S  the  spokes,  and  N  the  nave. 

These  wheels  have  been  adopted  to  a  very  great  extent  in  London,  and 
therefore,  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  found  to  answer;  but  they  are 
expensive,  and  not  easily  repaired,  except  at  the  original  manufactory,  and 
therefore  we  should  think  are  not  so  well  adapted  tor  agricultural,  as  for 
commercial  purposes,  and  in  a  large  town  where  the  means  of  repair  may 
be  at  hand. 

The  most  simple  innovation  upon  the  original  wooden  wheel  is  the  cast 
iron  nave.  This  we  should  think,  must  be  much  less  liable  to  wear  than 
the  wooden  nave,  which  is  literally  honeycombed  with  the  mortices  for 
the  spokes  ;  and  a  wheel  of  this  sort  can  be  repaired  by  the  most  ordi- 
nary  wheelwright,  provided  he  has  one  of  the  castings  at  hand. 

We  should  strongly  recommend  that  these  naves  should  be  made  with 
a  double  row  of  sockets  for  the  spokes,  so  as  to  cross  the  dishing  of  them 
in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  wrought  iron  wheels  described  above : 
and  vve  think  they  would  then  form  a  strong,  durable,  and  economical 
wheel.  There  might  be  some  danger  from  the  effects  of  wet  or  damp 
rejnaining  in  the  cast  iron  soclcets,  and  attacking  the  wood  ;  but  we  shoula 
think  a  small  hole  bored  into  the  socket  to  allow  the  moisture  to  escape, 
aud  common  precaution  in  painting  these  parts,  would  prevent  any  evil 
ucnsequences 

Ff 


14» 


ON   DRAUGHT. 


JONES  S    PATENT    WHEEr,. 

Fi'T  37.  Fie.  38. 


Willi  respect  to  the  size  of  wheels,  we  have  shown  that  wheels  of  large 
diameter  certainly  offer  less  resistance  than  small  ones  ;  but  expense  and 
weight  cause  a  limit  to  this.  From  4  ft.  9  in.  to  5  ft.  6  in.  is  a  good  size 
for  cart-wheels,  and  is  about  the  limit  where  any  great  increase  of  diameter 
would  cause  more  inconvenience  and  expense  than  would  be  compensated 
for  by  any  advantage  gained,  and  if  much  less  in  diameter  than  this,  the 
draught  is  unnecessarily  augmented. 

Yet  the  front  wheels  of  a  waggon  are  always  below  this  standard,  rarely 
exceeding  four  feet,  and  frequently  much  less.  This  is  a  serious  evil 
attending  the  use  of  four  wheels,  it  is  an  arrangement  originally  made  for 
the  purpose  of  enabling  the  front  wheels  to  lock  under  the  body  of  the 
waggon,  which  may  thus  turn  in  a  small  space. 

Now  it  rarely  happens  that  a  waggon  is  required  to  turn  short  round, 
and  it  cannot  cause  any  serious  inconvenience  if  it  be  rendered  altogether 
incapable  of  doing  so. 

In  this  i-espect  a  great  improvement  has  taken  place  within  a  kw  years. 
In  the  place  of  those  moving  mountains  which  were  formerly  dragged 
slowly  along  upon  immensely  heavy  and  broad,  but  low,  wheels,  ve  now 
see,  particularly  on  the  roads  leading  northward  from  London,  a  great 
number  of  light,  well-built  waggons,  with  much  larger  wheels,  especially 
the  Iront  wheels,  which,  instead  of  being  small  enough  to  turn  under  the 
floor  of  the  waggon,  are  about  four  feet  six  inches  in  diameter.  As  those 
waggons  are  used  only  on  the  road,  and  are  never  required  to  turn  in  8 
small  compass,  but  a  very  small  action  is  allowed  to  the  fore-axle,  and  the 
floor  and  body  of  the  waggon  is  continued  from  end  to  end  of  nearly  the 
same  width. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  443 

A  waggon  wifn  part  of  the  floor  and  body  cut  away,  so  as  to  form  a  sort 
of  recess  for  the  front  wheel  to  turn  into,  allows  of  all  the  movements  tha^ 
can  be  acquired,  except  in  the  crowded  streets  of  a  town,  and  by  this 
arrangement  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  front  wheel  being  made  of 
large  diameter,  as  in  the  case  just  described.  Our  present  object,  however, 
is  not  to  enter  into  a  detailed  description  of  how  we  should  build  a  waggon, 
but  simply  to  recommend  the  use  of  large  front  wheels,  as  tending  much 
to  diminish  the  draught.  An  intelligent  wheelwright  will  always  know 
how  to  construct  a  waggon  so  as  to  admit  of  this. 

The  consideration  of  the  subject  of  the  wheels  naturally  includes  that  of 
(he  comparative  advantages  of  two-wheeled  and  four-wheeled  carriages. 
Upon  this  point  opinions  differ  as  much  as  upon  any  of  those  we  have 
already  considered;  and  we  fear  that  we  are  not  likely  to  do  more  than 
to  arrange  the  different  opinions  given  by  others,  without  advancing 
any  of  our  own.  If  we  succeed,  however,  in  doing  this  clearly,  we  shall 
have  done  much,  because  we  may  thus  enable  each  individual  to  separate 
those  arguments  which  apply  particularly  to  his  own  case;  and  combining 
these  opinions  with  his  own  judgment,  he  will  be  more  likely  to  arrive  at  a 
just  conclusion,  than  if  he  were  altogether  unaided  by  the  opinions  and 
experience  of  others. 

The  advocates  of  light  two-wheeled  carts  assert  that  a  horse  working 
alone  is  capable  of  performing  more  work  than  when  forming  one  of  a 
team;  and  that  in  consequence  of  this  increased  effect,  there  is  a  saving  of 
expense  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two,  or  one-third. 

The  advocates  for  waggons  assert,  on  the  contrary,  tiiat  it  requires  that 
each  horse  in  a  single-horse  cart  should  be  of  a  superior  quality,  and, 
therefore,  more  expensive  than  those  of  a  team,  where  the  average  power 
only  is  considered  ;  that  the  wear  and  tear,  first  cost,  and  expense  of  attend- 
ance of  several  small  carts,  is  greater  than  that  of  a  waggon  carrying  the 
same  load,  and  that  in  consequence  there  is  an  economy  obtained  by  the 
latter  in  a  proportion  of  four  to  three. 

Numbers  of  facts  and  the  results  of  long  experience  are  adduced  on  either 
side,  all  of  which  convey  much  useful  information,  and  the  substance  of 
the  whole  appears  to  be,  that  with  light  single-horse  two-wheeled  carts, 
good  horses  are  able  to  draw  greater  loads,  and  do  more  work  in  proportion 
than  a  waggon  team ;  that  these  carts  are  easier  loaded  and  unloaded,  do 
less  injury  to  the  roads,  and  that  they  do  not  require  more  horses  in  action 
than  are  sufficient  for  the  work  to  be  performed. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  found  that  the  horses  must  be  stronger  and  better 
fed;  that  being  entirely  dependent  on  their  own  exertions,  although  doing 
more  work,  they  are  more  fatigued  and  sooner  knocked  up;  that  on  rough 
roads  they  are  liable  to  be  shaken  and  injured  by  the  sudilen  movements 
and  shocks  of  the  cart,  all  of  which  are  conveyed  by  the  shafts  directly  to 
the  horse  ;  that  in  ascending  or  descending  hills  the  whole  weight  being 
above  the  axle-tree,  it  destroys  the  balance,  and  is  thrown  too  much  upon 
the  horse  in  the  former  case,  or  tends  to  raise  him  from  the  ground  in  the 
latter,  which,  even  if  any  alteration  of  the  balance  be  found  advantageous, 
is  exactly  the  contrary  of  what  would  be  necessary. 

That  with  a  waggon,  the  average  power  of  several  horses  is  obtained, 
horses  of  inferior  quality  may  therefore  be  used;  they  are  not  so  much 
'atigued,  because  by  relieving  each  other  they  can  alternately  exert  them- 
selves  or  relax.  Greater  loads  can  be  carried  with  less  attendance  of 
drivers,  and  they  are  less  liable  to  accidents;  they  are  easier  withdrawn 
from  any  b'^le,  or  forced  over  any  obstruction,  because  only  half  the  load 


444  ON  DRAUGHT. 

being  upon  eaci)  pair  of  wheels,  the  whole  force  of  the  team  is  applied  sue 
cessively  to  eacK  half  of  the  load,  consequently  in  any  bad  road  the  powei 
occasionally  required  is  less,  although  the  draught  of  the  carriage,  properly 
speaking,  is  greater  than  that  of  a  two-wlieeled  cart.  These  various 
arguments  would  appear  to  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  upon  good  roads, 
and  for  short  distances,  with  good  horses,  two-wheeled  single-horse  carts 
are  the  best;  but  that,  with  inferior  roads  and  ordinary  horses,  light  four, 
wheeled  waggons,  with  a  team  of  three  or  four  horses,  are  generally  the 
most  advantageous. 

Two-wheeled  carts  with  two  horses  are  decidedly  inferior  to  either  of 
these:  the  shaft  horse  suffers  all  the  inconveniences  complained  of  in  the 
single  horse-cart,  and  the  leader  does  not  produce  more  etlect  than  when 
in  a  waggon  team. 

It  is  impossible  to  decide  generally  upon  the  comparative  merits  of  the 
different  arrangements,  because  the  result  depends  entirely  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case. 

We  may,  however,  endeavour  to  unite  in  some  degree  the  advantages 
claimed  by  both.  The  draught  of  a  cart  is  less  than  that  of  a  waggon  for 
several  reasons:  amongst  others,  because  the  wheels  are  larger  and  the 
horse  produces  more  effect,  because  his  force  is  applied  immediately  to  the 
resistance.  A  light  waggon  with  large  front  wheels  would  not  be  much 
inferior  in  point  of  draught  to  the  carl,  and  two  horses  abreast  in  double 
shafts  would  work  with  equal  advantage  to  the  single  horse ;  while  an 
additional  horse  may  always  be  applied  when  an  excessive  load  or  the  state 
of  the  road  should  require  it. 

All  that  we  have  said  with  respect  to  the  size  and  contrivance  of  wheels 
is  equally  applicable  to  light  carriages  as  to  heavy,  and  we  shall  now  pro- 
ceed  to  cohsider  the  different  modes  of  placing  the  loads  upon  the  wheels. 

It  might  appear  at  first  sight  that  this  would  not  affect  the  amount  of  the 
draught;  that  provided  a  weight  to  be  moved  were  placed  upon  the 
wheels,  and  the  wheels  put  in  motion,  that  nothing  more  could  be  required. 
Upon  a  perfectly  level  smooth  plane,  and  with  a  constant  force  of  traction, 
this  would,  indeed,  be  the  case;  but,  in  practice,  the  conditions  are  entirely 
altered.  Impediments  are  continually  met  with  which  obstruct  the  progress 
of  the  wheels,  and  the  draught  is  constantly  varying  by  the  different  inclina- 
tions of  the  road ;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  study  the  means  by  which 
impediments  can  be  easiest  overcome,  and  by  which  the  I'csistance  thus 
caused  will  affect  the  animal,  which  is  the  source  of  power,  in  the  least 
disadvantageous  manner. 

We  have,  in  the  commencement  of  this  treatise,  proved,  that  impetus  is 
necessary  to  overcome  an  obstruction,  and  that  elasticity  m  the  direction  of 
the  movement  is  destructive  of  the  full  effect  of  impetus. 

When,  therefore,  the  wheel  of  a  carriage  comes  in  contact  with  any 
impediment,  it  is  most  essential  that  the  whole  of  the  impetus  or  momentum 
which  the  carriage  has  already  obtained,  should  be  brought  into  full  action; 
to  force  the  wheel  forward.  To  effect  this,  no  elasticity  should  intervene 
between  the  wheel  and  the  load,  at  least,  in  the  direction  of  the  motion 
that  is  longitudinally;  otherwise,  as  we  instanced  in  the  case  of  catching  a 
cricket-ball,  a  force  which  would  be  quite  irresistible  if  opposed  by  a  rigid 
resistance,  is  checked  with  ease  by  a  very  little  degree  of  elasticity  ;  so  with 
a  wheel  meeting  a  small  stone,  if  the  load  were  so  placed,  or  hung  upon 
Ihe  wheels,  as  to  allow  free  or  elastic  action  longitudinally,  that  is,  in  the 
direction  of  the  movement,  the  wheel  being  stopped  against  the  stone,  the 
whole    load    would    be   gradually  checked,  and  brought   to    a   full  stop; 


ON  DRAUGH1 


445 


whereas,  if  this  same  load  had  been  fixed  firmly  to  the  wlieel,  its  impetus 
would  have  carried  the  wheel  over  the  stone,  with  very  little  loss  of  its 
velocity. 

In  the  fi.rst  case,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  horses  to  drag  the  load 
over  the  stone  by  main  force;  in  the  latter,  they  v/ould  only  have  to  make 
up  by  degrees  for  the  loss  of  velocity  which  the  mass  had  sListained  in 
passing  over  the  stone.  The  quantUy  of  power  required  will  indeed  be  the 
same  in  either  case;  but  in  the  one,  the  horses  must  exert  it  in  a  single 
effort,  while  in  the  other,  this  momentary  exertion  is  borrowed,  as  it  were, 
from  the  impetus  of  the  mass  in  motion,  and  being  spread  over  a  greater 
degree  the  average  resistance.  It  is  thus  that  the  fiy-wheel  of  a  steanj- 
space  of  time,  as  far  as  the  liorses  are  concerned,  only  augments  in  a  small 
engine  in  a  rolling-mill  accumulates  power,  sometimes  for  several  miimtes, 
till  it  is  able  to  roll,  with  apparent  ease,  a  large  mass  of  metal,  which,  with- 
out  the  effect  of  the  fly-wlieel,  would  stop  the  engine  immediately ;  or,  to 
mention  a  case  more  to  the  point,  in  the  operation  of  scotching  a  wheel,  a 
large  stone,  and  even  a  brick,  will  render  almost  immoveable  a  waggon, 
which,  when  in  motion,  would  pass  over  the  same  stone,  without  any  sen- 
sible alteration  of  speed.  It  is  most  essential,  therefore,  that  the  efiect  of 
the  momentum  of  the  load,  should  in  no  way  be  reduced  by  any  longitudi- 
nal elasticity,  arising  either  from  the  injudicious  application  of  springs,  or 
weakness  in  the  construction  of  the  carriage. 

The  action  of  impetus,  and  the  effect  of  an  injudicious  mode  of  hanging 
the  load,  is  of  course  more  sensible  at  high  than  at  low  velocities,  and  in  a 
carriage  hung  upon  springs,  than  in  a  waggon  without  springs,  but 
although  not  so  sensible  to  the  eye,  it  nevertheless  affects  the  draught 
materially  even  in  the  latter  case.  Carriages  hung  upon  springs,  as  in^^. 
39,  which  are  called  C  springs,  and  which  admit  of  very  considerable  lon- 


gitudinal movement  in  the  body  of  the  carriage,  are  notoriously  the  most 
heavy  to  pull;  and  cabriolets,  which  are  hung  in  this  manner,  are  expres- 
sively called,  in  tiie  stable,  horse  murderers,  and  require  heavy,  powerful 
horses  to  drag  them,  while  lighter  animals  are  able  to  drag  much  greater 
weiirhts  in  Stanhopes  and  spring-carts,  which  do  not  admit  of  this  elasticity. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  draught  of  a  two-wheeled  cart  is  less 
than  that  of  a  waggon.  In  a  cart,  the  horse  pulls  at  once  on  tlie  shafts 
which  are  fixed  immediately  both  to  the  load  and  to  the  axletree,  so  that 
Mot  only  the  impetus  of  the  load,  but  also  of  the  horse,  acts  directly  and 
without  elasticity  upon  the  wheel.  In  a  waggon,  owing  to  the  stnallness 
of  the  front  wheel,  there  is  a  considerable  space  between  the  fore-axle  and 
.'tie   floor  of  the  waggon,  which  is  filled  up  with  pieces  of  timber,  called 


140  ON  DRAUGHT. 

l)olsl(>rs;  tl  13  admits  of  considerable  play  in  the  parts,  and  except  in  new, 
built  or  very  strong  waggons,  there  is  never  that  firm  connexion  between 
the  load  and  the  wheels,  which  we  have  stated  to  be  necessary.  Large 
wheels  would  bring  the  axletrecs  much  nearer  the  floors  of  the  waggons, 
and,  therefore,  admit  of  a  much  stronger  and  firmer  mode  of  attachmei;t, 
which  would  be  found  to  produce  a  very  considerable  effect  in  diminishing 
the  draught. 

We  have  been  very  particular  in  confining  our  observations  to  longitudi- 
nal elasticity,  or  yielding  in  the  direction  in  which  the  power  is  applied, 
and  in  which  the  progressive  movement  takes  place;  because  elasticity  in 
any  other  direction,  instead  of  increasing  the  draught,  tends  very  much  to 
diminish  it.  Let  us  suppose  the  load  placed  upon  perfectly  easy  springs, 
which  allow  it  to  move  freely  in  every  direction,  except  longitudinally, 
when  any  one  of  the  wheels  comes  in  contact  with  a  stone,  the  elasticity  of 
the  spring  will  allow  it  to  run  over  the  stone  without  sensibly  raising  the 
load  which  is  upon  it,  and  the  force  which  is  required  to  pull  the  wheel 
over  the  stone,  will  be  restored  again  by  the  descent  of  the  wheel  from  the 
stone,  which  will  tend  to  impel  the  mass  forward  with  exactly  the  same 
force  as  was  required  to  draw  it  up  to  the  top  of  this  impediment:  without 
this  elasticity  it  would  be  necessary  to  raise  the  whole  load  with  a  sudden 
jerk,  and  thus  instantaneously  impart  rapid  movement  to  the  whole  mass, 
which  would  absorb  much  power,  and  which  would  by  no  means  be 
returned  by  the  load  falling  down  from  the  stone.  We  see,  therefore,  that 
the  use  of  springs  is  to  enable  the  wheels  to  rise  and  fall  according  to  the 
inequalities  of  the  ground,  while  the  load  continues  one  constant  equable, 
motion.  The  advantages  of  this  action  are  very  clearly  pointed  out,  in  a 
letter  addressed  to  the  Committee  on  the  Highways  of  the  Kingdom,  by 
Mr.  D.  Giddy,  and  given  in  the  Appendix  to  their  first  Report,  printed  in 
the  year  1808;  and  this  letter  explains  so  clearly,  and  in  such  few  words, 
the  whole  theory  of  wheels,  as  well  as  springs,  that  we  think  we  cannot 
do  better  than  quote  it  at  length. 

"Taking  wheels  completely  in  the  abstract,  they  must  be  considered  as 
answering  two  different  purposes. 

"  First,  They  transfer  the  friction  which  would  take  place  between  a 
sliding  body,  and  the  rough  uneven  surface  over  which  it  slides,  to  the 
smooth,  oiled  peripheries  of  the  axis  and  box,  assisted  by  a  leverage  in  the 
proportion  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  to  the  axis. 

"Secondly,  They  procure  mechanical  advantage  for  overcoming  obsta- 
cles,  by  introducing  time  proportioned  to  the  square  roots  of  their  diameters, 
when  t!ie  obstacles  are  small  as  compared  with  the  wheels;  and  they  pass 
over  transverse  ruts  or  hollows,  small  in  the  same  comparison,  with  an 
absolute  advantage  proportioned  to  their  diameters,  and  a  mechanical  one 
proportionate  to  the  square  roots  of  these  diameters. 

"Consequently,  wheels  thus  considered,  cannot  be  too  large;  in  practice, 
however,  they  are  limited  by  weight,  by  expense,  and  by  experience. 

"  ^Vith  reference  to  the  preservation  of  roads,  wheels  should  be  made 
wide,  and  so  constructed,  that  the  whole  breadth  may  bear  at  once;  and 
every  portion  of  the  wheel,  In  contact  with  the  ground,  should  roll  on 
H-ithout  any  slidinir. 

"  It  is  evident,  from  the  well-known  properties  of  the  cycloid,  that  the 
above  conditions  cannot  all  unite,  unless  the  roads  are  perfectly  hard, 
smooth,  and  flat;  and  the  felloes  of  the  wheels,  with  their  tire,  are  accurate 
portions  of  a  cylinder.  These  forms,  therefore,  of  roads  and  wheels,  would 
seem  to  be  asymptotes,  towards  which  they  should  always  approximate,  but 
which,  in  practice,  they  are  never  likel}  to  reach. 


ON  DRAL  .xiT.  447 

'*  Roads  must  have  some  degree  of  curvature  to  throw  off  water,  and  the 
peripheries  of  the  wheels  should,  in  their  transverse  section,  be  as  nearl* 
as  possible  tangents  to  this  curve ;  but  since  no  exact  form  can  be  assigne<l 
(o  roads,  and  they  are  found  to  differ  almost  from  mile  to  mile,  it  is  pre- 
sumed,  that  a  small  transverse  convexity  given  to  the  peripheries  of 
wheels,  otherwise  cylindrical,  will  sufficiently  adapt  them  to  all  roads, 
and  that  the  pressure  of  such  wheels,  greatest  in  the  middle,  and  grad- 
ually  diminishing  towards  the  sides,  will  be  less  likely  to  disarrange 
ordinary  materials,  than  a  pressure  suddenly  discontinued  at  the  edges  of 
wheels  perfectly  flat. 

"The  spokes  of  the  wheel  should  be  so  arranged,  as  to  present  themselves 
in  a  straight  line  against  the  greatest  force  they  are  in  common  cases  likely 
to  sustain.  These  must  evidently  be  exerted  in  a  direction  pointed  towards 
the  carriage,  from  lateral  percussions,  and  from  the  descent  of  either  wheel 
below  the  level  of  the  other:  consequently,  a  certain  degree  of  what  is 
termed  dishing,  must  be  advantageous,  by  adding  strength;  whilst  this 
form  is  esteemed  useful  for  protecting  the  nave,  and  for  obviating  the  ill 
effects  of  expansions  and  contractions. 

"The  line  of  traction  is  theoretically  best  disposed  when  it  lies  exactly 
parallel  to  the  direction  of  motion;  and  its  pov/er  is  diminished  at  any 
inclination  of  that  line,  in  the  proportion  of  the  radius  of  the  wheel  to  the 
cosine  at  the  angle.  When  obstacles  frequently  occur,  it  had  better,  per- 
haps, receive  a  small  inclination  upward,  for  the  purpose  of  acting  with 
most  advantage  when  these  are  to  be  overcome.  But  it  is  probable,  that 
different  animals  exert  their  strength  most  advantageously  in  ditferent  direc- 
tions; and,  therefore,  practice  can  alone  determine  what  precise  inclination 
of  the  line  is  best  adapted  to  horses,  and  what  to  oxen.  These  considera- 
tions are,  however,  only  applicable  to  cattle  drawing  immediately  at  the 
carriage;  and  the  convenience  of  their  draft,  as  connected  with  the  inser- 
tion of  the  line  of  traction,  which  continued,  ought  to  pass  through  the  axis, 
introduces  another  limit  to  the  size  of  the  wheels. 

"Springs  were,  in  all  likelihood,  first  applied  to  carriages,  with  no  other 
view  than  for  the  accommodation  of  travellers:  they  have  since  been  found 
to  answer  several  important  ends.  They  convert  all  concussions  into  mere 
increase  of  pressure  ;  thus  preserving  both  the  carriage  and  the  materials 
of  the  roads  from  the  effect  of  blows;  and  small  obstacles  are  surmounted 
when  springs  allow  the  frame  and  wheels  freely  to  ascend,  without  sensibly 
moving  the  body  of  the  carriage  from  its  place. 

"If  the  whole  weigbt  is  supposed  to  be  concentrated  on  springs  very 
long,  extremely  flexible,  and  with  the  frame  and  wheels  wholly  devoid  of 
inertia,  this  paradoxical  conclusion  will  most  certainly  follow:  that  such  a 
carriage  may  be  drawn  over  the  roughest  road  without  any  agitation,  and 
by  the  smallest  increase  of  force. 

"It  seems  probable  that  springs,  under  some  modification  of  form  and 
material,  may  be  applicable  with  advantage  to  the  heaviest  waggon." 

And  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  in  the  words  of  the  writer,  the  applica.- 
rion  of  springs  would  be  highly  advantageous.  At  high  velocities,  as  we 
have  before  said,  the  effect  of  springs  is  still  greater.  What  we  have 
instanced  as  regards  springs,  is  generally  well  known  and  understood.  All 
stage-coaches,  and  many  travelling  carriages,  hang  upon  grasshopper 
springs,  which  allow  of  perpendicular  without  any  longitudinal  action. 
It  would  be  much  to  the  interests  of  the  horse  masters  if  the  mode  of  sus. 
pending  post-chaises  were  a  little  more  a.ttended  to.  The  more  elasticity, 
or  in  other  words,  the  more  action,  there  is  in  grasshopper  springs,  tbf 


448  ON  DRAUGHT. 

more  effect  will  it  produce  in  diminishing  the  draught:  with  a  C  spring  a 
very  contrary  effect  is  produced. 

A  carriage  hung  upon  C  springs  may  certainly  be  made  the  most  com- 
fortable to  the  rider,  but  all  the  ease  that  can  be  required,  and  much  more 
than  is  found  in  the  generality  of  post-chaises,  may  be  obtained  by  well- 
constructed  grasshopper  springs,  and,  therefore,  with  considerable  advan- 
tage to  the  horses. 

The  practice  of  loading  coaches  as  high  as  possible  to  make  them  run 
light,  as  the  coachmen  have  found  by  experience,  is  only  a  mode  of  assist- 
ing the  springs.  The  mass  being  placed  at  a  greater  htight  above  the 
wheels,  acting  at  the  extremity  of  a  longer  lever,  is  not  so  easily  displaced 
laterally  by  any  motion  of  the  wheels,  v/hich,  therefore,  may  rise  and  fall 
on  either  side  as  they  run  over  the  stones,  without  producing  any  suddtn 
concussions  upon  the  load,  which  swings  to  and  fro  with  long,  easy  move- 
ments; it  is  probable  also,  tliat  the  weight,  being  thus  swung  from  side  to 
side,  may,  upon  good  roads,  diminish  the  draught,  as  it  is  in  fact  generally 
running  upon  two  of  the  wheels;  while,  in  the  other  direction,  it  equally 
admits  of  the  front  and  hind-wheels  successively  passing  over  any  impedi- 
ments; and  yet,  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  fixed  upon  the  springs,  it 
does  not  admit  of  any  longitudinal  elasticity. 

The  fact  of  coaches  thus  loaded  running  light  has  been  clearly  proved 
by  the  failure  of  what  were  called  Safety  Coaches,  in  which  the  only  dif- 
ference consisted  in  placing  tlie  load  very  low.  These  coaches,  although 
completely  answering  their  purposes  of  safety,  were  discontinued  sole?y, 
we  believe,  from  their  being  found  destructive  of  the  horses. 

Experiments,  nevertheless,  have  been  made  to  prove  that  this  was  only 
an  idle  prejudice  of  coachmen;  but  universally  received  opinions,  even  if 
leading  to  erroneous  conclusions,  which  is  hardly  possible,  must  always 
have  some  good  foundation ;  and  coachmen,  altiiough  they  may  not  have 
been  so  much  so  at  the  time  these  experiments  were  published  (in  1817), 
are  certainly  now  rather  an  intelligent  class  of  men.  We  should,  there- 
fore, prefer  risking  a  theory,  if  a  theory  were  necessary,  in  support  of  their 
prejudices,  rather  than  in  opposition  to  them.  The  experiments  alluded  to 
were  not,  hi  our  opinion,  made  under  the  circumstances  which  occur  in 
practice.  Small  models  (the  wheels  being  seven  inches  in  diameter)  were 
drawn  along  a  table  across  which  were  placed  small  strips  of  wood  to 
represent  the  obstructions  met  with  in  a  road ;  but  these  strips  of  wood 
came  in  contact  with  each  pair  of  wheels  at  the  same  time,  and  never 
caused  any  lateral  motion.  They  produced,  therefore,  a  totally  different 
effect  from  that  which  takes  place  in  a  road,  where  the  action  rarely 
affects  more  than  one  wheel  at  a  time,  or  if  two,  they  are  almost  invariably 
those  two  on  the  same  side  of  the  carriage;  consequently,  in  the  model,  the 
wheels  in  passing  over  an  obstruction,  threw  the  whole  weight,  backwards 
in  a  direction  exactly  opposite  to  the  movement  required;  while  in  prac- 
tice, tlie  carriage  is  generally  thrown  sideways,  which  does  not  affect 
its  forward  motion. 

The  conclusions  drawn  from  these  experiments  are,  therefore,  as  might 
be  expected,  at  vaiance  with  practical  results,  and  directly  contrary  to  the 
opinions  of  those  v/hose  experience  ought  to  enable  them  to  judge  correctly. 

The  effects,  also,  of  velocity  and  momentum  must  be  diincult  to  imitatd 
in  models. 

The  advantage  of  placing  the  load  high  will  not,  however,  equally  applj 
at  low  velocities,  still  less  when  springs  are  not  used:  it  may  frequen'ly, 
Indeed,  in  the  latter  case,  produce  quite  a  contrary  effect 


ON  DRAUGHT.  449 

In  a  rough  road,  therefore,  the  increased  force  with  which  the  loao 
would  be  thrown  from  side  to  side  might  prove  very  inconvenient  and  even 
diuigerous,  and  would  certainly  be  liable  to  increase  the  resistance  when 
the  front-wlieels  meet  with  any  obstruction:  but  this  it  must  be  particu- 
larly remembered  is  only  true  in  the  case  of  slow  velocities  and  carriages 
without  springs. 

We  have  now  considered  in  succession  the  various  parts  of  the  vehicle 
for  conveying  the  weight,  and  shown  in  what  manner  they  affect  the  draught, 
and  how  they  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  diminish  as  much  as  possible 
the  amount  of  this  draught.  We  have  endeavoured  to  point  out  the 
advantages  and  necessity  of  attending  to  the  construction  and  size  of  the 
wheel.  Thus  it  should  be  as  nearly  cylindrical  and  vertical  as  possible, 
and  of  as  large  a  diameter  as  can  conveniently  be  admitted.  Secondly, 
That  there  should  be  a  firm,  unyielding  connexion  in  the  direction  of  the 
movement  between  the  power  employed,  the  weight  moved,  and  the  wheels: 
in  other  words,  that  the  force  should  always  act  directly  and  without  elas- 
ticity both  upon  the  load  and  upon  the  wheels;  and  tliat  the  imj)ctus  or 
momentum  of  the  load,  when  in  movement,  should  always  act  in  the  same 
manner,  without  elasticity  in  propelling  the  wheels;  and  lastly,  that  it  is 
highly  advantageous  to  interpose  as  much  elasticity  as  possible  by  means 
of  springs  in  a  vertical  direction  between  the  wheels  and  the  body,  so  that 
the  former  may  rise  and  fall  over  stones  or  irregularities  in  the  road  with- 
out communicating  any  sudden  shocks  to  the  load;  and  we  believe  that  the 
proper  application  of  springs  in  all  cases,  even  with  the  heaviest  loads* 
would  be  found   productive  of  great  good  effect. 

Attention  to  those  points  will  tend  to  diminish  considerably  the  amount 
of  draught.  As  far  as  regards  friction  at  the  axles,  and  the  resistance  in 
passing  over  obstacles  in  the  road,  it  will  assist  the  favourable  application 
of  the  force  of  traction  when  obtained  from  animal  power;  but  that  which 
we  have  shown  to  be  the  most  considerable  source  of  resistance  is  unfor- 
tunately least  affected  by  any  of  those  arrangements.  We  allude  to  those 
arising  from  the  yielding  or  crushing  of  the  materials  of  the  road:  we  have 
seen  that  on  a  good  turnpike-road  the  draught  was  increased  in  the  propor- 
tion of  thirty  to  forty,  or  about  one-third,  by  the  road  being  slightly  dirty; 
and  that,  on  a  heavy,  sandy  road,  the  draught  was  increased  to  205,  or 
nearly  seven  times.  Springs  will  not  affect  this;  and  increasing  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel  even  will  be  of  very  slight  assistance;  nothing  but 
removing  at  once  the  prime  source  of  this  evil,  improving  the  roads,  can 
remedy  this.  We  are  thus  naturally  led  to  the  third  division  of  our  sub- 
ject, viz:  The  road  or  channel  of  conveyance.  In  considering  this  as  a 
branch  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power,  we  shall  merely  point 
out  what  are  the  principal  desiderata  in  the  formation  of  a  good  road,  and 
what  are  the  evils  principally  to  be  avoided.  To  enter  into  all  the  details 
of  their  construction,  dependent  as  it  is  on  the  ditrerent  materials  tc  be 
found  in  the  neighbourhood,  their  comparative  cost,  the  quality  of  the 
ground  over  which  the  road  is  made,  and  many  other  points,  would  be  *o 
enter  upon  a  mucli  more  extensive  field  than  is  at  all  required  for  the 
proper  consideration  of  the  subject  of  draught  by  animal  power.  The 
requisites  for  a  good  road  is  all  that  we  shall  indicate. 

Channel  of  conveyance,  in  a  general  point  of  view,  must  include  canals, 
roads,  and  railways.  Of  the  first,  however,  we  shall  say  little;  tlieir 
«;onstruction  does  not  materially  affect  the  amount  of  draught,  and  we  have 
already  examined  the  mode  of  applying  the  power,  and  the  quantity  of 
effect  produced;   we  shall  proceed,  at  once  to  the  question  of  roads. 


150 


ON    DRAUGHT. 


The  inquiry  into  the  best  form  and  construction  of  wheel-carria'^os  haa 
taught  us  what  we  might  have  indeed  foreseen,  that  perfection  in  a  road 
would  be  a  plane,  level,  hard  surface:  to  have  learned  this  only  would  not 
have  advanced  us  much,  as  such  perfection  is  unattainable;  but  we  have 
learned  also  the  comparative  advantages  of  these  different  qualities  of 
hardness,  smoothness,  and  level.  We  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
slight  alterations  of  level,  which  shall  vary  the  exertion  required  of  the 
animal,  without,  at  any  time,  causing  excessive  fatigue,  are  rather  advan- 
tageous for  the  full  development  of  his  power  than  otherwise ;  that  the 
inconvenience  of  roughness  is  obviated  by  the  use  of  springs,  and  that 
even  when  the  ordinary  carts  and  waggons  without  springs  are  used,  still 
the  resistance  arising  from  mere  unevenness  of  surface,  when  not  exces- 
sive, is  not  nearly  so  great  as  that  which  is  caused  by  the  yielding  of  the 
substance  of  the  road.  Hardness,  therefore,  and  consequently  the  absence 
of  dust  and  dirt,  which  is  easily  crushed  or  displaced,  is  the  grand  deside- 
ratum in  roads. 

To  satisfy  this  condition,  however,  smoothness  is,  to  a  certain  degree, 
requisite,  as  the  prominent  parts  would  be  always  subject  to  abrasion  and 
destruction:  for  the  same  reason,  even  if  for  no  other,  ruts  and  every  thing 
which  can  tend  to  form  them  must  be  avoided. 

A  road  siiould,  in  its  transverse  section,  be  nearly  flat.  A  great  curva 
ture  or  barrel,  as  it  is  termed,  is  useless;  for  the  only  object  can  be  to 
drain  the  water  from  it:  but  if  there  are  ruts,  or  hollow  places,  no  curva- 
ture will  effect  this;  and  if  the  road  is  hard  and  smooth,  a  very  sliglit 
inclination  is  sufficient.  Indeed,  an  excess  of  curvature  is  not  only  useless 
with  the  present  construction  of  carriages,  but  facilitates  the  destruction  of 
the  road;  for  there  are  few  wheels  perfectly  cylindrical:  yet  these,  when 
running  on  a  barrelled  or  curved  road,  can  bear  only  upon  one  edge,  as  in 

jig.  38.  The  conical  wheels 
still  in  use,  although  nmch  in- 
clined at  the  axle,  are  never 
sufficiently  so  to  bring  the  lower 
surface  of  the  wheel  even  hor- 
izontal, and  therefore  are  con- 
stantly  running  upon  the  edge, 
as  in  jig.  39,  until  they  have 
formed  a  rut,  coinciding  with 
their  own  shape.  In  a  barelled 
or  curved  road,  the  mischief 
done  will,  of  course,  be  great  in  proportion  to  this  curvature.  This  form  is, 
therefore,  mischievous  as  well  as  useless.  Six  or  eight  inches'  rise  in  the 
centre  of  a  road  of  twenty  feet  wide  is  amply  sufficient  to  ensure  drainage, 
if  drainage  is  not  effectually  prevented  by  ruts  or  hollow  places,  and  is  a 
curve  to  which  the  position  of  the  wheel  may  be  easily  adapted. 

The  hardness  of  the  surface,  the  most  important  feature,  will,  of  course, 
principally  depend  upon  the  materials  used,  and  the  formation  of  the 
road,  and  still  more  upon  the  state  of  repair  in  which  it  is  kept.  It  is 
easy  to  form  a  good  road  when  the  foundation  is  already  laid  by  the 
existence  of  an  old  one:  levelling  the  surface,  applying  a  covering  of 
eight  or  ten  inches  in  thickness  of  broken  stones,  having  no  round  or 
smooth  surfaces,  the  hardest  that  can  be  obtained,  and  securing  good 
drainage  at  the  sides,  is  all  that  is  required:  but  constant  repair  and 
unremitting  attention,  however,  is  necessary  to  keep  a  road  thus  formed 
in  srood  condition. 


ON  DRAUGHT.  451 

These  repairs  and  attention  do  not  consist  in  laying  on,  at  certain  intervals 
of  time,  large  quantities  of  materials,  l:)Ut  in  constantly  removing  the  sand 
which  is  formed,  and  which,  in  wet  weather,  holds  the  water,  and  prevents 
drainage;  in  filling  up,  as  quickly  as  possible,  with  fresh  materials,  any 
ruts  or  hollows;  and  in  keeping  clear  all  the  drains,  and  even  in  scraping 
little  drains  fronr  ruts,  or  such  parts  of  the  road  as  may  contain  the  water, 
and  which  it  may  not  be  possible  immediately  to  fill  up. 

By  attention  to  these  points,  those  who  are  interested  in  the  preservation 
of  the  roads  and  the  expenses  attending  it,  will  find  that  economy  will 
ultimately  be  the  result;  and  those  who  are  interested  in  diminishing  the 
labour  and  expense  of  draught,  we  shall  only  refer  again  to  the  table 
(page  435)  of  tiie  resistance  of  a  waggon  upon  ditferent  roads,  from  which 
they  will  see,  that  a  horse  upon  a  clean  road  will  do  one-third  more  than 
upon  one  slightly  muddy;  more  than  four  times  as  much  as  upon  new-laid 
gravel;   and  nearly  seven  times  as  much  as  upon  a  heavy,  sandy  road. 

No  arguments  that  we  can  put  forward  can  at  all  strengthen  the  effect 
that  such  facts  must  produce;  and  we  shall,  therefore,  quit  the  subject  of 
roads,  and  conclude  our  observations  on  draught  by  a  few  words  explana- 
tory of  tlie  object  of  rail-roads  and  their  effects  as  regards  diminishing 
draugiit. 

The  great  desideratum  in  the  formation  of  a  good  road  is  the  facilitating 
.he  rolling  of  the  wheels.  We  have  shown  that,  for  this  purpose,  a  hard, 
smooth  surface  is  necessary ;  and,  as  this  is  only  required  for  the  wheels, 
two  longitudinal  tracks,  of  such  surface,  of  proper  width,  are  sufficient  for 
the  mere  passage  of  the  carriage.  If,  therefore,  there  is  a  considerable 
traffic  between  two  points  along  a  line  of  road,  without  much  interruption 
from  crossing,  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  road  may  be  obtained  in  a  very 
superior  degree,  by  having  two  parallel  rails,  or  tracks  of  wood  or  iron, 
raised  a  little  above  the  general  level  of  the  ground,  with  a  gravelled  road 
between  tiie  rails.  This  is  a  rail-road.  It  evidently  combines  the  advan- 
tages of  a  good  foot-hold  for  horses,  with  those  of  smooth  and  hard  surfaces 
for  tlie  wheels  to  roll  upon.  It  requires,  however,  that  the  carriages  should 
be  all  nearly  alike  as  regards  the  width  and  form  of  the  wheels;  and  ex 
perience  has  proved  that  such  a  road  is  not  generally  worth  constructing 
unless  the  traffic  is  sufficient  to  allow  of  carriages  being  built  expressly  tor 
that  or  similar  roads.  This  being  the  case,  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
rails,  and  the  general  construction  of  the  carriages,  are  uncontrolled  by 
any  other  consideration  than  that  of  diminishing  draught. 

A  considerable  improvement  upon  this  point  may,  therefore,  be  expected 
in  the  railway,  over  the  common  road.  The  railway,  as  constructed  upon 
the  plan  at  present  conceived  to  be  the  best,  consists  of  two  parallel  bars  of 
wrought  iron,  about  two  inches  and  a  half  broad  on  the  upper  surface,  and 
about  six  inches  deep,  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  five  feet:  these  bars 
are  supported  upon,  and  firmly  fixed  to  blocks  of  stone,  from  one  foot  to 
two  feet  square,  and  at  intervals  of  three  feet. 
Fig.  40. 

_(i_ ci  a> 

~—^- -^^^^^^—;^ FPq -^^^ 


ff-S 


a  a  a,  jig.  40,  represents  a  side  view  of  these  bars,  of  which  J  is  a 
section,  c  c  c  are  the  blocks  of  stone  on  which  it  rests.  Fig,  42  is  a  per- 
spective view  of  51  pair  of  these   parallel    bars,  consiituling  together  the 


452 


ON  DRAUGHT. 


jrC9.41 


tion  of 
w-ll  be 


railways,  which  is  all 

easily  conceived  that  hard,  cast-iron  wheels 


railway;  and  Jig.  41  represents  an  end 
view  of  the  rail  w'th  a  pair  of  wheels.  The 
ground  is  afterwards  filled  up  nearly  to 
the  level  of  the  bars,  leaving  only  about 
one  inch  of  tlieir  upper  edge  exposed : 
upon  this  the  wheels  run.  The  wheels  are 
generally  of  cast  iron,  about  three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  slightly  conical,  with  an  edge 
or  flange  inside  to  guide  them  in  the  centre 
of  the  rails.  This  brief  description  is  suffi- 
cient to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  construe- 
hat  is  necessary  for  our  present  purpose.  It 
running  upon  smooth 


edges  of  iron  in  this  manner,  can  meet  with  but  little  resistance,  except 
those  arising  from  friction  at  the  axle.  Accordingly,  we  find,  upon  a  well- 
constructed  railway,  in  good  order,  that  the  resistance  does  not  exceed,  in 
any  sensible  degree,  that  which  must  arise  from  this  cause.  It  has  been 
found  that  a  force  of  traction  of  1  lb.  will  put  in  motion  a  weight  of  180, 
200,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  250  lbs. :  so  that  a  horse  exerting  an  elFort  of 
only  125  lbs.,  would  drag  on  a  level  10  tons.  This  is  about  ten  times 
the  average  effect  of  his  work  upon  a  good  common  road,  and,  as  it  arises 
entirely  from  the  hardness  and  smoothness  of  the  road,  we  cannot  conclude 
our  observations  by  a  more  striking  and  unanswerable  argument  than  this, 
in  proof  of  the  immense  advantages  and  saving  of  expense  which  would 
result  from  greater  attention  to  the  state  of  the  roads. 


GENERAL    INDEX- 


At;iioN  of  the  hacknpy  described,  30 

Action,  higli,  not  essential  in  hackney,  31 
.Ethiop's  mineral,  an  alterative,  396^ 

Age,  natural,  of  the  horse,  146 

Age  of  the  horse,  as  indicated  by  teeth,  137' 
Age,  other  indications  of,  146 

Age,  how  ascertained  before  8  years,  137 
Ag-e,     "  "  after  8  years,  145 

Air,  a  supply  of  pure,  necessary  for  the 

health  of  the  horse,  345 

All  abroad,  what,  as  applied  to  the  horse,  235 
Aloes,  Barbadoes,  far  preferable  to  Cape,  3S1 
Aloes,  the  best  physic,  211 

Aloes,  description  of  different  kinds  of,  381 
Aloes,  principal  adulterations  of,  333 

Aloes,  solution,  its  composition  and  use,  383 
Alteratives,  the  best,  372,  383 

Alteratives,  nature  and  effect  of,  383 

Alum,  use  of  in  restraining  purging,  383 
Alum,  solution  of,  good  wash  for  grease,  383 
Alum,  burnt,  a  stimulant  and  mild  caus- 
tic for  wounds,  384 
American  horse,  description  of  the,  21 
Ammonia,  given  in  flatulent  colic.  384 
Ammonia,  chloride  of,  its  medicinal  use,  384 
Ammonia,  carbonate  of,  "  "  384 
Annnonia,  vapour  of,  extracted  plenti- 
fully from  dung  and  urine,  384 
Ammonia,  vapour  of,  most  injurious  to 

the  eyes  and  lungs,  115,  384 

Anchylosis  of  bones,  what,  165 

Anderson's,  Dr.  account  of  the  Galloway,  58 
Animal  power,  compared  with  that  of  the 

steam-engine,  405 

Animal  power,  its  advantage,  except  in 

velocity,  over  mehanical,  408 

Animals,  zoological  divisions  of,  61 

Anodyne,  opium  the  only  one  to  be  de- 
pended on,  384 
Ant^a-spinatug  muscle  described,  234 
Anticor,  nature  and  treatment  of,  171 
Antimonial  powder,  a  good  febrifuge,  384 
Antimony,  black  sulphtuet  of,  method  of 

detecting  its  adulterations,  384 

Antiinony,  black  sulphuret  of,  used  as 

an  alterative  and  diaphoretic,  384 

Antimony,  chloride  of,  one  of  the  best 

liquid  caustics,  385 

Antimony,  tartarized,  used  as  a  nauseam, 

<iiaphoretic  and  worm  medicine,      384 
Antispasmodics,  nature  of,  3S5[ 


Apoplexy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  l02 

Aqueous  fluid  placed  in  the  labyrinth  of 

the  ear,  82 

Aqueous  humour  of  the  eye  described,       93 
Arab  breed  introduced  by  James  I.  28 

Arabia,  not  original  country  of  the  horse,      4 
Arabia,  few  good  horses  there,  even  in 

the  seventh  century,  4,11 

Arabian  horse,  history  of  the,  11 

\rabian  horse,  described  by  Bp.  Hcbcr,       12 
Arabian  horse,  comparison  between  the, 

and  the  Barb,  9 

Arabian  horse,  introduced  into  Scotland,    24 
Arabian  horse,  general  form  of,  12 

Arabian  horse,  qualities  of,  12 

Arabian  horse,  scanty  nourishment  of,        15 
Araliian  horse,  treatment  of,  12,  13 

Arabian  horse,  varieties  of,  11 

Arabs,  attachment  of,  to  their  horses,  13 

Arabs  value  their  mares  more  than  their 

horses,  34 

Arched  form  of  the  skull,  advantage  of,      75 
Arm,  description  of  the,  236 

Arm,  action  of,  explained  on  the  princi- 
ple of  the  lever,  236,  233 
Arm,  extensor  muscles  of  the,  237 
Arm,  flexor  muscles  of  the,  239 
Arm,  full  and  s^velling,  advantage  of,  240 
Arm,  should  be  muscular  and  long,  239 
Arsenic,  medical  use  of,  385 
Arsenic,  treatment  vinder  poison  by,  200 
Arteries,  description  of  the,  172 
Arteries,  terminations  of,  178 
Arteries,  improper  to  bleed  from,  157 
Arteries  of  the  arm  described,  265 
Arteries  of  the  face,  119 
Arteries  of  the  neck,  157 
Arteries  of  the  shoulder,  265 
Arteries  inside  of  the  thigh,  264 
Arteries  outside  of  the  thigh,  264 
Astringent  medicines,  the  principal,  385 
Athelstan,  his  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  horse,  23 
Atlas,  anatomy  of  the,  152 
Attechi,  an  Arabian  breed  of  the,  11 
Axle,  friction  of  the,  dependent  on  the 

material  employed,  434 

Axle,  the   diameter   being   diminished, 

lessens  the  friction,  434 

Azoph,  Tattary  horses  traced  to  the  siege 

of  5 


454 


INDEX. 


B 


PAGK 

Kio 
31,  1C4 
ad- 


Radc,  grencra'i  description  cf  the, 

Buck,  proper  form  of  tlie. 

Back,  long  and  sliort,  comparativ 

vantag-cs  of,  165 

Back,  anatomy  of  the,  164 

Back,  muscles  of  the,  167 

Backing-  the  colt,  226 

Backing,  a  bad  habit  of  the  horse,  usual 

origin  of  it,  331 

Back  sinews,  sprain  of  the,  246 

Back  sinews,  tiiickening  of  the,  consti- 
tuting unsoundness,  365 
Balls,  tlie  maimer  of  giving,  385 
Balls,  tlie  manner  of  making,  385 
Barb,  description  of  the,  9 
Barb,  comparison  between,  and  Arabian  9 
Barley,  considered  as  food  for  horse,  355 
Barnacles,  use  of  the,  as  a  mode  of  re- 
straint, 321 
Bar-shoe,  the  description  and  use  of,  318 
Barrel  of  the  horse,  proper  shape  of  the,  52 
Bars,  description  and  office  of  the,  283 
Bars,  proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing,  314 
B"rs,  not  paring  out  the  horn  between 

them  and  the  crust,  cause  of  corns,  306 
Bars,  folly  of  cutting  them,  284,  295,  305 
Bars,  removal  of,  cause  of  contraction,  295 
Bars,  removal  of,  cause  of  corns,  305 

Bars  of  the  mouth,  description  of,  133 

Bavarian  cavalry  horses,  anecdote  of,  43 

Bay  horses,  description  of,  377 

Beans,  good  for  hardly-worked  horses, 

that  have  a  tendency  to  purge,  356 
Beans,  should  always  be  crushed,  356 

Bearing-rein,  use  and  abuse  of  the,  132 

Berners,  Juliana,  authoress  of  the  first 

book  on  hunting,  54 

Bible,  earliest  history  of  the  horse  in  the,       2 
Bile,  account  of  the, 
Bishopping  the  teeth,  description  of, 
Biting,   a  bad   habit,  and  how  usually 

acquired, 
Bitting  of  the  colt. 
Black  horses,  ciiaracter  of,  described. 
Bladder,  description  of  the. 
Bladder,  inflammation  of,  symptoms  and 

treatment, 
Bladder,  neck  of  the. 
Bladder,  stone  in  the. 
Bladders  along  the  under  part  of  the 

tongue, 
Blain  in  the  cow. 
Bleeding-,  best  place  for  general. 


212 
144 

335 
225 
377 
217 

218 
218 
218 

147 
147 
180 
Bleeding,  directions  for,  179,  321 

Bleeding,  from  veins  rather  than  arteries,  157 
Bleedinar,  finger  should  be  on  the  pulse 

during,  171,  321 

Bleeding,  importance  of,in  inflammation,  175 
Bleeding  at  the  toe  described,  181 

Bleeding,  comparison  between  fleam  and 

lancet,  ISO 

Blindness,  usual  method  of  discovering,  94 
Blindness,  discovered  by  the  pupil  not 

dilating  or  contracting,  93 

Blindness,  hereditary,  115 

Blindness  of  one  eye,  94 

Blistering  all  round  at  once,  barbarity 

and  daiiETcr  of,  323 


Blistering,  after  firing,  absurdity  of,  325 

Blisters,  best  compositicjn  of,  186,  322 

Blisters,  best  mode  of  applying,  186,  322 

Blisters,  caution  with  regard  to  their  :'p- 

plication,  177,  3P7 

Blisters,  the  principle  of  their  action,  386 
Blisters,  use  of,  in  inflammation,  1S6,  386 
Blisters,  comparison  between  them  end 

rowels  and  setons,  326 

Blood,  change  in,  after  bleeding,  180,  322 
Blood,  changes  in,  during  respiration,  181 
Blood,  coagulation  of,  322 

Blood  of  the  horse,  drunk  for  food,  8 

Blood  horses, very  subject  to  contraction,  296 
Blood  spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of 

the,  179,  321 

Blue  vitriol,  a  tonic  for  the  horse,  389 

Boats,  the  difficulty  of  drawing,  increas- 
ing rapidly  with  the  velocity,  425 
Boats,  calculation  of  the  power  requisite 

to  draw  them,  425 

Bog-spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  119,  269 
Bole-Armenian,  medical  use  of,  386 

Bolting  the  food,  how  restrained,  339 

Bone-spavin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  269 
Boots,  singular  ones,  7 

Bots  in  the  stomach,  natural  history  of,  201 
Bots  in  the  stomach,  not  usually  hurtful,  202 
Bonrnou  horse,  description  of  the,  9 

Bowels,  inflammation  of,  symptoms  and 

treatment  of,  207 

Brain,  description  of  the,  75 

Brain,  inflammation  of  the,  105 

Breadth  of  wheels,  depending  on  road,  440 
Breaking-in,  should   commence  in  tlie 

second  winter,  223 

Breaking-in,  description  of  its  various 

stages,  224 

Breaking-in,  necessity  of  gentleness  and 

patience  in,  224 

Breaking-in  of  the  farmer's  horse,  224 

Breaking-in  of  the  hunter  and  liackney,  225 
Breaking-in,  the  South  American,  6 

Breaking-in,  cruel  Arabian  method  of,        13 
Breast-strap,  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of,  422 
Breeding,  on,                                             34,  219 
Breeding,  as  applied  to  farmers'  horses,      34 
Breeding,  as  applied  to  other  horses,  31; 
Breeding,  qualities  of  the  mare  as  impor- 
tant as  those  of  the  horse,           34,  220 
Breeding,  peculiarity  of  form  and  con- 
stitution inherited,                              220 
Breedintr,  influence  of  good  keep  on  the 

cJlt,  60 

Breeding,  in  and  in,  observations  on,  221 
Breeding  districts,  the  same  formerly  as 

now,  26 

Brittleness  of  the  hoof,  remedy  for,  282 

Broad  and  narrow  wheels,   comparison 

between,  137 

Broken  back,  what,  65 

Broken  knees,  treatment  of,  241 

Broken  knees,  method  of  judging  of  the 

danger  of,  242 

Broken  knees,  not  unsoundness,  when 
liealed  ;  but  form  and  action  of  tlie 
horse  should  be  fully  examined.       ^1 


INDEX. 


455 


Broken  wind,  nature  and  treatment  of,  194 
Brokcri  wind,  influenced  much,  and  of- 
ten caused,  by  manner  of  feeding,  195 
Broken  wind,  disting-uislicd  from  tliick,  194 
Broncliitis,  nature  and  treatment  of,  189 
Broncliotomy,  the  operation  of,  1C2 
Brood  marc,  description  of  the,  221 
Brood  mare,  should  not  be  too  old,  221 
Brood  mare,  treatment  of,  after  cover,  222 
Brood  mare,  treatment  of,  after  foaling-,  223 
Brown  liorscs,  description  of,  377 
Buccinator  muscle,  description  of  the,  119 
Burleigh,  Lord,  liis  opinion  of  limiting,  54 
Busbequius,  liis  interesting  account  of 

tiie  Turkish  horse,  19 

Butyr  ol  antimony,  best  liquid  caustic,  385 


Calculi  in  the  intestines,  207 

Calkins,  advantages  of,  and  vice  versa,  316 
Calkins,  should  be  placed  on  both  heels,  316 
Calinuck  horse,  description  of  the,  18 

Calomel,  use  of,  in  veterinary  practice,  396 
Camphor,  medical  use  of,  386 

Canadian  horse,  description  of  the,  21 

Canals,  advantages  of,  and  vice  yersa,       424 
Catials,  small  power  requisite  for  trans- 
mission of  goods  by  them,  424 
Canal-boat,  calculation  of  draught  of,       425 
Canal-boat,  might  be  more  easily  drawn 

by  dirtercnt  application  of  power,  425 
Canker  of  the  foot,  nature  and  treatment,  309 
Cannon,  or  shank-bone,  described,  243 

Canter,  action  of  the  horse  during,  413 

Cantharides  form  the  best  blister,  386 

Cantharides  given  to  cure  glanders,  387 

Capillary  vessels,  the,  174 

Cappadocian  horses  sent  to  Arabia,  4 

Capped  hock,  nature  and  treatment  of,  255 
Capped  hock,  description  of,  268 

Capped  hock,  not  always  unsoundness, 
yet  there  should  be  a  special  war- 
ranty against  it,  261 
Carbon  of  the  blood  got  rid  of  in  respira- 
tion,                "  131 
Carbonate  of  iron,  a  mild  tonic,                 394 
■  Carraways,  a  good  aromatic,                       337 
Carriage-horses,  produced  by  crossing 

the  Suffolk  with  a  hunter,  39 

Carriages,  wheel,  first  introduction  of,         35 
Carriages,  two  and  four-w.heoled,  com- 
parison between,  443 
Carriages,  light,  longitudinal  elasticity 
in  the  hanging  or  springs,  objec- 
tionable, 445 
Carriages,  disadvantage  of  C  springs  in,  445 
Carriages,  hung  on  straps  or  springs  in 

the  time  of  Homer,  432 

Carrots,  excellent  effects  of,  in  various 
diseases,  192,  195,  213, 

Cart,  two-wheeled,  computation  of  the 

friction  of, 
Carts,  two-wheeled,  perform  proportion- 
ably  more  work  than  waggons. 
Carts  two-wheeled,  easier  loaded,  and  do 

not  so  much  injure  (he  roads, 
Cans,  two-wheeled,  rcciuire 'letter  horses 

and  more  attendants,  443j| 


p«or. 
Carts,  itvo-wfieeled,  sooner  knock  up  the 

horse,  injuring  him  by  the  sliccka 

of  the  shafts,  443 

Carts,  two-wheeled,  superior  to  wagsj-ons 

for  short  distances  on  good  roads,  444 
Carts,  with  two  horses,  disadvantage  of,  444 
Carts,  have  less  draught  than  waggons, 

reason  why,  445 

Cartilages  of  the  foot,  description  and 

action  of  the,  288 

Cartilages  of  the  foot,  ossification  of  the,  310 
Castley,  Mr.,  on  restifncss  of  the  horse,  33i 
Castor-oil,  not  a  purgative,  212,  387 

Castration,  method  of,  227 

Castration,  proper  period  for,  226 

Cataract  in  the  eye,  nature  df,  95,  111 

Cataract  in  the  eye,  cannot  be  operated 

on,  in  the  horse,  95,  116 

Cataract  in  the  eye,  uiethoa  of  examina- 

ion  for,  95 

Catarrh,  description  and  treatment  of,  188 
Catarrh,  distinguished  from  glanders,  123 
Catarrh,  distinguished  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  183 
Catarrhal  fever,  nature  and  treatment  of,  189 
Catarrhal  fever,  infectious,  191 
Catarrhal  fever,  distinction  between,  and 

inflainmation  of  the  lungs,  183 

Catechu,  a  good  astringent,  method  of 

giving,  and  adulterations  of,  387 

Caustic,  an  account  of  the  bQ,st,  387 

Cavalry  horse,  description  of  the,  42 

Cavalry  horse,  anecdotes  of  the,  43 

Cawl,  description  of  the,  214 

Cerebrum,  description  of  tho,  75 

Chalk,  its  medical  use  in  the  horse,  380 

Chaff,  attention  should  be  paid   to  the 

goodness  of  the  ingredients,  353 

Chaff,  best  composition  of,  352 

Chaff,  v/hen  given  to  the  hard-worked 

horse,  much  time  saved  for  repose,  354 
Chaff,  quantity  of,  necessary  for  different 

kinds  of  horses,  353 

Chamomile,  a  mild  tonic,  388 

Cliaiinel  of  the  jaws,  what.  137 

Charcoal,  useful  in  a  poultice,  ana  as  an 

antiseptic,  38S 

Charges,  composition  and  use  of,  388 

Chariot,  price  of,  in  Solomon's  time,  4 

Chariot,  description  of  that  of  Priam,  432 
Chariot  of  Juno  described,  433 

Chariot  on  tlie  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 

description  of,  433 

Chariots,  war,  the  ancient  British,  22 

Chariots,  war,  used  by  Egyptians,  1,500 

years  before  the  Christian  era,  432 
Chariots,  war,  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  432 

Cliariots,  war,  description  of  ancient,  432 
Chariots,  war,  of  the  ancients,  could  not 

move  with  much  velocity,  433 

Charles  I.  patronized  racing,  28 

Chest,  anatomy  of  the,  163 

Chest,  proper  form  of  the,  52,  163,  193 

Chest,  importance  of  depth  of  the,  164 

Chest,  narrow  and  rounded,  compari.'^on 

botxvcen,  163,  193 

Chest,  the  round,  often  connected  wr,h 

ihick  wind  193 


456 


INDEX. 


PACK   I 

Chest,  dropsy  of  the,  184 

Chest  founder,  description  of,            171,  182 

Chestnut  horses,  varieties  of,  37G 

Chestsr,  races  first  established  at,  27, 
Chillal)y,  friendship  between  him  and  a 

cat,  4S[ 

Chinese  horse,  description  of  the,  IG, 

Cliinked  in  tiie  chine,  what,  165 1 

Ciiloride  of  lime,  as  a  disinfectant,  394 

Chloride  of  soda,  useful  in  ulcers,  400 
Choroid  coat  of  the  eye,  description  and 

use  of  the,  91 

Chronic  coug-h.  nature  and  treatment  of,  192 

Cliyle,  tlie  formation  of,  203i 
Ciliary  processes  of  the  eye,  description 

of  the,  92 
Cineritious  matter  of  the  brain,  nature  I 
and  function  of  the,  75' 
Circassian  horse,  description  of  the,  17l 
Clicking-,  cause  and  remedy  of,  3411 
Clipping,  objections  to,  375 
Clips,  when  necessary,  317i 
Clover,  considered  as  an  article  of  food,  357 1 
Clysters,  the  composition  and  great  use-  | 
fulness  of,  388 j 
Clysters,  directions  as  to  the  administra- 
tion of,  389  i 
Clydesdale  horse  described,  42 
Coaches,   calculation    of   tlie   power   of 
horses  in   drawing,  according  to 
their  speed,  417 
Coaches,  loaded  h;g-h,  run  lighter,  espe- 
cially in  rapid  travelling,  448 
Coaches,  safety,  lieavy  draught  of,  448 
Coach  horse,  description  of  the,  35 
Coach  horse,  best  breed  of,  36 
Coat,  fine,  connected  by  the  groom  with 

a  heated  stable,  346 
Coat,  fine,  persons  much  too  solicitous 

to  procure  it,  374 
Cochlea  of  the  ear,  description  and  use 

of  the,  83 

Cocktail  horse,  mode  of  docking,  329 

Ccecum,  description  of  the,                 203,  204 

Coffin-bone,  description  of  the,  2S6 

Coftin-bone,  lamella;  or  leaves  of,  296 

Cold,  common,  treatment  of,  188 

Colic,  spasmodic,  treatment  of,  205 
Collar,  llie  best  method  of  attaching  the 

traces  to  the  horse,  423 
Collar,  proper  adaptation  of  the,  to  the 

shoulder,  223 

Colon,  description  of  the,                    203,  204 

Colour  of  the  skin,  remarks  on  the,  375 

C(jlt,  early  treatment  of  the,  35 

Complexus  major  described,       119,  154,  165 

Complexus  minor  described,               119,  156 
Concave  seated  shoe,  the,  described  and 

recommended,  311 

Corestoga  horses,  description  of  tlie,  22 

C  .r.ical  and  flat  wheels  compared,  437 

Conical  wheels,  absurdity  of,  438 
Conical  wheels,  strange  degree  of  fric- 
tion and  dragging  with  them, 
Conical  wheels,  afford  <rreat  resistance, 

and  destroy  the  road, 
Conical  wheels   are,   in  fact,   travelling 
grindstones, 


438 


439 


439 


Conjunctiva,  description  of  the,  89 

Conjunctiva,  appearance  of,  how  far  a 

test  of  inflammation,  -39 

Contraction  of  the  foot,  nature  of,  29'-J 

Contraction  of  the  foot,   peculiarity  of 

the  lamencs^produccd  by,  296 

Contraction  of  the  foot,  how  far  connect- 
ed with'the  navicular  disease,  298 
Contraction  of  the  foot,  is  not  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  shoeing,  293 
Contraction  of  the  foot,   produced   by 

neglect  of  paring,  294 

Contraction  of  the  foot,  produced   by 

wearing  the  shoes  too  long,  294 

Contraction  of  the  foot,  produced  by 

want  of  natural  moisture,  294 

Contraction  of  tlie  foot,  produced  by  the 

removal  of  the  bars,  295 

Contraction  of  the  foot,  produced  by  in- 
flammation, 295 
Contraction  of  the  foot,  produced  by  un- 
equal exercise  without  preparat'n,  29i5 
Contraction  not  so  much  produced  by 

litter  as  imagined,  293 

Contraction,  the  cause,  rather  than  the 

consequence,  of  thrush,  295 

Contraction,  best  mode  of  treating,  297 

Contraction  rarely  permanently  cured,     297 
Contraction  does  not  necessarily  imply 

unsoundness,  293 

Contraction,   although   not   necessarily 
unsoundness,  should  have  a  spe- 
cial warranty  against  it,  362 
Contraction,  blood  horses  very  liable  to   296 
Convexity  of  the  eye,  the  proper,  not  suf- 
ficiently attended  to,  93 
Copper,  combinations  of,  used  in  vete- 
rinary practice,                                     339 
Corded  veins,  what,                                        129 
Cordials,  use  and  abuse  of,  in  the  horse,  389 
Cornea,  description  of  the,  90 
Cornea,  inodc  of  examining  the,                   91 
Cornea,  its  prominence  or  flatness,               90 
Cornea,  should  be  perfectly  transparent,     90 
Corns,  nature  and  treatment  of,                   305 
Corns,  caused  by  cutting  away  the  bars,  305 
Corns,  caused  by  not  paring  out  the  foot 

between  the  crust  and  bars,  306 

Corns,  caused  by  pressure,  305 

Corns,  very  difficult  to  cure,  306 

Corns,  constitute  unsoundness,  363 

Coronary  ligament  described,  281 

Coronary  ligament,  the  crust  produced 

principally  from,  231 

Coronary  ring  described,  281,  282 

Coronet,  the,  described,  231 

Corrosive   sublimate,    treatment    under 

poison  by,  "^00 

Corrosive  sublimate,  the  best  tonic  for 

farcy,  130,  139 

Cossack  horse,  description  of  the,  18 

Cossack  horse,  beaten  in  a  race  by  Eng- 
lish blood  horses,  18 
Cough,  nature  and  treatment  of,  188 
Cough,  constitutes  unsoundness,  362 
Cough,  chronic,  nature  and  treatment  of,  192 
Cow  hocks,  description  of,  274 
Cozakee  horse,  description  of  the_  15 


INDEX. 


45: 


PACK 

Cracks  in  the  heels,  treatment  of,  277 

firadle,  a  safe  restraint  upon  the  horse 

wlien  blistered,  323 

Cream-coloured  horses,  account  of,  376 

Cream-coloured  horses,  peculiar  eyes  of,  92 
Cream  of  tartar,  a  mild  diuretic,  390 

Crib-biting-,  the  sucking-  in  of  air,  339 

Crib-biting-   causes  and  cure  of,  340 

Crib-biting  injurious  to  the  horse,  340 

Crib-biting-,  constitutes  unsoundness,  362 
Cricoid  cartilage  of  the  windpipe,  160 

Cromwell's,  Oliver,  stud  of  race-horses,  28 
Cropping,  absurdity  of,  77 

Croton,  the  farina  of,  used  as  physic,  211 
Crusaders,  the  improvement  of  the  horse 

neglected  by  the,  24 

Crust  of  the  foot,  description  of  the,  280 

Crust  of  the  foot,  composition  of  the,  282 
Crust  of  the  foot,  consisting  Vv-ithin  of 

numerous  horny  plates,  283 

Crust  of  the  foot,  its  proper  slant,  280 

Crust  of  the  foot,  its  proper  thickness,  280 
Crust  of  the  foot,  remedy  for  brittleness,  282 
Crust  of  the  foot,  sandcrack  caused  by 

brittleness  of  the,  299 

Crystalline  lens,  description  of  the,  94 

Cuboid  bones,  description  of  the,  266 

Cuneiform  bones,  description  of  the,  266,  272 
Curbs,  nature  and  treatment  of,  267 

Curbs,  hereditary,  35 

Curbs,  the  slightest  vestig-e  of,  consti- 
tutes unsoundness,  268 
Cuticle,  description  of  the,  369 
Cutis,  or  true  skin,  account  of  the,  370 
Cutting-,  cause  and  cure  of,  252,  341 
Cutting,  constitutes  unsoundness,  363 
Cutting  away  the  foot,  unfounded  pre- 
judice against,  294 
Cylindrical  wheels,  description  and  ad- 

vantag-e  of,  440 


DandrifF,  nature  of  the,  369, 

Darley  Arabian,  account  of  the,  29. 

Dartmoor  ponies,  anecdote  of, 
Denham,  Major,  interesting  account  of 

tlie  loss  of  his  horse, 
Depressor   labii   inferioris   muscle,    de- 
scription of  the, 
Devonshire  pack-horse,  description  of. 
Diabetes,  nature  and  treatment  of, 
Diameter  of  wheels,  effect  of  increasing, 
Diaphoretics,  nature  and  effects  of. 
Diaphragm,  description  of  the,  171, 

Digestion,  process  of,  described,        198, 
Digestives,  nature  and  use  of. 
Digitalis,  recommended  in  colds  and  all 

inflammatory  complaints. 
Dilator  magnus  lateralis  muscle,  descrip- 
tion of  the, 
Dilator  naris  lateralis  muscle,  descrip- 
tion of  the, 
Dishing  of  wheels,  effect  of. 
Dishing,  both  inward  and  outward. 
Distemper,  nature  and  treatment  of. 
Distressed  liorse,  treatment  of  the, 
Diuretic  medicines,  use  and  abuse  of, 
276, 

no 


Docking,  method  of  performing,  327 

Dogs,  danger  of,  about  the  stable,  I()9 

Dongola  horse,  description  of  the,  10 

Draught,  theory  of,  37,  403 

Draught,  theory  of,  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently explained,  403 
Draught,  implies  the  moving  power,  the 

vehicle,  and  the  road,  405 

Draught,  the  moving  power  of,  particu- 
larly considered,  405 
Draught,  considered  in  respect  of  the 

resistance,  404 

Draught,  calculation    of,    according   to 

velocity  and  time,  417,  424 

Draught,  much  influenced  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  traces,  417 
Draught,  the  line  of,  should  be  parallel 

to  the  direction  of  motion,  447 

Draught,  in  cattle,  should  pass  through 

the  axle  of  the  wheels,  447 

Draught,  in  bad  roads,  may  have  a  slight 

inclination  upward,  447 

Draught,  resistance  of,  should  be,  much 

as  possible,  firm  and  inelastic,  423,  449 
Drauglit,  how  increased  by  the  state  of 

the  road,  435,  449 

Draught,  does  not  injure  the  riding  of 

the  farmer's  horse,  33 

Draught  of  carriages,  calculation  of,  on 

different  roads,  435 

Draught  of  boats,  difficulty  of,  increas- 
ing rapidly  with  the  velocity,  425 
Draught  of  boats,  power  of  the  425 
Draught  of  the  sledge,  425 
Draught  of  the  roller,  426 
Draught  horse,  the  heavy,  38 
Draught  horses,  the  inferior  ones  about 

the  metropolis,  wretched  state  of,      42 
Dray  horse,  proper  form  of  the,  40 

Dray  horses,   the  largest,  bred  in  Lin 

colnshire,  41 

Dray  horses,  usually  too  large,  40 

Drinks,  how  to  administer,  392 

Drinks,  comparison  between,  and  balls,  392 
Dropsy  of  the  chest,  171 

Dropsy  of  the  heart,  171 

Dropsy  of  the  skin,  171 

Drum  of  the  ear,  description  of  the,  81 

Dun  horse,  account  of  the,  376 

Duodenum,  description  of  the,  203 

Dutch  horse,  description  of  the,  21 


Ear,  description  of  the  external  parts,    77,  78 

Ear,  description  of  the  internal  parts,  79 

Ear,  bones  of  the,  description  and  use,  SO 

Ear,  labyrinth  of  the,  82 

Ear,  cut  of  the  mechanism  of  the,  79 

Ear,  cut  of  the  muscles  of  the,  81 

Ear,  indicative  of  the  temper,  77 

Ear,  cruelty  of  clipping  the,  73 

East  Indian  horse,  description  of  the,  lb 

Eclipse.,  pedigree  and  history  of,  4'3 
Edward  II.  introduced  Lombardy  horses 

into  England,  is 

Edward  III.  much  improved  horses,  '■'•5 

Edward  III.  introduced  Spanish  horses,  26 

Edward  111.  had  running  liorses,  26 


458 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Effect  of  the  horse's  labour,  limited  by 

his  velocity  and  his  power,  415 

Eg-ypt,  early  domcsticaiion  of  the  horse 

in,  3,  4 

Eg-ypt,  horse  propagated  from,  to  other 

countries,  4 

Eg-ypt,  horse  not  known  in,  at  the  time 

of  Abraham,  3 

Elasticity  in  construction  of  carriages, 
difference    between    longitudinal 
and  in  any  other  direction,      446,  449 
Elbow,  advantage  of  depth  of,  236,  237 

Elbow,  capped,  237 

Elbow,  fracture  of,  237 

Elbow,  punctured,  237 

Eider,  in  tlie  composition  of  an  emolli- 
ent ointment,  392 
Elgin  marbles,  proportions  of  the  horses 

unfaithfully  represented  on,  412 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  number  and  value  of 
horses  much  diminished  in  her 
reign,  27 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  a  staunch  huntress,       54 
Emetic  tartar,  used  as  a  nauseant,  dia- 
phoretic, and  worm  medicine,         384 
Enamel  of  the  teeth,  account  of  the,        13S 
Enigmatical  account  of  the  horse,  27 

English  horse,  history  of  the,  22 

English  horse,  first  crossed  by  Romans,  22 
English  horse,  improved  by  Athelstan,  22 
English  horse,  improved  by  William  the 

Conqueror,  24 

English  horse,  improved  by  John,  25 

English  horses,  not  used  for  the  plough 

in  early  times,  23 

Entanglement  of  the  intestines,  descrip- 
tion of,  207 
Epidemic  catarrh,  nature  and  treatment 

of,  189 

Epidemic,  malignant,  nature  and  treat- 
ment of,  191 
Epilepsy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  lOS 
Epsom  salts,  used  as  a  purgative,  212,  395 
Ethmoid  bone,  description  of  the,  74 
Eustachian  tube,  use  of  the,  82 
Ewe-neck,  unsightliness  and  inconve- 
nience of,  51,  156 
Exchanges  of  horses,  stand  on  the  same 

ground  as  sales,  368 

Exercise,  directions  for,  352 

Exercise,  necessity  of  regular,  351 

Exercise,  want  of,  producing  grease,  279 
Exercise,  more  injury  done  by  the  want 

of,  than  by  the  hardest  work,  351 

Exmoor  poney,  description  of  the,  58 

Expansion  shoe,  use  of  the,  319 

Expense  of  horse,  calculation  of  the  an- 
nual, 406 
Extensor  pedis  muscle,  description  of 

the,  237,  263 

Extract  of  lead,  the  use  of  it  much  over- 
valued, 394 
Eye,  description  of  the,  g  '  84 
Eye,  cut  of  the,  89 
Eye,  healtliy  appearance  of  the,  84 
Eye,  inflammation  of,  common,  specific,  113 
Eye,  causes  of  inflammation  of  tlie,  115 
E/e,  treatment  of  inflammation  of,    114,  116 


untractable  nature  of  inflt  nmation 
of  the,  ll4 

consequences  of  inflammation  of,     116 
marks  of  recent  inflammition  of,      115 
inflammation   of    the,    constitutea 
unsoundness,  363 

inflammation   of  the,   when   most 
likely  to  appear,  114 

inflammation  of  the,  hereditary,  113 
method  and  importance  of  exam- 
ining the,  90 
indicative  of  the  temper,  c4 
pit  above  the,  indicates  the  age,  67 
muscles  of  the,  93 
wounds  of  the,  112 
■brows,  substitute  for,  &5 
■lashes,  description  of,  85 
■lashes,  folly  of  singeing  them,  86 
■lid,  description  of,                            85,  86 


Face,  description  of  the,  117 

Face,  cut  of  the  muscles,   nerves,  and 

blood-vessels  of  the,  119 

Falling  in  of  the  foot,  what,  292 

False  quarter,  nature  and  treatment  of,  301 
Farcy,  a  disease  of  the  absorbents  of  the 

skin,  128 

Farcy,  connected  with  glanders,  128 

Farcy,  both  generated  and  infect'"ous,  129 
Farcy,  symptoms  of,  129 

Farcy,  treatment  of,  130 

Farcy-buds,  what,  129 

Farmer's  horse,  description  of  the,  33 

Farmer's  horse,  not  injured  by  draught,  33 
Farmer's  series,  sketch  of  the  object  of  the,  1 
Feeding,  high,  connected  with  grease,  279 
Feeding,  regular  periods  of,  necessity  of 

attending  to,  104,  359 

Feeding,  manner  of,  has  much  influence 

on  broken-wind,  194 

Feeling  of  the  mouth,  constant,  indis- 
pensable in  the  good  rider,  31 
Feet,  good,  importance  of,  in  the  hunter,     52 
Feet,  good,  general  management  of,          360 
Feet,  good,  attention  to  and  stopping  at 

night,  recommended,  260 

Felt  soles,  description  and  use  of,  319 

Fetlock,  description  of  the,  252 

Fever,  idiopatliic  or  pure,  177 

Fever,  idiopathic,  symptoms  of,  177 

Fever,  symptomatic,  178 

Fibula,  description  of  the,  263 

Finland  horse,  description  of  the,  20 

Firing,  mode  of  applying,  329 

Firing,    should   be   in   longitudinal  or 

parallel  lines,  325 

Firing,  sliould  not  penetrate  the  skin,      324 
Firing,  absurdity  and  cruelty  of  blister- 
ing after,  325 
Firing,  horse   should   not  be  used  for 

some  months  after,  424 

Firing,  advantage  of,  over  blistering,  325 
Fistula  lachrymalis,  87 

Fistula  in  the  poll,  152 

Fistulous  withers,  treatment  of,  16S 

Fits,  symptoms,  causes,  and  treatjenl 

of,  108 


INDEX. 


451) 


Piteherbert's,  Sir  A.,  description  of  the 

horse,  27 

Fitzherbert,  Sir  A.,  his  the  earliest  trea- 
tise on  ag-riculture,  27 
Flanders  horse,  description  of  the,        21,  42 
Flanders  horse,  our  heavy  draught  horse 

advantageously  crossed  with  the,      21 
Flat  roads  more  injurious  to  liorses  than 

those  with  slight  inequalities,  417 

Fleam  and  lancet,  comparison  between,  180 
Flexor  of  the  arm,  description  of  the,  238 
Flexor  metatarsi  muscle  described,  264 

Flexor  pedis  perforatus,  the  perforated 

muscle,  description  of  the,       239,  264 
Flying  Childers,  an  account  of,  45 

Foai,  early  treatment  of,  223 

Foal,  early  handling  of,  important,  223 

Foal,  importance  of  liberal  feeding  of,  223 
Foal,  time  for  weaning,  223 

Fomentations,  theory  and  use  of,  176,  392 
Food  of  the  horse,  observations  on,  352 

Food  of  the  horse,  list  of  articles  for,  354 
Food  of  the  horse,  should  bo  apportion- 
ed to  the  work,  359 
Foot,  description  of  the,  280 
Foot,  diseases  of  the,  289 
Foot,  canker  in,  nature  and  treatment  of,  303 
Foot,  corns  in  the,  "  305 
Foot,  contracted,  "  292 
Foot,  false  quarter  of  the,  "  301 
Foot,  founder  of  the,  acute,  "  289 
Foot,  founder  of  the  chronic,  "  292 
Foot,  inflammation  of  the,  "  289 
Foot,  navicular-joint  of  the,  "  298 
Foot,  overreach  of  the,  "  301 
Foot,  prick  in  the,  "  303 
Fuot,  pumiced,  "  291 
Foot,  quittor  in  the,  "  302 
Foot,  sandcrack  in  the,  "  299 
Foot,  thrush  in  the,  "  307 
Foot,  tread  on  the,  "  301 
Foot,  weakness  of  the,  "  309 
Foot,  wounds  in  the,  "  303 
Forehand,  proper  form  of,  51 
Forehead,  diiferent  in  the  ox  and  horse,  72 
Fore-legs,  description  of,  227 
Fore-legs,  diseases  of  the,  244 
Fore-legs,  proper  position  of  the,  255 
Forge-water,  sometimes  used,  394 
Forrester,  an  example  of  the  emulation 

of  the  horse,  49 

Founder,  acute,  symptoms,  causes,  and 

treatment  of,  289 

Founder,  chronic,  treatment  of,  292 

Foxglove,  strongly  recommended  in  all 

fevers  and  colds,  391 

Fracture  of  the  skull,  treatment  of,  100 

French  horse,  description  of  the  horse,  21 
Friction,  comparison  of,  in  the  wheel  and 

roller,  426 

Friction  on  the  axle,  dependent  on  the 

material  employed,  434 

'i'riction  is  not  materially  increased  by 

the  velocity,  435 

F.iction  reduced,  as  the  diameter  of  the 

axle  is  diminislicd,  434 

Pnct'.on,   inversely  as  the  diameter  of 

the  wheel.  435 


Friction  at  the  axles  of  light  carriages, 

considered,  449 

Frog,  horny,  description  of  the,  2S4 

Frog,  sensible,  description  of  the,     284,  287 

Frog,  sensible,  action  and  use  of  the,  289 

Frog,  pressure,  quostiim  of  the,  285 

Frog,  proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing,  314 

Frog,  diseases  of  the,  307 

Frog-stay,  the,  282 

Frontal  bones,  description  of  the,  67 

Frontal  sinuses,  description  of  the,  68 

Frontal  sinuses,  glanders  detected  by,  69 

Furze,  considered  as  an  article  of  food,  358 


Gall,  account  of  the,  262 

Gall-bladder,  the  horse  has  no,  212 

Galloping,  action  of  the  horse  during,      413 
Galloway,  description  of  the,  57 

Galloway,  performances,  etc.,  of  the,  58 

Gauclio,  S.  American,  description  of,  6 

Gaucho,  his  methcid  of  taking  and  break- 
ing the  wild  horse,  6 
Gaucho's  boots,  curious  manufacture  of,  7 
General  management  of  the  horse,  345 
Gentian,  the  best  tonic  for  the  horse,  393 
German  hor.se,  description  of  tlie,  19 
Getting  the  cheek-bit  into  the  mouth, 

method  of  preventing,  336 

Gibbing,  a  bad  habit,  cause  of  it,  and 

means  of  lessening  it,  335 

Ginger,  an  excellent  aromatic  and  tonic,  393 
Glanders,  nature  of,  124 

Glanders,  symptoms  of,  121,  123 

Glanders,  slow  progress  of,  122 

Glanders,  appearance  of  the  nose  in,  122 
Glanders,  detected  by  the  frontal  sinuses,  69 
123 
123 
128 
126 
124 


Glanders,  distinguished  from  catarrh, 

Glanders,  distinguished  from  strangles, 

Glanders,  connected  with  farcy. 

Glanders,  treatment  of. 

Glanders,  causes  of, 

Glanders,  generated  and  contagious,  124,  126 

Glanders,  oftenest  produced  by  improper 

stable  management. 
Glanders,  mode  of  communicating  the, 
Glanders,  prevention  of. 
Glanders,  its  speedy  appearance. 
Glands,  enlarged,  depends  on  many  cir- 
cumstances whether  they  consti- 
tute unsoundness, 
Glass-eyC;  nature  and  treatment  of. 
Gleet,  nasal,  nature  and  treatment  of. 
Glenoid  cavity  of  the  temporal   bone, 

description  of  the, 
Gluta;i  muscles,  description  of  the, 
Godolphin  Arabian,  account  of  the, 
Goulard's  extract,  much  overvalued. 
Gracilis  muscle,  description  of  the,  259 

Grains,  occasionally  used  for  horses  of 

slow  work,  355 

Grapes  on  the  heels,  treatment  of,  279 

Grasses,  neglect  of  the  farmer  as  to  the 

proper  mixture  of,  356 

Grasshopper  springs,  description  of,  447 

Grasshopper  sprino-s,  would  be  advan- 
tageously adopted  in  post-chaises,  447 
Grease,  nature  and  treatmer  t  of,  276 


124 
126 

127 
124 


363 
116 
121 

135 

260 

9,48 

394 


460 


INDEX. 


Grease,  caxise  of,  278 

■jrreuse,  farmei  s  horse  not  so  subject  to,  277 
Grease,  g-encrally  a  mere  local  complaint,  277 
Greece,  domestication  of  the  horse  in,  3 

Greece,  horse  introduced  in,  from  Egypt,  4 
Grey  horses,  an  account  of  the  different 

snades  of,  375 

Grinders,  construction  of  the,  139 

Grinding-  of  the  food,  accomplished  by 

the  mechanism  of  the  joint  of  the 

lower  jaw,  136 

Grogginess,  account  of,  252 

Grooming,  as  important  as  exercise  to 

the  horse, 
Grooming,  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin, 

and  gives  a  fine  coat, 
Grooming,  directions  for, 
Grunter,  description  of  the, 
Grunter,  the,  is  unsound, 
Guinea  coast,  the  horse  of  the, 
Gullet,  description  of  the, 
Gullet,  foreign  bodies  in  the, 
Gutia  Serena,  nature  and  treatment  of. 


350 


H 


Habits,  vicious  or  dangerous, 

Hackney,  description  of  the, 

Hackney,  proper  action  of  the, 

Hair,  account  of  the, 

Hair,  question  of  cutting,  from  the  heels,  279 

Hall,  Bishop,  on  breeding,  34 

Hamilton,  the  Duke  of,  tlic  Clydesdale 

horses  owe  their  origin  to,  40 

HarnessinsT,  the  best  mode  of,  as  regards 

draiight,  417 

Harnessinsr,  method  of,  in  the  time  of 


Homer, 
Haunch,  description  of  the, 
Haunch,  advantage  of  wide, 
Haunch,  injuries  of  the. 
Haunch-joint,  singular  strength  of  the. 
Haunch  and  thigh  bones,  advantage  of 

the  oblique  direction  of. 
Haw,  curious  mechanism  of  the. 
Haw,  diseases  of  liie. 
Haw,  absurdity  and  cruelty  of  destroy- 


Heart,  dropsy  of  the, 

Hebor's,  Bishop,  account  of  the  Arabian, 

Heels,  question  of  cutting  the  h  lir  from, 

Heels,  low,  disadvantage  of, 

Heels,  proper  paring  of,  for  shoeing, 

Heck,  washing  the,  produces  grease. 

Hellebore,  white,  used  in  inflammation 

of  the  lungs  and  fevers, 
Helmsley  Arabian,  account  of  the. 
Hemlock,  sometimes  poisonous 
Hemlock,  in  inflammation  of  the  chest, 
Henry  VHI.,  tyrannical  regulations  con- 
cerning the  horse  by, 
Henry  VHI.,  tiie  breed  of  the  horse  not 

materially  improved  by, 
Hereditary  diseases,  on,  35,  115, 

Hernia,  nature  and  treatment  of, 
Hide-bound,  nature  and  treatment  of, 
Highblower,  description  of  the, 
Highblower,  the,  is  unsound. 
Highland  poney,  description  of  the. 
Hind-legs,  description  of  the. 
Hind-legs,  arteries,  veins,  and  nerves  of. 
Hind-wheels,  should  follow  the  precise 
track  of  the  fore  ones, 
330|I  Hip-joint,  great  strength  of  the, 
30,  33j  Hips,  ragged,  what, 

30  Hissar,  the  East  India  Company's  sale 
372 1  of  horses  at, 

Holibles,  description  of  the  best. 
Hock,  advantage  of  its  numerous  sepa- 
rate bones  and  ligaments, 
Hock,  capped,  255, 

Hock,  cow. 

Hock,  description  of  the. 
Hock,  enlargement  of  the,  nature  of,  and 
how  affecting  soundness,  257, 

Hock,  inflammation  of  the  small  bones 
of  the,  frequent  cause  of  lameness, 
Hock,  the  principal  seat  of  lameness  be- 
hind the. 
Hock,  point  of  the,  advantage  of  length 

in  the, 
Homer,  method  of  harnessing-  horses  in 


Hay,  considered  as  food,  357 

Hay,  mowburnt,  injurious,  357 

Hay,  old,  preferable  to  new,  357 

Head,  anatomy  of  the,  G6 

Head,   reason   of  the   numerous   bones 

composing  the,  67 

Head,  cut  of  the  bones  of  the,  67 

Head,  section  of  tlie,  63 

Head,  importance  of  proper  setting  on 

of  the,  51,155 

Head,  its  shape,  indicating  the  breed,  67 
Head,  beautiful  provision  for  its  support,  72 
Head,  Captain,  his  account  of  the  South 

American  horse,  5 

Hearing  of  the  horse  very  acute,  77 

Heavy  black  horses,  account  of,  42 

Heavy  black  horses,  their  preparation  for         | 

iheir  work,  40 

Fleart,  description  of  the,  171 

Heart,  its  action  described,  172 

Heart,  inflammation  of  the,  172[ 


the  time  of. 
Hoof,  cut  of  the. 
Hoof,  description  of  the. 
Horizontal  direction  of  the  traces,  when 

proper, 
Horn  of  the  crust,  secreted  principally 

by  the  coronary  ligament, 
Horn  of  the  crust,  once  separated  from 
the  sensible  part  within,  will  never 
again  unite. 
Horse,  the  American,  description  of, 
"         "     Arabian,  description  of, 
"         "     not  the  native  of  Arabia, 
"         "     English,  under  Athelstan, 
"         "     Barb,  description  of, 
"         "     Bournou,  description  of, 
"         "     cavalry, 
"         "     and  chariot  races  formed  part 

of  the  Olympic  games, 
"         "     annual  expense  of, 
"         "     Chinese,  description  of, 
"         "     Circassian,  description  of, 
"         "     was  trained  to  draught  before 
he  was  mounted, 


257 
256 

15 

320 

276 
273 
274 
256 

363 

272 

267 

272 

421 
233 
231 

424 

281 


INDEX. 


401 


Horae   ihe  coach,  proper  form,  qualities,         | 
breed  of,  35 j 

"         "     Cossack,  description  of,  18 

"  "  neglected  by  tlie  Crusaders,  2A\ 
•'         "     Dongola,  description  of,  10 

"        "     Dutch,  description  of,  21 

"         "     early  liistory  of,  2 

"         "     when   first   domesticated   in 

Egypt  and  Canaan,  3 

"         "     not  domesticated  until  after 

many  other  animals,  3 

"         "     propagated    from    Egypt    to 

other  countries,  4 

"  "  East  Indian,  description  of,  15 
"         "     flesh  of,  eaten,  8 

"         "     English,  history  of,  22 

"         "     fanners',  description  of,  33 

"         "     Finland,  description  of,  20 

"         "     Flemish,  description  of,  21 

"         "     French,  description  of,  21 

"         "     general  management  of,  345 

"         "     German,  description  of,  19 

"        "     of  the  Guinea  coast,  10 

"  "  heavy  black,  description  of,  377 
"         "     for  heavy  draught,  38 

"  "  tyrannical  regulations  in  re- 
gard to,  by  Henry  VI !I.  26 
"  "  hiring,  early  regulations  of,  23 
"  "  Hungarian,  description  of,  19 
"  "  Iceland,  description  of,  20 
"  "  Italian,  description  of,  21 
"  "  much  improved  by  John,  25 
"         "     Lombardy,  when  introduced 

into  Entrland,  25 

"         "     market,  first  account  of,  24 

"  "  native  country  of,  uncertain,  24 
"  "  Norwegian,  description  of,  20 
"         "     Persian,  description  of,  16 

"         "     English,   not   used  in  early 

times  for  the  plough,  23 

"        "    power,  calculation  of,  37,  403,  416 
"         "     power,  depending  on  circum- 
stances continually  varying,  403 
"         "     power,  varying  with  speed, 

Table  of,  416 

"         "     power  compared  with  that  of 

steam-engine  on  railways,  405 
"  "  power  compared  with  steam- 
engine  on  common  roads,  407 
"  "  power,  mechanically  consid- 
ered, superior  to  artificial,  410 
"  "  power,  there  is  yet  no  prac- 
tical substitute  for,  409 
"  "  price  of,  in  Solomon's  time,  4 
"  "  prices  of,  at  divers  periods,  23-26 
"  "  sagacity  of,  32 
"  "  can  see  almost  in  darkness,  92 
•*  "  South  American,  described,  5 
"  "  S.  American,  instinct,  «S:c.,  of,  5 
"  "  management  of,  in  S.  America,  6 
"  "  Spanish,  description  of,  21 
'          "     Spanish,  first  introduced  in 

Britain,  25 

"         "     Swedish,  description  of,  20 

"         "     Tartarian,  description  of,      8,  18 
"         ■'     English,  thorough-bred,  su- 
perior to  the  Arabian,  44 
*         "     Toorkorman,  description  of,     17 


Horse,  the  Turkish,  description  of,  19 
"  "  wild,  description  of,  5 
"  "  English,  improved  by  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  24 
"  "  zoological  description  of,  62 
"  "  heavy,  exposed  to  grease,  278 
Horses,  immense  number  of,  in  armies 

of  ancient  eastern  monarchs,  3 
Horses,  numerous  in  Britain  at  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Romans,  22 
Howell  the  Good,  his  laws  respecting 

the  horse,  23 

Hungarian  horse,  description  of  the,  19 

Hunter,  the,  general  account  of,  50 

"          "     proper  degree  of  blood  in,  51 

"          "     proper  form  of,  51 

"         "    spirit  of,  54 

"         "     anecdotes  of,  54 

"          "     management  of,  53 

"          "    symptoms  of  distress  in,  55 

"          "     management  (jf,  in  distress,  55 

"          "     summering  of,  56 

Hunting,  the  earliest  book  on,  written 

by  a  lady,  54 

Hunting-shoe,  description  of  the,  313 
Hyde   Park,    races   established    in,   by 

Charles  I.  28 

Hydrothorax,  treatment  of,  184 


Iceland  horse,  description  of  the,  20 

Ileum,  description  of  the,  204 

Inflammation,  nature  of,  174 

Inflammation,  treatment  of,  175 
Inflammation,  hot  or  cold   applications 

to,  guitie  in  the  choice  of,  176 

Inflammation,  importance  of  bleeding  in,  175 

Inflammation,  when  proper  to  physic  in,  175 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder,  217 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  207 
Inflammation  of  the  bowels,  distinction 

between,  and  colic,  208 
Inflammation  of  the  brain,  105 
Inflammation  of  the  eye,  113 
Inflammation  of  the  foot,  289 
Inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  216 
Inflammation  of  the  liver,  213 
Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  182 
Inflammation  of  the  stomach,  200 
Inflammation  of  the  veins,  158 
Influenza,  nature  and  treatment  of,  189 
Infusions,  manner  of  making  them,  393 
Inoculation,  the  best  test  of  the  exist- 
ence of  glanders,  124 
Intercostal  muscles,  description  of  the,  170 
Intestines,  description  of  the,  203 
Intestines,  diseases  of  the,  205 
Intus-susception  of  the  intestines,  207 
Invertebrated  animals,  what,  62 
Iodine,  useful  in  enlarged  glands,  393 
Iranee  horse,  description  of  the,  15 
Iris,  description  of  the,  94 
Irish  horse,  description  of  the,  61 
Iron,  carbonate  of,  a  useful  tonic,  394 
Iron,  sulphate  of,  a  stronger  tonic,  394 
Iron,  sulphate  of,  for  curing  glanders,  394 
Italian  horse,  description  of  the,  21 
Itchiness  of  the  skin,  susjiicious,  380 


»«2 


INDEX. 


James  1.,  eilabiisheJ  the  first  regulations         1 
for  racing,  281 

James  I.  introduced  the  Arabian  blood,  28 
Jaundice,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  213 
Jaw,  lower, "admirable  mechanism  of  the,  135l 
Jaw,  upper,  description  of  the,  133 

Jejunum,  description  of  the,  204 

John,  tlie  breed  of  horses  improved  by,  25 [ 
Jointcd-shoe,  description  and  use  of  the,  319 
Jones's  patent  wheels,  description  of,  441 
Jusfular  vein,  anatomy  of  the,  120,  157 

Jumper,  the  horse-breaker,  anecdotes  of 

his  power  over  animals,  331 

Juniper  oil,  use  of,  394 

Juno,  harnessing  her  own  horses,  433 

K 

Kadischi,  an  Arabian  breed  of  horses,  11 
Kicking,  a  bad  and  inveterate  habit,  336 

Kidneys,  description  of  the,  214 

Kidneys,  inflammation  of  the,  symptoms 

and  treatment  of,  216 

Kidneys,  stone  in  the,  218 

King  Pippin,  anecdotes  of,  illustrating 

invelerateness  of  vicious  habits,  331 
Knee,  anatomical  description  of  the,  240 
Knees,  broken,  treatment  of,  241 

Kochlani,  the  Arabian  breed  of  horses,  11 
Knowledge  of  the  horse,  how  acquired,      64 


Labyrinth  of  the  ear,  description  of  the,     82 
Lachrymal  duct,  description  of  the,  87 

Lachrymal  gland,  description  of  the,  86 

Lamellw,  or  laminae,  horny,  account  of,  283 
Lamella;,  flesliy,  account  of  the,  283 

Lamellx,   fleshy,   weight   of  the   horse 

supported  by  the,  283 

Lameness,  shoulder,  method  of  ascer- 
taining, 229 
Lameness,  from  any  cause,  unsoundness,  364 
Lampas,  nature  and  treatment  of,  134 
Lampas,  cruelty  of  burning  the  bars  for,  135 
Lamina;  of  the  foot.  See  Lamellae. 
Lancet  and  fleam  compared,  180 
liard,  use  of,  in  ointments  and  balls,  394 
Larynx,  description  of  the,  160 
Lasso,  description  of  the,  6 
Lasso,  power  of  the,  422 
Laudanum,  use  of,  in  veterinary  practice,  394 
Lead,  the  compounds  of,  used  in  veteri- 
nary practice, 
Lead,  extract  of,  much  overvalued. 
Lead,  sugar  of,  use  of. 
Lead,  white,  use  of, 
Leather-soles,  description  and  use  of, 
Leg,  cut  of  the, 
Leg,  description  of  the, 
Lega,  fore,  should  be  straight  and  per- 
pendicular. 
Legs,  hind,  anatomical  description  of. 
Legs  of  the  liackney,  should  not  be  lifted 

too  high. 
Legs  of  tlie  horse,  movement  of,  when 

walking. 
Legs  of  the  horse,  different  in  drawing, 
Legs  of  the  horse,  different  in  trotting, 


rAGC 

Legs,  swelled,  276 

Levator  humeri  muscle,  description  of 

the,  119,156,233 

Lever,  muscular  power  explained  on  the 

principle  of  the,  231,238 

Ligament  of  the  neck,  description  and 

elasticity  of  the,  73,  153 

Light,  theory  of,  96 

Light,  refraction  of,  96 

Lightness  in  hand,  of  essential  conse- 
quence in  a  hunter,  51 
Lime,   cliloride  of,   exceedingly  useful 

for  bad-smelling  wounds,  &c.,         S94 
Lime,  chloride  of,  useful  to  cleanse  sta- 
bles from  infection,  395 
Lincolnshire,  largest  heavy  black  horses 

bred  in,  41 

Liniments,  composition  and  use  of,  395 

Linseed,  infusion  of,  used  in  catarrh,  395 
Linseed  meal,  forms  the  best  poultice,  395 
Linseed  oil,  as  a  purgative,  212,  395 

Lips,  anatomy  and  uses  of  the,  131 

Lips,  the  hands  of  the  horse,  131 

Litter,  cannot  be  too  often  removed,  349 

Litter,  proper  substances  for,  349 

Litter,  contraction  not  so  much  produced 

by  it  as  some  imagine,  295 

Liver,  anatomy  and  use  of  the,  212 

Liver,  inflammation  of  the,  213 

Liver,  rupture  of  the,  213 

Load,  lying  high  increases  the  lightness 

of  draught,  448 

Load,  lying  high  may  be  dangerous  in 

rough  roads,  441 

Locked  jaw,  symptoms,  cause,  and  treat- 
ment of,  105,  107 
Loins,  description  of  the,  166 
Lombardy  horse,  whei'i  intrc.duced  into 

England,  25 

Longissimus  dorsi  muscle  described,  1C7 
Lucerne,  considered  as  an  article  of  food,  S57 


Lunar  caustic,  a  very  excellent  one,  40C 
Luna's,  description  of  the,  181 

Lungs,  symptoms  of  inflammation  of,  183 
Lungs,  causes  of  inflammation  of  the,  18i 
Lungs,  inflammation  of  the,  how  distin- 
guished from  distemper.  184,  191 
Lungs,  inflammation  of,  treatment,  185,  18t 
Lungs,  inflammation  of,  impoitance  of 

early  bleeding  in,  185 

Lungs,  inflammation  of,  ollster?  prefer- 
able to  rowels  jr  setons  in,  184 
Lungs,  inflammatiop  jf,  ccnsequences,    18fc 

M 

Madness,  sym[,(o  ns  and  treatment  of,  lOf 
Majinniss  liorse,  descrijytion  of  the.  It 

Mahomet,  l)ad  only  two  horses  in  his 

wholvj  army,  4 

Malcolm,  Sir  Jolin,  his  anecdotes  of  the 

Arabian  horse,  1* 

Malignant  epidemic,  nature  and  tieat- 

ment  of,  191 

Malleuders,  nature  and  treatment  of,  273 
Mammalia,   the,  an  important  class  of 

animals,  Ci 

Mane,  description  and  use  of  the,  ]": 

Mange,  description  and  treatment  of,       'i'i 


INDEX. 


^^63 


FACE 

Mang-e,  causes  of,  379 

Mang-e  oinlinent,  recipes  for,  379 

Mang-e,  hig-hly  infectious,  379 

Mange,  method  of  purifying  the  stable 

after,  380 

Manger-feeding,  the  advantage  of,  352 

Marble,  the  immense  block  of,  at  St.  Pe- 

tersburgh,  how  moved  on  rollers,  429 
Marc,  time  of  being  at  heat,  222 

Mare,  time  of  going  with  foal,  222 

Mare,  best  time  for  covering-,  222 

Mare,  management  of,  when  with  foal,  222 
Mare,  management  of,  after  foaling-,  222 

Mare,  more  concerned  than  the  horse  in 

breeding,  34 

Mares  preferable  to  geldings  for  farmers,  34 
Mares,  prejudice  against  riding  of,  5 

Marcs,  never  ridden  by  the  Africans,  10 

Mares,  alone  ridden  by  the  Arabs,  10 

Mares,  used  for  food,  8 

Mares,  selection  of,  for  breeding-,  34 

Mark  of  the  teeth,  what,  138 

Markham's  Arabian,  account  of,  28 

Mashes,  importance  of  their  use,  395 

Mashes,  best  method  of  making,  394 

Masseter  muscle,  description  of  the,  119,  136 
R.'axillary  Ijones,  anatomy  of  the,  133 

Mediastinum,  description  of  the,  171 

Meo-cines,  a  history  of  the  most  useful,  381 
Medullary  substance  of  the  brain,  nature 

and  function  of  the,  75 

Megrims  caused  by  an  undue  quantity 

of  blood  pressing  on  the  brain,  101 
Megrims,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  102 
Megrims  apt  to  return,  102 

Melt,  description  of  the,  214 

Memory  of  the  horse,  instances  of,  32 

Mercurial  ointment,' use  of,  in  veterinary 

practice,  396 

Merlin,  tlie  sire  of  many  Welsh  ponies,  68 
Mesentery,  description  of  the,  203 

Metacarpals,  description  of  tlie,  243 

Midriff,  description  of  the,  171,  197 

Mint,  an  infusion  of,  or  the  oil  of,  occa- 
sionally used,  396 
Moisture,  want  of,  cause  of  contraction,  294 
Moon-blindness,  nature  of,  113 
Morocco  barb,  account  of  the,  28 
Moulting,  the  process  of,  373 
Moulting,  horse  usually  languid  at  the 

time  of,  374 

Moulting,  no  stimulant  or  spices  should 

be  given  wlien,  374 

Moulting,  mode  of  treatment  under,  374 
Mounting  the  colt,  226 

Mouth  of  the  horse,  description  of  the 

bone^  of  the,  133 

Mouth  of  the  horse,  ulcers  in  the,  161 

Mouth  of  the  horse,  should  be  always 

felt  lightly  in  riding,  31 

Mouth  of  tlie  horse,  its  sensibility,  132 

Mouth,  when  the  horse  may  be  said  to 

have  a  perfect,  143 

Moving  power,  animal,  theory  of,  405 

Moving  power,  mechanical,  theory  of,  405 
Mowburnt  hay  injurious,  357 

Muscles,  advantageous  direction  of,  more 

important  than  their  bulk,  275 


Muscles  of  the  back,  description  of  the,  167 
Muscles  of  the  breast,  "  '  PO 
Muscles  of  tlic eye,  ••  9t 
Muscles  of  the  face,  "  119 
Muscles  of  the  neck  "  154 
Muscles  of  the  ribs  "  170 
Muscles  of  the  shoulder-blade,  "  233 
.Muscles  of  the  shoulder  lower  bone,  232 
Muscular  action,  the  principle  of,  238 
Muzzle,  the  organ  by  which  horses  com- 
monly examine  bodies,  370 
Myrrh,  use  of,  for  canker  and  wounds,  396 

N 
Narrow  and  broad  wheels,  compared,     437 
Nasalis  labii  superioris  muscle  described,  119 
Naves,  cast  iron,  to  wheels,  advantage  of,  442 
Naves,  cast  iron,  description  of  the  best 

construction  of,  442 

Navicular  bone  described,  243,  288,  298 

Navicular  bone,  its  action  and  use,  288,  298 
Navicular-joint  disease,  treatment  of,  298 
Navicular-joint  disease,  how  far  con- 
nected with  contraction,  298 
Navicular-joint  disease,  cure  uncertain,  299 
Neapolitan  horse,  description  of  tiie,  21 
Neck,  anatomy  and  diseases  of  the,  152 
Neck,  description  of  the  arteries  of  the,  157 
Neck,  description  of  the  veins  of  the,  157 
Neck,  bones  of  the,  152 
Neck,  proper  conformation  of  the,  154 
Neck,  long  and  short  compared,  155 
Neck,  loose,  what,  155 
Neptune,  the  horse  first  appeared  at  the 

stroke  of  the  trident  of,  4 

Nerves,  construction  and  theory  of  the,      76 
Nerves,  spinal,  compound  nature  of,  76 

Nerves,  respiratory,  functions  of  the,  76 

Nerves  of  the  face,  119 

Neurotomy,  or  nerve  operation,  object 

and  effect  of,  110 

Neurotomy,  manner  of  performing.  111 

Neurotomy,  cases  in  which  it  should  or 

should  not  be  performed,  112 

Neurotomy,  a  vestige  of  the  performance 

of,  constitutes  unsoundness,  364 

Newcastle,  Duke  of,  his  opposition  to  the 

introduction  of  the  Arabian  blood,    28 
New-forester,  description  of  the,  58 

Newmarket,  races  first  established  at,  by 

Charles  I,  28 

Newmarket,  description  of  the  different 

courses  at,  50 

Nicking,  method  of  performing-,  328 

Nicking,  cruelty  often  used  in,  329 

Nitre,  a  valuable  cooling  medicine,  and 

a  mild  diuretic,  397 

Nitrous  tether,  spirit  of,  a  mild  stimulant 

and  diuretic,  397 

Norman  horse,  description  of  the,  21 

Norwegian  horse,  description  of  the,  20 

Nose,  description  of  the  bones  of  the        117 
Nose  of  the  horse,  slit  to  increase  his 

wind,  20,  118 

Nostrils,  description  of  the,  117 

Nostrils,  chronic  discharge  from  the,         121 
Nostrils,  chronic  discharge,  how  distin- 
guished from  glanders,  121 


464 


INDEX. 


Nostrila  the  (iieinbranc  of,  important  in 

ascertaining-  disease,  120 

Nostrils,  importance  of  expanded,  118 

Not  lying'  down,  the  consequence  of  and 

cure  for,  341 

Nutriment,  the  quantity  of,  contained  in 

dilTerent  articles  of  food,  359 

O 

Oats,  the  usual  food  of  horses,  353 

Oats,  should  be  old,  heavy,  dry,  sweet,  354 
Oats,  kiln-dried,  injurious  to  liorses,  354 
Oats,  proper  quantity  of,  for  a  horse,  355 

Oats,  bruised  preferable  to  whole,  353 

Oatmeal,  excellent  for  g-ruel,  and  some- 
times used  as  a  poultice,  355 
Obelisk  at  Rome,  the  curious  method  of 

moving  it,  431 

Occipital  bone,  description  of  the,  72 

(Esophagus,  description  of  the,  162 

O'Kelly,  Col.,  anecdotes  of,  and  Eclipse,  47 
Old  Marsk,  tlie  sire  of  many  of  the  new 

foresters,  58 

Olive  oil,  as  a  purgative,  212,  397 

Omentum;  description  of  the,  214 

Opacity  of  the  eye,  treatment  of,  116 

Operations,  description  of  the  most  im- 
portant, 320 
Opium,  valuable  in  veterinary  practice,  397 
Opium,  adulterations  of,  397 
Orbicularis  muscle  of  the  eye,  descrip- 
tion of  the,  85,119 
Orbicularis  oris  muscle  described,  120,  131 
Orbit  of  the  eye,  fracture  of,  101 
Ossification  of  the  cartilages,  cause  and 

treatment  of,  310 

Ouseley,  Sir  Gore,  his  account  of  the 

ruins  of  Persepolis,  3 

Over-physicking,  treatment  of,  209 

Over-reach,  nature  and  treatment  of,  301,  341 
Over-reach,  often  producing  sandcrack 

or  quittor,  301 

Ox^  g-en  of  the  air  unites  with  the  carbon 

of  tlic  blood  in  respiration,  181 


Pace,  effect  of,  in  straining  the  horse,  37 
Paohydermata,  an  order  of  animals,  62 
Pack-horse,  description  of  the,  59 
Pack-wax,  description  of  the,  73,  153 
Palate,  description  of  the,  133 
Palate,  bleeding-place  in  the,  133 
Palatine  artery,  description  of  the,  134 
Palm  oil,  the  best  substance  for  balls,  393 
Palsy,  causes  and  treatment  of,  109 
Pancreas,  description  of  the,  214 
Panniculus  carnosus  muscle  described,  370 
Parietal  bones,  description  of  the,  70 
Paring  out  of  the  foot  for  shoeing,  direc- 
tions for,  314 
P»ring  out  of  the  foot,  neglect  of,  cause 

of  contraction,  294 

Parkinson  on  Live  Stock,  extracts  from,  60 
Parotid  gland,  description   of  the,  and 

its  diseases,                                   120,  143 
Parthenon,   description  of  the  chariots 

on  tlie  frieze  of  the.  433 
Pasterns,  description  of  the,                243,  253| 


Pasterns,  bones  of  the,  2.53 

Pasterns,  cut  of  the,  249,  254 

Pasterns,  proper  obliquity  of  the,  31,  52,  251 
Fatella,  or  stifle-bone,  description  of  tlic,  252 
Pawing,  remedy  for,  312 

Payment  of  the  smallest  sum,  completes 

the  purchase,  366 

Peas,  sometimes  used  as  food,  but  should 

be  crushed,  356 

Pectorales  muscles,  154,  163,  170,  224 

Pericardium,  description  of  the,  171 

Peronseus  muscle,  description  of  the,  261 
Persian  horse,  description  of  tlie,  16 

Persian  horse,  celebrated  before  the  Ara- 
bian was  known,  16 
Persian  horse,  management  of,  16 
Persian  race,  description  of  a,  17 
Perspiration,   insensible,  no    medicines 

will  certainly  increase  it,  373 

Peter  the  Great,  the  immense  block  of 
marble,  constituting  the  pedestal 
of  his  statue,  how  moved,  430 

Pharynx,  anatomy  of  the,  151 

Physic   ball,  method   of  compounding 

the  best,  382 

Physic  ball,  should  never  be  given  in 

inflammation  of  tlie  lungs,  382 

Physic,  half-doses  of,  objectionable,  382 
Picil  horses,  account  of,  376 

Pigincntium  nigrum,  account  of  the,  91 

Piper,  description  of  the,  196 

Pit  of  the  eye,  indicative  of  the  age,  67 

Pitch,  its  use  for  charges  and  plasters,  398 
Pithing,  a  hiunane  method  of  destroy- 
ing animals,  153 
Pleura,  description  of  the,  171 
Pleurisy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  183 
Pneumonia,  nature  and  treatment  of,  182 
Poisons,  account  of  the  most  frequent,  200 
Poll-evil,  cause  and  treatment  of,  152 
Poll-evil,  importance  of  the  free  escape 

of  the  matter,  153 

Pony,  varieties  of  the,  53 

Popleta;us  muscle,  description  of  the,       264 
Porter's,  Sir  R.  Ker,  account  of  the  Per- 
sian horse,  16 
Post,  the  first  establishment  of  the,              36 
Post-chaises,   grasshopper  springs,   ad- 
vantageously adopted  in,          447,  443 
Postea  spinatus  muscle  described,             234 
Potatoes,  as  an  article  of  food,                     358 
Poultices,  various  compositions  of,  man- 
ner of  acting  and  great  use,     176,  393 
Powders  compared  with  balls,                     399 
Power  of  draught  in  the  horse  illustrated,    37 
Power  of  draught  in  the  horse  calculated,  403 
Power  of  draught  in  the  horse  compared 

with  that  of  the  human  being,         411 
Power  of  draught  in  the  horse  compared 

with  tliat  of  a  steam-engine,  405 

Power  of  the  horse  on  common  roads,  407 
Power  of  the  horse  on  bad  roads,  409 

Power  of  the  horse  dependent   on   his 

weight  and  muscular  force.  411 

Power  of  the  horse,  how  diminisned  in 

towing  a  boat  on  a  canal.  414 

Power  of  the  horse,  greater  wh  m  ckise 

to  his  work.  414 


INDEX. 


405 


Puwer  of  the  liorsc,  depends  on  the  time 

lie  can  exert  liis  streng'ili,  415 

Power  of  the  horse,  diininislied  accord- 
ing- to  his  speed,  table  of,         416,  417 
Preparation  of  the  foot  for  shoeing,  313 

Pressure  on  the  brain,  effect  of,  1011 

Priam's  chariot,  description  of,  43i 

Priam  harnesses  his  own  horses,  432 

Prices  of  horses,  different  periods,  23,  25,  26 
Prick  in  the  foot,  treatment  of,  303 

Prick  in  the  foot,  injurious  method  of 

removing  the  horn,  searching  for,  305 
Profuse  staling',  cause  and  treatment  of,  217 
Puffinjr  the  gfims,  a  fraudulent  trick,  67 

Pulling,  theaction  of,  explained,  410 

Pulse,  natural  standard  of  tlie,  172 

Pulse,  varieties  of  the,  173 

Pulse,  importance  of  attention  to  the,  173 
Pulse,  most  convenient  place  to  feel  the,  173 
Pulse,  to  be  watched  during  bleeding,  174 
Pumiced  feet,  treatment  of,  291 

Pumiced  feet,  do  not  admit  of  cure,  292 

Pumiced  feet,  constitute  unsoundness,  364 
Pupil  of  the  eye,  dcscriptitjn  of  the,  93 

Pupil  of  the  eye,  mode  of  discovering 

blindness  by  the,  93 

Purchase,  to  complete  the,  there  must  be 
a  memorandum,  or  payment  of  a 
sum,  however  small,  366 

Purging,  violent,  treatment  of,  209 


Quarters  of  the  horse,  description  of  the,  261 
(Quarters  of  the  horse,  importance  of  their 

muscularity  and  depth,  261 

Quarters  of  the  foot,  description  of  the,  280 
Quarters  of  the  foot,   the  inner,   crust 

thinner  and  weaker  at  tiie,  281 

Quarter,  folly  of  lowering  tiie,  281 

Quidding  the  food,  cause  of,  342 

Quidding  the  food,  unsoundness,  364 

Quittor,  nature  and  treatment  of,  302 

Quittor,  treatment  of,  long  and  difficult, 

exercising  the  patience  both  of  the 

practitioner  and  owner,  302 

Quittor,  is  unsoundness,  342 


Rabies,  symptoms  of, 
Races,  early,  mere  running  on  train  scent. 
Races,  frequent  cruelty  of. 
Races,  different  kinds  of,  described, 
Races,  regular,  first  established  at  Ches-         I 
ter  and  Stamford,  27 

Races,   regulations  for,   established  by 

James  I.,  28 

Races,  patronised  by  Charles  I.,  23 

Races,  Persian,  description  of,  17 

Races,  short,  consequences  of  their  in- 
troduction, 49 
Races,  at  Smithfield,  24 
ilace-horse,  history  of  the,  43 
Race-horse,  form  and  action  of  the,  44,  49 
Race-horse,  emulation  of  tlie,  49 
Race-horse,  whether  exclusively  of  tor- 

eisTn  breed,  44 

lacka,  110  openings  shovM  be  allowed 

above  them,  346 


Radius,  description  of  tne,  236 

Ragged  hipped,  wliat,  256 

Ragged  hip,  no  impediment  to  action,  257 
Railways,  mechanical  advantage  of,  38,  451 
Railways,  comparison  of  horse  and  me- 
chanical power  on,  405 
Railways,  description  of,  45 1 
Railways  increase  the  power  of  the  horse 

tenfold,  452 

Raking,  the  operation  of,  399 

Rat-tails,  nature  and  treatment  of,  275 

Rearing,  dangerous  and  inveterate  habit.  337 
Recti  muscles  of  tlie  neck  described,  156 
Recti  muscles  of  tiie  thigh  described,  25S 
Rectus  muscle,  description  of  the,  258 

Rectum,  description  of  the,  203,  205 

Reducing  speed  and  prolonginir  exertion, 

advantage  of,  in  horse  labour,  415 

Refraction  of  liglit,  the  theory  of,  96 

Refractive  power  of  the  eye,  account  of,  97 
Reins,  description  of  the  proper,  132 

Repositories,  account  of  the  principal,  in 

London,  and  their  regulations,        369 
Resin,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  399 

Resistance  in  draught,  principally  occa- 
sioned by  the  ruts,  441 
Respiration,  description  of  the  mechan- 
ism and  effect  of,  181 
Respiratory  nerves,  76 
Restifness,  a  bad  habit,  never  cured,  330 
Restifness,  anecdotes  in  proof  of  its  in- 

veterateness,  331 

Retina,  description  of  the,  93,  95 

Retractor  muscle  of  the  eye  described,  99 
Ribbed-home,  advantage  of  being,  164 

Ribs,  anatomy  of  the,  169 

Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  account  of  his 

Arabian  horses,  24 

Richmond's,  Duke  of,  method  of  breed- 
ing good  carriage-horses,  39 
Richmond,  Duke  of,  anecdote  of  the,  54 
Riding,  directions  for,  31 
Ringbone,  nature  and  treatment  of,  254,  255 
Ringbone,  constitutes  unsoundness,  365 
Roacli-backed,  what,  166 
Roads,  how  affected  by  different  wheels,  441 
Roads,  how  influencing  proper  breadth 

of  the  wheels,  440 

Roads,  the  great  extent  to  which  they 

affect^lhe  draught,  419 

Roads,  soft  and  yielding,  far  more  dis- 
advantageous than  rough  ones,      450 
Roads,  slight  alterations  in  their  level 

advantageous,  450 

Roads,  hardness  in,  the  desideratum,  450 
Roads,  should  be  nearly  flat,  450 

Roads,  much  curvature  in,  absurd,  450 

Roads,  necessity  of  constant  attention 

and  repairs  to,  451 

Roads,  calculation  of  the  degree  of  re- 
sistance increased  by  bad,  451 
Roan  horses,  account  of,  376 
Roaring,  the  nature  of,  160 
Roaring,  constitutes  unsoundness,  362 
Roaring,  proceeding  from  inflammation,  160 
Roaring,  proceeding  from  tight  reining,  160 
Roaring,  proceeding  from  buckling  in 

crib-biting-,  16» 


100 


Roarin^,  vea  inent  of,  161 

Rollers,  calculation  of  draught  of,  426,  427 
Rollers,  how  probably  first  broug-ht  into 

use  or  invented,  426 

Rollers,  comparison  of  their  power  with 

that  of  wheels,  426 

Rollers,  nicchanisni  and  principle  of,  427 
Rollers,  particular  circumstances  where 

their  use  is  advantageous,  429 

Rollers,  the  weight  moving  with  double 

the   velocity   of,    therefore    fresli 

rollers  niust  be  supplied  in  front,  429 
Rollers,  description  of  the  immense  block 

of  marble  at  St.  Petersburgh  being 

moved  on,  429 

Rollers,    a  particular    construction    of, 

very  useful,  450 

Rolling,  danger  of,  and  remedy  for,  342 

Roman  nose  in  the  horse,  what,  117 

Round-bone,  the,  not  easily  dislocated,  253 
Round-bone,  sprain  of  tlie,  description 

and  treatment  of,  262 

Rowels,  use  of,  and  method  of  applying,  186 
Rowels,  manner  of  inserting,  and  their 

operation,  399 

Rowels,   comparison  between,  blisters, 

and  setons,  326 

Running  away,  method  of  restraining,  337 
Running-horses,  first  account  of,  25' 

Rupture,  treatment  of,  212 

Rupture  of  the  suspensory  ligament,  252 
Ruts,  the  cause  of  three-fourths  of  the 

resistance  in  draught,  441 

Rye-grass,  as  an  article  of  food,  357 

S 
Sacrum,  description  of  the,  328 

Saddle-backed,  what,  166 

Saddle-galls,  treatment  of,  169 

Saddling  of  the  colt,  226 1 

Safety-coaches,  heavy  draught  of,  443 

Sagacity  of  the  horse,  32 

Sainfoin,  used  as  an  article  of  fc  >d,  357 

Saint  Domingo,  wild  horses  in,  8 

Sal  ammoniac,  medical  use  of,  334 

Saliva,  nature  and  use  of  the,  143 

Salivary  glands,  description  of  the,  143 

Sallenders,  nature  and  treatment  of,  273 

Salt,  use  of,  in  veterinary  practice,  400 

Salt,  value  of,  mingled  in  the  food  of 

animals,  357 

Sandcrack,  nature  and  treatment  of,        299 
Sandcrack,  most  dangerous  when  pro- 
ceeding from  tread,  300 
Sandcrack,  liable  to  return,  unless  the 

brittleness  of  hoof  is  remedied,  300 
Sandcrack,  constitutes  unsoundness,  365 
Sartorius  muscle,  description  of  the,  259 
Sclerotica,  description  of  the,  91 

Scouring,  general  treatment  of,  209 

Semicircular  canals  of  the  ear,  descrip- 
tion and  use  of  the,  83 
Sedatives,  a  list  of,  and  their  mode  of 

action,  399 

Semiramis,  number   of   horsemen    and 

chariots  possessed  by,  2 

Seriatus  magnus  muscle  described,  223 

Sesostris,  number  of  liorses  possessed  by      2 


PAGk 

Scssamoid  bones,  admirable  use  of,  in 

obviating  concussion,  250 
Setons,  mode  of  introducing,  321) 
Setons,  cases  where  they  are  indicated,  32G 
Setons,  compared  with  rowels  and  blis- 
ters, 326 
Setting  on  of  the  head,  the  proper,  155 
Shalokh  horse,  description  of  tlie,  17 
Shank-bone,  the,  243 
Shetland  pony,  description  of  the,  59 
Ship,  method  of  dragging  a,  up  a  slip,  430 
Siioe,  concave-seated,  cut  of  the,  312 
Shoe,  concave-seated,  described  and  re- 
commended, 311 ' 
Shoe,  manner  in  which  the  old,  should 

be  taken  off,  313 

Shoe,  putting  on  of  the,  315 
Shoe,  the,  should  be  fitted  to  the  foot, 

and  not  the  foot  to  the  shoe,  315 

Shoe,  the  hinder,  described,  317 

Shoe,  the  bar,  313 

Shoe,  the  tip,  313 

Shoe,  the  hunting,  31S 

Slioe,  the  jointed,  or  expansion,  310 
Shoeing,  not  necessarily  productive  of 

contraction,  293 
Shoeing,  preparation  of  the  foot  for,  313,  314 
Siioeing,  the  principles  of,  311 
Shoeing,  singular,  21 
Shoes,  wearing  too  long,  a  cause  of  con- 
traction, 294 
Short-bodied  horses,  when  valuable,  53 
Shoulder,  anatomically  described,  223 
Shoulder,  slanting  direction  of  the,  ad- 
vantageous, 229,  231,  237 
Shoulder,  when  it  should  be  oblique  and 

when  upright,                             232,  233 

Shoulder,  sprain  of  the,  22' 

Shoulder-lameness,  ascertaining,  229 

Shoulder-blade,  muscles  of  the,  233 
Shoulder-blade,  why  united  to  the  chest 

by  muscles  alone,  223 
Slioulder-blade,  lower  bone  of,  descrip- 
tion of  the,                                  232,  235 
Shoulder-blade,   muscles   of  the  lower 

bone  of  the,  235 
Shying,  probable  cause  of,  93,  342 
Shying,  treatment  of,  343 
Shying  on  coming  out  of  the  stable,  de- 
scription of,  344 
Side-line,  description  of  the,  320 
Silver,  nitrate  of,  an  excellent  caustic,  400 
Sinuses  in  the  foot,  necessity  of  follow- 
ing the,  as  far  as  they  reach,  304 
Sitfasts,  treatment  of,  169 
Skeleton  of  the  horse,  description  of  the,  63 
Skin,  anatomical  description  of  the,  369 
Skin,  function  and  uses  of  the,  370 
Skin,  pores  of  tiie,  373 
Skin,  when  the  animal  is  in  health,  is 

soft  and  elastic,-  371 

Skull,  anatomical  description  of  the,  66 

Skull,  arched  form  of  the  roof,  74 

Skull,  fracture  of  the,  100 

Sinithfield-market,  early  account  of,  24 

Sledges,  calculation  of  the  draught  of,  425 
Sledges,  description  of  the  inechan'.sm 

and  Ui^e  of.  426 


INDEX. 


407 


PAGE 

Sledj'es.  where  more  advantag-eous  than 

wheels,  426 

Sledges,  where  very  disadvantageous,  426 
Sledges,  calculation  of  the  power  of,  427 
Sledges,   their  advantage  in  travelling 

over  ice  and  snow,  427 

Sledges,  Esquimaux,  account  of  the,  427 

Slipping  the  collar,  remedy  for,  344 

Smell,  the  sense  and  seat  of,  118 

Smell,  very  acute  in  the  horse,  118 

Soap,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  400 

Soda,  chloride  of,  its  use  in  ulcers,  400 

Sole,  horny,  description  of  the,  285 

Sole,  horny,  descent  of  the,  285 

Sole,  horny,  proper  form  of  the,  285 

Sole,  horny,  management  of,  in  shoeing,  286 
Sole,  the  sensible,  287 

Soles,  felt  or  leather,  use  of,  319 

Solomon,  imported  horses  from  Egypt,  4 
Sound,  theory  of,  78,  81 

Soundness,  consists  in  there  bein|f  lo 
disease  nor  alteration  of  strufture 
that  does  or  is  likely  to  impair  the 
usefulness  of  the  horse  361 

Soundness,  with  reference  to  the  pnnci 

pal  causes  of  unsoundness,  361 

South  American  horse  described,  5,  8 

South  American  horse,  management  of,  6 
South  American  horse,  harnessing  the,  422 
Spanish  horse,  description  of  the,  20 

Spanish  horse,  introduced  into  England,  25 
Spasmodic  colic,  nature  and  treatment  of,  206 
Spavin,  blood,  treatment  of,  179,  263 

Spavin,  blood,  is  unsoundness,  365 

Spavin,  bog,  cause,  nature,  and  treat- 
ment of,  179,  269 
Spavin-bone,  269 
Spavin-bone,  why  not  always  accompa- 
nied by  lameness,  270 
Spavin-bone,  is  unsoundness,  365 
Spavined  horses,  the  kind  of  work  they 

are  capable  of,  271 

Speed  of  the  horse,  producing  rapid  di- 
minution of  power,  417 
Speed,  and  lime  of  labour  the  most  ad- 

vantaiTcous  proportion  of,  424 

Speed,  sacrifice  of  the  horse  in  endeav- 
ouring to  obtain,  425 
Speedy-cut,  account  of,  245 
Sphenoid-bone,  description  of  the,  74 
Spinalis  dorsi  muscle,  description  of  the,  168 
Spine,  description  of  the,  163 
Spleen,  description  of  the,  214 
Splenius  muscle  described,  119,  154,  234 
Splent-bones,  description  of  the,  243 
Splint,  nature  and  treatment  of,  243,  244 
Splint,  is  unsoundness,  365 
Sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  treatment  of,  246 
Sprain  of  the  back  sinews,  sometimes 

requires  firing,  247 

Strain  of  the  back  sinews,  any  thickening 

remaining  after,  is  unsoundness,    365 
Spring  steel-yard,  the  force  of  traction 

illustrated  by,  405 

Springs  to  carriages,  theory  of,  446,  447,  449 
Springs,  with  modifications,  adapted  to 

the  heaviest  waggons,  447 

Springs,  advantageous  in  rapid  travel,     447 


[Springs,  grasshopper,  description  of  the,  447 
I  Springs,  C,  disadvantages  of,  445,  447 

I  Stables,  hot  and  foul,  highly  injtirious,     346 
I  Stables,  dark,  occasional  cause  of  in- 
!  flainmation  of  the  eye,  115 

Stables,  hot  and  foul,  frequent  cause  ol 

inflammation  of  the  eye,  115 

Stables,  hot  and  foul,  cause  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  345 
Stables,  hot  and  foul,  produce  glandera,   125 
Stables,  should  be  large,  compared  with 

the  number  of  horses,  346 

Stables,  management  of,  too  much  neg- 
lected by  owners  of  horses,  347 
Stables,  ceiling  of,  should  be  plastered, 

if  there  is  a  loft  above,  347 

Stables,  should  be  so  contrived  that  the 

urine  will  run  off,  348 

Stables,  the  stalls  in,  should  not  have 

too  much  declivity,  349 

Stables  should  be  sufficiently  light,  yet 

without  any  glaring  colour,  349 

Stables,  importance  of  cleanliness  and 

coolness  in,  115,125,183 

Stables,   infection  of,   removed  by  the 

chloride  of  lime,  395 

Staggers,    stomach,    symptoms,    cause, 

and  treatment  of,  103 

Staggers,  stomach,  generally  fatal,  103 

Staggers,  stomach,  producing  blindness,  104 
Staggers,  stomach,  often  epidemic,  104 

Staggers,  mad,  symptoms  and  treatment,  105 
Staling,  profuse,  cause  and  treatment  of,  217 
Stallion,  description  of  the  proper,  for 

breeding,  221 

Stamford,  races  first  established  at,  27 

Stanhopes,  advantage  of  construction  of,  445 
Starch,  useful  in  superpurgation,  400 

|Stargazer,  the,  156 

Steam-engine,  compared  with  the  exer- 
tion of  animal  power  on  railways,  405 
Steam-engine,    compared   with    animal 

power  on  common  roads,  407 

Steam,  calculation  of  the  expense  of,  407 
Steam,  small,  little  advantage  in  expense 

over  horse-power,  408 

Steeple-hunt,  described  and  censured,  57 
Stifle,  description  of  the,  262 

Stifle,  accidents  and  diseases  of  the,  265 
Sterno  maxillaris  muscle,  description  of 

the,  119,156,234 

Sternum,  or  breast-bone,  described,  169 

Stirrups,  not  used  in  South  America,  7 

Stomach,  description  of  the,  193 

Stomach,  very  small  in  the  horse,  190 

Stomach,  inflammation  of  the,  200 

Stomach-pump,  recommended,  103 

Sfcne   in    the   bladder,  symptoms  and 

treatment  of,  218 

Stone  in  the  kidney,  218 

Stoppings,  the  best  compositions  cf,  and 

their  great  use,  400 

Straddlers,  wheels  so  called,  described,  440 
Straddlers,  objection  to,  440 

Straddlers,  curious  method  of  evading 

the  law  concerning,  441 

Strain,  uniform  and  constant  in  draught, 

bad  consequences  of,  417 

Strangles,  symptoms  and  treatment  oi,     149 


468 


INDEX. 


Straug-lco,  ilifTcrcnt  from  srlanders,  123 

Straiig-lcs,  importance  of  blistering  in,  123 
Strang-ury  prixlucetl  by  blistering,  323 

Strangury,  treatment  of,  323 

Strawberry  hor5e,  account  of  the,  376 

Stringhalt,  nature  of,  274 

Stringlialt,  is  not  unsoundness,  365 

Structure  of  tlie  horse,  importance  of  a 

knowledge  of,  65 

Stylo-maxillaris  muscle  described,  119,  234 
Sul)lingual  gland,  description  of  the,  149 
Submaxillary  glands,  description  of  tlie,  14S 
Submaxillary  artery,  description  of  the,  120 
Subsrapulo  hyoideus  muscle  described,  119 
Suffolk  punch,  description  of  the,  39 

Suffolk  punch,  honesty  and  continuance 

of  the  old  breed,  39 

Sugar  of  lead,  use  of,  394 

Sullivan,  the  Irish  whisperer,  anecdotes 

of  his  power  over  the  liorse,  333 

Sullivan  the  younger  did  not  inherit  his 

father's  power,  333 

Sulphate  of  copper,  use  of,  in  veterinary 

practice,  334 

Sulphate  of  iron,  394 j 

Sulphate  of  magnesia,  395' 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  402 

Sulphur,  an  excellent  alterative  in  all         j 

applications  for  mange,  4011 

Summering  the  hunter,  56| 

Surfeit,  nature  and  treatment  of,  378: 

Surfeit,  importance  of  bleeding  in,  373 

Suspensory  ligament,  mechanism  of  the,  250 
Suspensory  ligament,  rupture  of  the,  252 
Suspensory  muscle  of  the  eye  described,  99 
Sweating  blister,  composition  of,  387 

Swedisli  horse,  description  of  the,  20 

Swelled  legs,  cause  and  treatment  of,  276, 
Swelled  legs,  most  frequently  connected         j 

with  debility,  276 

Sweet-bread,  description  of  the,  214 

Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  a  mild  stimulant         j 

and  diuretic,  397, 

Sybarite  horses,  anecdote  of,  43! 

Sympathetic  nerve,  description  of  the,       76i 


Tail,  anatomy  of  the,  32Si 

Tail,  setting  on  of  the,  a  character  of 

breeding,  328 

Tipetum  lucidum,  colour  and  design  of,  91 
Tar,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  401 

Tares,  a  nutritive  and  healthy  food,  357 

Tartary  horses,  description  of  the,  S,  18 

Tartary  horses,  descent  of,  traced,  5J 

Tarsee  horse,  description  of  the,  ^  15} 

Team,  disadvantages  of,  in  draught,  414i 
Team,  united  power  of,  not  equal  to  the         [ 

calculation  of  so  many  horses,  414 
Tears,  secretion  and  nature  of,  86 

Tears,  how  conveyed  to  the  nose,  87  j 

Tears,  sometimes  shed  from  pain,  etc.,  86 
Teeth  described,  as  connected  with  age,  137  j 
Teeth  described  at  birth,  1371 

Teeth  described  at  2  months,  137  j 

Teeth  described  at  12  months,  133 ^ 

Teeth  described  at  13  months,  139  j 

Teeth  described  at  2  years.  140i, 


Teeth,  the  front,  sometimes  pushed  out, 
that  the  next  may  sooner  appear, 
and  the  horse  seem  older,  141 

Teeth  described  at  3  and  3  1-2  years,  141 
Teeth  described  at  4  and  4  1-2  years,  142 
Tectii  described  at  5  and  6  years,  143 

Teeth  described  at  7  and  8  years,  144 

Teeth,  change  of  the,  140 

Teeth,  enamel  of  the,  138 

Tecih,  irregular,  inconvenient,  etc.  146 

Teeth,  mark  of  the,  135 

Teeth,  frauds  practised  with  the,  140 

Teeth,  diseases  of  the,  147 

Temper  denoted  by  the  eye,  84 

Temper  denoted  by  tlie  ear,  77 

Temperature,  sudden  change  of,  bad,  345 
Temporal  bones,  description  of  the,  70 

Tendons  of  the  leg,  should  be  distinct, 

and  far  from  the  shank-bone,  245 

Tetanus,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,  107 
Thick-wind,  nature  and  treatment  of,  193 
Thick-wind,  in  round-chested  horses,  193 
Thigh  and  haunch-bones,  advantage  of 

oblique  direction  of  the,  257 

Thigh,  lower  bone  of  the,  described,  263 
Thigh,  lower  bone  of  the,  should  be  long 

and  muscular,  265 

Thigh,  muscles  of  the  lower  bone  of  the,  263 
Thigh,  upper  bone  of  the,  described,  257 
Thigh,  muscles  of  the  inside  of  the  up- 
per bone  of  the,  259 
Thigh,  muscles  of  the  outside,  etc.,  260 
Thigh,  muscles  of  the,  mechanical  cal- 
culation of  their  power,  261 
Thigh,  the  liorse  should  be  wider  at  the, 

than  at  the  haunch,  262 

Thirst,  strange  effect  of,  on  horses,  9 

Thorough-bred  horses,  the  quality  of,  has 

not  degenerated,  49 

Thorough-pin,  nature  and  treatment  of,  265 
Thorough-pin,  is  unsoundness,  366 

Thrush,  nature  and  treatment  of,  309 

Thrush,  the  consequence,  rather  than  the 

cause  of  contraction,  295 

Thrush,  its  nature  and  consequences  not 

sufficiently  considered,  303 

Thrush,  is  unsoundness,  366 

Thyroid  cartilage  of  the  wind-pipe,  de- 
scription of  the,  160 
Tied  in  below  the  knee,  nature  and  dis- 
advantage of,                                52, 245 
Tips,  description  and  use  of,                        318 
Toe,  bleeding  at  the,  described,  181 
Tongue,  anatomy  of  the,                              W 
Tongue,  diseases  of  the,                                 147 
Tongue,  bladders  on  underpart  of  the,      147 
Tonics,  account  of  the  best,                         401 
Tonics,  their  use  and  danger  in  veteri- 
nary practice,                                        401 
Toorkoman  horse,  description  of  the,  17 
Toorky  horse,  description  of  the,  15 
Towing,  power  of  the  horse,  how  dimin- 
ished in,                                               414 
Traces,  direction  of  the,  very  important 

in  draught,  417 

Traces,  proper  angle  of  the,  419,  424 

Traces,  proper  inclination  of,  depends  on 

the  kind  of  horse  and  road,       ti9.  424 


409 


Traces,  should  be  inclined  downward  on 

rough  roads,  420 

Traces,  inclined  downward,  throws  part 

of  the  weig-ht  on  the  shafts,  420 

Traces,  direction  of,  rarely  attended  to,  221 
Traces,  manner  of  fixing  the,  in  South 

America,  422 

Track,  importance  of  both  wheels  run-         .' 

ning  in  the  same,  441  j 

Traction,  the  force  of,  explained,  404 

Traction,  the  force  of,  illustrated  by  the 

spring  steel-yards,  405 

Traction,  proper  line  of,  very  important 

in  draught,  417 

Training,  principles  of,  53 

Traiisversaliscostarum  muscle  described,  232 
Trapezius  muscle,  description  of  the,  232 
Trapezius  bone,  description  of  the,  241,  245 
Travelling,  different  rate  at  diff 'nt  times,  35 
Tread,  nature  and  treatment  of,  301 

Tread,  often  causes  sandcrack  or  quittor,  301 
Tredgold's  comparison  of  moving  power 

in  draught,  406 

Trevis,  description  of  the,  320 

Triceps  femoris  muscle  described,  261 

Tripping-   an  inveterate  habit,  344 

Trochanter  of  the  thigh  described,  258 

Trochanter  of  the  thigh,  importance  of,     261 
Trotting,  action  of  the  horse  during,         413 
Trotting,  the  limbs  in,  unfaithfully  rep- 
resented in  the  Elgin  marbles  and 
the  church  of  St.  Mark,  412 

Turbinated  bones,  description  of  the,  117 
Turkish  horse,  description  of  the,  19 

Turnips,  as  an  article  of  food,  358 

Turpentine,  the  best  diuretic,  216 

Turpentine,  oil  of,  an  excellent  medicine 

in  spasmodic  colic,  206 

Turpentine,  useful  in  many  ointments,  401 
Tushes,  description  of  the,  142,  145 

Twitch,  description  of  the,  321 

U 
Ukraine,  description  of  the  horses  of  the,      5 
Ulcers  in  the  mouth,  treatment  of,  151 

Ulna,  description  of  the,  236 

Unguiculata,  a  tribe  of  animals,  62 

Ungulata,  a  tribe  of  animals,  62 

Unsoundness,  contraction  does  not  al- 
ways cause,  293 
Unsounehiess  being  discovered,  the  ani- 
mal should  be  tendered,  367 
Unsoundness  being  discovered,  the  ten- 
der not  legally  necessary,  367 
Unsoundness,  liorse  may  be  returned  for, 
and  action  brought  for  deprecia- 
tion in  value,  but  not  advisable,      367 
Unsoundness,  horse  returned  for,  must 
be  as  valuable  as  before  in  every 
other  respect, 
Unsoundness,    medical   means    may  be 
adopted  to  cure  the  horse  of,  yet 
they  had  better  be  declined,  307 
Unsteadiness  while  mounting,  ?3' 
Utero-gcstation,  tlie  period  of,                    22' 


Vastus  muscle,  description  of  the. 


Vatican,  curious  method  of  moving  the 

obelisk  in  the,  431 

Vehicles  of  draught,  the  best,  compared,  424 
Veins,  description  of  the,  178 

Veins  of  the  arm,  260 

Veins  of  the  neck,  157 

Veins  of  tiie  face,  119 

Veins  of  the  shoulder,  260 

Veins  inside  of  the  thigh,  257 

Veins  outside  of  the  thigh,  260 

Veins,  treatment  of  inflamed,  153 

Verdigris,  an  uncertain  medicine,  when 

given  internally,  389 

Verdigris,  a  mild  caustic,  3S9 

Vertebratcd  animals,  what,  61 

Vices  of  horses,  account  of  the,  330 

Vicious  to  clean,  a  bad  habit  that  may 

be  conquered,  333 

Vicious  to  slioe,  may  also  be  conquered,  333 
Vinegar,  its  use  in  veterinary  practice,  402 
Vision,  tlicory  of,  96 

Vitreous  humour  of  the  eye,  95 

Vitriol,  blue,  in  veterinary  practice,  389 

Vitriol,  green,  "  "  394 

Vitriol,  white,  "  "  40i 

W 

Waggon-horse,  the,  41 

Waggons,  inferior  horses  may  be  used 

in,  compared  with  carts,  443 

Waggons,   horses  drawing,  not  so  fa- 
tigued as  in  carts,  443 
Waggons  require  fewer  drivers,  and  are 

not  so  liable  to  accidents,  443 

Waggons,  with  inferior  roads  and  ordi- 
nary horses,  preferable  to  carts,      444 
Waggons  with  large  front  wlieels,  ad- 
vantage of,  particularly  with  two 
horses  abreast,  444 

Waggons,  why  they  have  more  draught 

than  two-wlieeled  carts,  445 

Walking,  movement  of  the  legs  in,  412 

Walking,  different  when  drawing  a  load,  412 
Wall-eyed  horses,  what,  93 

Wall-eyed  horses,  whether  become  blind,  93 
War-horse,  description  of  the  ancient,  24 
Warbles,  treatment  of,  169 

Warranted,   the  word  extends  only  to 

soundness,  366 

Warranty,  the  form  of  a,  366 

Warranty,  breach  of,  how  established,  366 
Warranty,  no  price  will  imply  a,  306 

Warranty,  when  there  is  no,  action  must 

be  brought  on  ground  of  fraud,        368 
Warts,  method  of  getting  rid  of,  381 

Washing  the  heels,  produces  grease,  279 
Washy  horses,  described  and  treated,  210 
Water  generally  given  too  sparingly,  360 
Water,  management  of,  on  a  journey,  361 
Water,  hard  and  soft,  different  effect  of,  359 
Water,  spring,  its  coldness  injurious,  360 
Water  in  the  ear,  use  of,  82 

Water  in  the  stomach,  204 

Water-farcy,  nature  and  treatment  of,  131 
Water  conveyance,   singular  smallness 

of  power  required  in,  424 

Water  conveyance,  resistance  increases 

v.iih  the  square  of  the  velocity,       425 


470 


INDEX. 


Waver  conveyance,  power  in,  increases 

as  the  cube  of  the  velocity,  425 

Water  dropwort,  poisonous,  200 

Water  hemlock,  "  200 

Water  parsley,  "  200 

Wax  used  in  charg-es  and  plasters,  402 

Weakness  of  the  foot,  what,  310 

Weaving,  indicating-  an  irritable  temper, 

and  no  cure  for  it,  345 

Weig-ht,  calculation  of  the  power  of  the 

horse  to  overcome,  38 

Wellesley  Arabian,  account  of  the,  11,  48 
Welsh  pony,  description  of  the,  58 

Wheat,  as  food  for  the  horse,  355 

Wheat,  inconvenience  and  dang-er  of,  355 
Wheels,  the  principle  on  which  they  act 

explained,  431,  433,  446 

Wheels,  effect  of  increasing-  diameter  of,  431 
Wheels,  no  record  of  the  time  invented,  432 
Wheels,  spoked,  known  to  Homer,  432 

Wheels,  little  improvement  in  principle 

of,  from  the  earliest  times,  433 

Wheels,  principle  of,  on  a  level  surface,  433 
Wheels,  theory  of  the  degree  of  friction 

attending,  433, 446 

Wheels,  friction  of,  on  the  axle,  depend- 
ent on  the  material  employed,         434 
Wheels,  various  forms  of,  436 

Wheels,  dishing  of,  described,  436 

Wheels,  dishing,  advantages  of,  437,  447 
Wheels,  conical  and  flat,  effects  of,  403,  437 
Wheels,  obliquely  placed,  437 

Wheels,  narrow  and  broad,  compared,  437 
Wheels,  conical,  strange  degree  of  fric- 
tion and  dragging  with,  438 
Wheels,  conical,  travelling  grindstones,  438 
VVheels,  cylindrical,  best  form  of,  440,  446 
VVheels,  cylindrical,  described,  round- 
ing of  the  edges,  440,  447 
Wheels,  cylindrical,  but  influenced  by 

the  state  of  the  road,  440 

VVheels,  hind,  should  follow  the  precise 

track  of  the  fore  ones,  440,441 

Wheels,  their  effect  on  the  road,  440,  446 
Wheels,  straddlcrs,  their  effect,  441 

Wheels,  proper  breadth  of,  441 

Wheels,  Jones's  patent,  description  of,     441 


rACL. 
Wheels,  with  cast  iron  naves,  442 

Wheels,  size  of,  442,  446 

Wheels,  advantage  of  large  front,  442 

Wheels,  slightly  convex  in  centre,  447 

Wheels,  arra»£-ement  of  the  spokes  of,  447 
Wheezcr,  description  of  the,  196 

Wliipping  sound,  cruelty  of,  37 

Wliisperer,  his  power  over  the  horse,  ^32 
Whistler,  description  of  the,  190 

Whistler,  is  unsound,  362 

White  Turk,  account  of  the,  28 

White  lead,  use  of.  394 

White  vitriol,  in  veterinary  practice,  402 
Wild  horse,  description  of  tlie,  5,  11 

William  the  Conqueror,  improvement  in 

the  English  horse  by  24 

Wind-broken,  nature  and  treatment  of,  194 
Wind-galls,  nature  and  treatment  of,  248,  255 
Wind-galls,  unsoundness  when  lameness 

is  caused,  or  is  likely  to  be,  366 

Windpipe,  description  of  the,  46,  159 

Windpipe,  prominent  and  loose,  159 

Windpipe,  opening  the,  162 

Wind-sucking,  nature  of,  and  remedy,  341 
Wind,  thick,  nature  and  treatment  of,  193 
Wiring-in  of  the  heels,  293 

Withers,  description  of  the,  154,  166 

Withers,  high,  advantage  of,  167 

Withers,  fistulous  treatment  of,  168 

Wolves'  teeth,  what,  140 

Work  of  the  horse,  should  not  exceed 

six  hours  per  diem,  •        415 

Worms,  treatment  of,  210 

Wounds  in  the  feet,  treatment  of,  303 

Wounds  in  the  mouth,  treatment  of,         151 


Yellows,  symptoms  and  treatment  of,       213 
Yew,  the  leaves  of,  poisonous,  200 

Yielding   resistance,    the  effect  of,    in 

neutralizing  impetus,  414 


Zoolosfical  classification  of  the  horse,        61 
Zygomatic  arch,  reason  of  the  strong 

construction  of  the,  71 

Zygomaticus  muscle,  description  of  the,  119 


THE    ESBD. 


r  ^  ^ ,  '^"^^fi-T^^. 


